This session contains two papers concerned with research, training and demonstration activities that are sorely needed in developing countries. Two panel discussions are also summarized.
Tejwani stressed that training, research, demonstration, and technology packages are essential to the development of successful watershed management programmes, yet they are grossly inadequate in most developing countries. The implementation of water shed management requires well trained, well oriented and committed personnel at field, middle management and supervisory levels. However, training and research projects need to be appropriate to the needs at hand and must be carefully targeted. The roles and responsibilities of user institutions and training institutions are discussed. He also pointed out that well trained staff are valuable resources and must be treated as such.
Tejwani indicated that most formal educational (degree) programs in watershed management are offered in the United States. Although most forestry schools that offer courses in watershed management are in the English speaking developed countries, France and Japan also offer coursework in the subject. Schools and training opportunities should be carefully selected to insure that graduate programmes are appropriate to the needs of the student/participant. In addition, most organizations need to do a better job of planning career opportunities for trained personnel to ensure that their acquired skills are used.
Tejwani and Upadhyay both indicated that research projects, monitoring activities, and demonstration projects are needed to expand our information base in developing countries. Basic and applied research are needed to develop appropriate technological packages to solve the urgent problems of today and problems of a long-term nature. In country capabilities to plan and conduct research must be developed. This requires institutional strengthening as well as individual training and education. Too often donor assisted research projects have not been successful because they could not be sustained after donor inputs ceased.
Upadhyay concentrated on research needs for Nepal and described some of the ongoing work by the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management (DSCWM),, by donor agencies, and other organizations. He pointed out that often research/demonstration programmes have been designed without an adequate assessment of the scale of the problem, i.e., it has not been possible to determine if they meet stated objectives. The need to combine technical biophysical research with social dimensions was also discussed. The necessity of involving local people is not fully understood by research technicians and extension workers.
Upadhyay indicated that guidelines for impact monitoring and evaluation of watershed management projects have been lacking. Benchmarks need to be established during project design; well designed monitoring and periodic review are essential to allow for evaluation and in some cases to change or redirect project activities to achieve stated objectives.
Each member of a panel consisting of P. F. Ffolliott, L. S. Hamilton and C. Pereira were asked to identify key issues in watershed management for developing countries. Ffolliott identified the following issues of major importance:
- Formats and delivery systems that effectively and professionally convey information on watershed management to policy makers and the general public are needed. Data sets should be developed that can be used to evaluate the multiple benefits of watershed management; such information can generate support for watershed programmes.
- Appropriate institutional frameworks are needed to carry out funding, planning, and implementing watershed management programmes.
- Land tenure on watersheds represents complex ownership and administration patterns; thus it is often a critically important consideration that must be dealt with in planning and implementation.
- Better technical relationships are needed among multiple resources and resource use and in terms of valuing products and amenities that may not be traded in the market place. Cooperation among many disciplines is needed to develop such relationships.
- Countries need to develop operational guidelines for donor agencies to ensure orderly development and to consolidate and simplify the many different objectives, formats, and methods that originate from different agencies/countries.
Hamilton suggested that the watershed approach towards land and water resource development should be emphasized to all sectoral interests. The watershed is a valid planning unit and encompasses the upstream-downstream linkages and provides a good way to internalize externalities. He also emphasized:
- Downstream communities need to play a more active role in upland watershed management (transfer of resources, etc.).
- Watershed management activities can achieve many benefits, but managers should be professional about claiming only those which can be realized.
- Agroforestry practices, as well as traditional agricultural and forestry practices, need to be better integrated into watershed management programmes.
- Incentives need to be organized and effectively used; social-institutional dimensions need to be better incorporated in watershed practices.
- More [and better] predictive models are needed to evaluate land-use impacts on upstream and downstream areas.
Pereira strongly advocated that a sense of urgency needs to be conveyed to governments. Watershed degradation is having serious impacts on people; significant actions are needed now to correct and reverse current land use trends. His other points included:
- Upper watershed management needs greater support and attention from governments, including more emphasis on supporting and rewarding technically trained people to work in these areas. Hill people must be convinced that they have certain responsibilities.
-Stall feeding and distribution of animal dung can help increase productivity of uplands, but in some cases fertilizers may have to be brought into poor areas.
- The development of hydropower resources is dependent on having stable upland watersheds.
- Critically steep and hazardous areas should be zoned or otherwise administered to reduce human occupancy in such areas.
New activities needed in the development of national programmes in watershed management with special reference to the Asia-Pacific region was the topic of a panel consisting of Apandi Mangundikoro, M. D. Joshi, K. G. Tejwani and Wang Huen-Pu. Key points made by this panel and in discussions included:
- Most watershed degradation problems in developing countries are the result of high population densities; strategies are needed to address this problem if we are to achieve any kind of long-term success.
- Efforts are needed to bring together specialists of all kinds, i.e., agriculturalists, range managers, social scientists, engineers, etc., to develop a better understanding of the importance of watershed management. Watershed management otherwise tends to become the domain of only foresters and soil conservationists. Along these same lines, construction of large-scale dams and water resource projects need to explicitly consider upland watershed management as an integral component.
- Although mentioned earlier, the need for developing predictive models to quantify and evaluate linkages between upland management and downstream impacts was emphasized by several participants. Such models, however, must be able to account for the "human" aspects of management as well as the biophysical aspects.
- Case studies can be useful to develop methodology (models). The merits and weaknesses of past and ongoing projects can provide useful examples, but need to be studied by multidisciplinary teams.
- Efforts are needed to diversify upland economies to increase people participation.
- Means of financing in-country watershed management programmes are needed.
- The lack of technically trained people is a major constraint to the development of successful, long-term programmes, even in countries like Indonesia and India where large investments have been made in watershed management.
- Watershed management practices need to be more effectively implemented in practically all developing countries.
- Better efforts are needed to attract public attention to watershed problems and the importance of correcting existing land use conditions. More effective use of the press, pressure (special interest) groups and lobbies are vehicles which can help persuade politicians and the general public that actions are urgently needed to reverse present degradation trends.
- Governments must introduce order in land husbandry by combining incentives and enforcement of land use plans in mountain watersheds according to land suitability.
- The mountain regions in the Himalayan range from Pakistan to China are desperately in need of afforestation efforts to provide fuelwood and to stabilize watersheds.
