Anadara broughtonii (Schrenk)
Cockle. (Arcidae). Marine and brackish waters. Japan coast. Reared in tanks in Japan, mainly for experimental purposes.
Anadara granosa (Linnaeus)
Cockle. (Arcidae). Marine and brackish waters. Tropical Pacific. Cultivated in muddy estuarine areas of Thailand, Malaysia, Korea, etc. Also in West Java in shallow sea waters with muddy bottom. Attains marketable size of 5–7.5 cm in 6–7 months. Feeds on organic detritus and phytoplankton. Cockle ‘gardens’ are erected on rich cockle spat grounds.
Anadara granosa bisinensis Schrenk & Reinhart
Cockle. (Arcidae). Marine and brackish waters. Cultivated in Korea.
Anadara inflata Reeve
Cockle. (Arcidae). Marine and brackish waters. Cultivated in coastal waters of Banten (West Java) along with A. granosa.
Anadara subcrenata (Lischke)
Cockle. (Arcidae). Marine and brackish waters. Cultivated in Japan. Prefers shallow and calm sections of warm bays with mud or sandy mud bottom. Spawning season from July to early September, beginning at water temperature of about 25°C and with peak at about 27°C. Larvae become bottom dwellers 3–6 months after birth.
Anadara spp.
Cockle. (Arcidae). Marine and brackish waters. Cultivated in muddy estuarine areas of Thailand.
Arca granosa Lamarck
Ribbed ark-shell. (Arcidae). Marine and brackish waters. India, Pacific islands, etc. Cultivated in Japan. Flesh used as food. Attains marketable size in three years.
Arca sp.
Ark-shell clam. (Arcidae). Marine and brackish waters. Cultivated commercially in the Gulf, Thailand. Young are collected for this purpose from mud. Harvestable size attained in about 6 months.
Crassostrea angulata (Lamarck)
Portuguese oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Coast of Europe; introduced to other areas for culture. Commercial cultivation in coastal areas of France, brackish water lakes of Tunisia, etc. Experimental culture in South Africa. Salinity tolerance: 21–43 ppt. Reported not to breed in lakes where salinity is about 34 ppt.
Crassostrea commercialis Iredale & Roughley
Sydney rock oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Australia and Hawaii. Cultivated in Australia, largely in estuaries and inlets of sea. Spat collected on wooden sticks and grown on racks or trays raised above surface of estuarine mud flats. Can survive out of water for two to three weeks depending on the temperature. Attains marketable size in a few months. Experimental culture tried in South Africa.
Crassostrea cucullata Born
Japanese oyster; Indian rock oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Japan, Australia, New Zealand and India. Cultivated in Japan on bamboo. Spat imported from Japan and cultivated in American waters. Commercially important cultivation in Philippines also. Limited cultivation in south India. Requires 8–12 months' growth to reach marketable size of 6–8 cm length. Harvested before spawning season (March-May). Feeds mainly on diatoms and protozoans.
Crassostrea gasar Adanson
Oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. West coast of Africa from Senegal to Angola. Experimental cultivation in Nigeria. 7.5 cm growth observed in 9 months.
Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg)
Japanese oyster; Pacific oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Japan; transplanted to America (Alaska to California), New Zealand, Tasmania, France, etc. One of the largest cultivated oysters in Japan, Korea, Thailand, North America, Tasmania, New Zealand, etc. Experimental cultivation in Philippines, France, etc. Grows to 30 cm or more. Hardy and can stand wide variations in temperature and salinity. Salinity tolerance: 8–36 ppt. Optimum salinity and temperature: 20–25 ppt and about 24°C. Grows best near estuaries. Attains marketable size of 10–15 cm in less than two years, but growth rate is extremely variable. Filter feeder, on bacteria, protozoa, diatoms, larval forms, detritus, etc.
Crassostrea glomerata Gould
Rock oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine waters. New Zealand. Farmed in New Zealand by placing the young taken from natural rocks and rock spawls in suitable locations on the foreshore.
Crassostrea gryphoides (Schlotheim)
Oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine waters. Indian seas. Limited farming in Kelwa, near Bombay (India).
Crassostrea margaritacea (Lamarck)
South American oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Coast of Africa. Experimental cultivation in Knysa lagoon, South Africa.
Crassostrea rhizophorae Guilding
Mangrove oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Cuba, Jamaica and Puerto Rico. Commercially exploited species; cultivation on scientific lines initiated in Venezuela, Cuba.
Crassostrea rivularis (Gould)
Edible oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Japan, India, etc. Cultivated in Japan for food purposes. Salinity tolerance: 7–34 ppt.
Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin)
Atlantic oyster; Eastern oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Gulf and Atlantic coast of U.S.A., West Indies and introduced in British Columbia. Cultivated in U.S.A. At present four hatcheries are reported to be working on commercial scale. Reaches marketable size in 2–4 years. Feeds on plankton. Spawning takes place when temperature increases within average range of 20–32°C. Salinity tolerance: 5–32 ppt with optimum between 10–28 ppt. Larvae grow best in 15–18 ppt salinity and temperature of 18–30°C.
Crassostrea vitrefacta Sow
Oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Cultivated in brackish waters of Thailand.
Cristaria plicata spatiosa (Clessin)
Pearl oyster. (Unionidae). Marine waters. Japan. Cultivated in Japan for pearls. Treated oysters are put in cages and suspended in sea. Pearl formation in six months; big ones in three years.
Haliotis discus hannai Ino
Pearl ‘oyster’; abalone. (Haliotidae). Marine waters. Japan. Cultivated for pearls in Japan. Treated oysters are put in cages and suspended in sea. Pearl formation in six months; big ones in three years.
Hyriopsis schlegelli (Martens)
Pearl ‘oyster’. (Unionidae). Marine waters. Japan. Cultivated in Japan for pearls. Details same as H. discus hannai.
Lampsilis claiborneensis Lea
Mussel. (Unionidae). Fresh water. East America. Cultivated along with fishes in U.S.A. The mussel clears the water by filtering, thereby increasing fish production. Cultivation reported to be still in experimental stage.
Mactra sulcataria Deshayes
Surf clam. (Mactridae). Marine waters. Japan. Propagated on the southwest coast of Tokyo Bay.
Mercenaria mercenaria (Linnaeus)
Hard clam. (Mercenaridae). Marine and brackish waters. Gulf of St. Laurence to Gulf of Mexico in North America. Experimental farming in U.S.A. Grown in protective boxes along Gulf and Atlantic coasts. Most specimens spawn when one year old. Feeds on plankton, mostly phyto. Larvae grow best in salinity of 25–27 ppt and temperature 18–30°C.
Hybrid of female Mercenaria campechiensis (Gmelin) x male Mercenaria mercenaria (Linnaeus)
Experimental cultivation in boxes along Gulf and Atlantic coasts of U.S.A. for seed purposes.
Meretrix casta (Chemnitz)
Backwater clam. (Veneridae). East coast of India. Experimental cultivation reported from a marine fish farm in south India.
Meretrix lamarckii Deshayes
Clam. (Veneridae). Japan coast. Spawning season from July to September when water temperature rises above 25°C. Grows to 6.6 mm in shell length in one full year and 36 mm in two full years. In three full years the growth is about 51 mm. Largest specimens about 98 mm long. Requires sandy bottom, but is considered suitable for marine propagation.
Meretrix lusoria (Gmelin)
Clam. (Veneridae). Cultivated in Japan and Korea.
Meretrix meretrix (Linnaeus)
Hard clam; big clam. (Veneridae). Japan coast. Cultivated in Korea and Japan. Reaches marketable size of 5–7 cm in one to two years.
Murex trunculus (Linnaeus)
‘Clam’. (Muricidae). Marine and brackish waters. Mediterranean. Collected from Tunisian coast and fattened in the Bizerta Lake (brackish water).
Mya arenaria Linnaeus
Soft clam; soft-shell clam. (Myidae). Marine waters. East and west coasts of North America, Norway-France, Japan, etc. Farmed in U.S.A. Feeds on phyto and zooplankton. In nature occurs in exposed areas of coast line.
Mytilus crassitesta Lisk
Sea mussel. (Mytilidae). Marine waters. Far East. Cultivated in Korea.
Mytilus edulis Linnaeus
Common mussel. (Mytilidae). Marine and brackish waters. Widely distributed. Cultivated in France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Denmark, England, Scotland, Canada, etc. Feeds on plankton (diatoms, protozoans) and detritus. Harvested when 7–8 cm in length. In Netherlands requires three years to grow to marketable size.
Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck
Mediterranean mussel. (Mytilidae). Marine and brackish waters. Mediterranean coasts. Cultivated in Taranto Gulf, Italy; brackishwater lakes of Tunisia; Greece, etc.
Mytilus smaragdinus Chemnitz
Syn. Mytilus viridis Linnaeus
Green Bay mussel. (Mytilidae). Marine and brackish waters. Far East. Cultivated in muddy estuarine areas, mostly on bamboo stake-traps, in Thailand. Cultivated also in oyster farms in Philippines or separately, following diverse methods. Harvested in six months at the average length of 5–8 cm. Feeds on ‘lab-lab’. Spawns throughout the year. Optimum temperature 26–30°C and salinity 27–35 ppt.
Mytilus sp.
Mussel. (Mytilidae). Marine and brackish waters. Cultivated in muddy estuarine waters of Thailand.
Ostrea denselamellosa Lischke
Oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Japan coast. Found at water depth of 15–40 m. Spawning begins in early June, when the water temperature is about 19°C. Culture by sowing, raft and simplified hanging methods.
Ostrea edulis Linnaeus
European flat oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. European coast. Cultivated in European countries, specially in Spain, France, Tunisia, Greece, Scotland, Ireland, etc. and Marine (U.S.A.). Culture reported from South Africa also. Salinity tolerance: 24–45 ppt. Spawns at temperature 15–18°C. In cages attains 6–7 cm in 9 months and on ordinary beds 9 cm in 16 months. Feeds on phytoplankton. In Scotland cultivated on ropes attached to floats and reported to attain marketable size in three years.
Ostrea iredalei Faustino
Oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Far East. Most important oyster cultivated in Philippines. Ready for harvest when right valves are 6–8 cm or more long. Generally takes 8–12 months to grow from spat to harvesting stage. Harvested before spawning season (March-May).
Ostrea lurida (Carpenter)
Olympia oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine waters. Alaska to lower California on American coast. Cultivated in Puget Sound (U.S.A.) by drilling favourable areas and carefully maintaining the enclosed ground. Begins to spawn when temperature reaches 16°C. Hatchery established in Oregon. Experimental culture in Japan also.
Ostrea madrasensis Preston
Syn. Ostrea gryphoides cuttackensis ?
Backwater oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. East coast of India. Cultivated in Pulicat Lake (India). Flesh used as food. Food largely diatomaceous. Eggs and larvae prefer low salinities. Salinity range for adults: 8–25 ppt.
Ostrea malabonensis Faustino
Oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Far East. Details same as O. iredalei.
Ostrea palmipes Sowarby
Oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Far East. Details same as O. iredalei.
Ostrea taurica Krynicki
Oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine waters. Mediterranean. Cultivated in the Black Sea, U.S.S.R.
Ostrea tulipa Lamarck
Oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Africa. Experimental cultivation in Nigeria.
Paphia phillipinarus (A. Adams & Reeve)
Clam; tapestry shell. (Veneridae). Marine and brackish waters. Japan coast. Cultivated in Japan. Grows to marketable size of 3 cm in one year.
Pecten laqueatus Sowarby
Window-pane shell. (Pectenidae). Distribution and biological characters similar to P. yessoensis. Cultivated in Japan.
Pecten yessoensis ?
Window-pane shell. (Pectenidae). Marine waters. Japan coast. Generally cold sea dweller. Spawning season March to July. Critical temperature for spawning 8–9°C. Growth depends on location, age and population density.
Perna perna Linnaeus
Syn. Isognomon perna (Linnaeus)
Mussel. (Aviculidae). Marine waters. Limited cultivation on rafts in Venezuela.
Pinctada emarginata ?
Margarita pearl oyster. (Pteriidae). Marine waters. Limited farming in Venezuela.
Pinctada fucata (Gould)
Japanese pearl oyster; pearl oyster of Sri Lanka and Persian Gulf. (Pteriidae). Marine waters. Japan, Red Sea, Sudan, Sri Lanka, etc. Cultivated in Japan. Imported in Australia for experimental culture. Easy to culture, but very small in size. Marketable in five years.
Pinctada margaritifera (Linnaeus)
Black-lip pearl oyster. (Pteriidae). Marine waters. Indo-Pacific. Cultivated for pearls in Japan and Philippines. Treated oysters are put in cages and suspended in sea. Pearl formation in six months, big ones in three years. Cultivated in Australia for flesh and shell also.
Pinctada martensii (Dunker)
Japanese pearl oyster. (Pteriidae). Marine waters. Japan, Sudan, Red Sea, etc. Cultivated for pearls in Japan, in cages suspended in sea. Pearls are formed in six months; big ones in three years. Feeds on diatoms. Cultivated in Australian farms, where pearls are produced in half the time required in Japan (size up to 18 mm diameter). Gigantic nurseries in Sudan and Red Sea-Dongonab Bay.
Pinctada maxima (Jameson)
Silver-lip; Gold-lip; Australian pearl oyster. (Pteriidae). Marine waters. Australasia. Cultivated in seas around Australia. Very much amenable to culture conditions.
Pinctada vulgaris Schum
Indian pearl oyster. (Pteriidae). Marine. Indian seas. Cultivated in the marine farm at Krusadi, India (Bay of Bengal). First spawning in two years. Two spawning periods, one in south west monsoon and the other in north east monsoon. Maximum shell growth attained in third year. Seldom exceeds 8.5 cm in height.
Placuna placenta Linnaeus
Syn. Placenta placenta (Linnaeus)
Window-pane shell. (Anomiidae). Marine and brackish waters. Limited cultivation in Philippine farms. Prefers beds of greyish or bluish mud in tidal zones of estuaries, coves or bays. Shell is free and unattached.
Protothaca staminea Conrad
Little neck clam. (Veneridae). Marine waters. North America. A trend is developing toward private farming in U.S.A.
Pteria penguin (Röding)
Wing shell. (Pteriidae). Marine waters. Far East. Cultivated for pearls in Japan by putting treated oysters in cages and suspending in sea. Pearl formation takes six months to three years according to size required.
Pcynodonta numisma Lamarck
Oyster. (Ostreidae). Marine and brackish waters. Raft culture in Thailand.
Saxidomus giganteus (Deshayes)
Butter clam. (Veneridae). Marine and brackish waters. A trend is developing toward private farming in U.S.A.
Tapes decussatus (Linnaeus)
Mediterranean clam. (Veneridae). Marine and brackish waters. Mediterranean. Young collected from Tunisian coast and fattened in the Bizerta Lake (brackish water). Production in 1967: 85 tons.
Tapes semidecussata Reeve
Syn. Venerupis semidecussata (Reeve)
Japanese little neck clam; Manila clam. (Veneridae). Marine waters. Japan and Pacific coast of Asia. Cultivated in Japan and Korea. Called ‘Asari’ in Japan. Spawning occurs between 20 and 28°C.
Venerupis japonica Reeve
Manila clam. (Veneridae). Marine waters. Japan coast. A trend is developing toward private farming in Pacific coast of U.S.A.; introduced from Japan.
Venerupis variegata Sowarby
Syn. Tapes variegata (Sowarby)
Short neck clam. (Veneridae). Marine waters. Far East. Cultivated in Korea.
Venus verrucosa Linnaeus
Clam. (Veneridae). Marine and brackish waters. Mediterranean. Young collected from the Tunisian coast and fattened in the Bizerta Lake (brackish water).
Miscellaneous:
Artificial culture of Scallops (Pectenidae), reported in Bay of Peter the Great, off Vladivostok.
Limited cultivation of squids and octopus larvae (exact species determinations not available) has been initiated in Japan.
Certain reports indicate that the undermentioned species are cultivated on a limited scale:
Loligo bleekeri Keferstein (Loliginidae). Experimental culture in Japan.
Octopus vulgaris Cuvier (Octopodidae). Experimental culture in Japan.
Sepia esculenta Hoyle (Sepiidae). Experimental culture in Japan.
