According to the population census of 1971 West Java is one of the most densely populated rural areas of the world (565 persons/km2, total of Indonesia: 59 persons/km2) with a population growth rate of 5 365 births per 1 0001. As the population increases, the average size of land-holding decreases (at present less than 0.5 ha). Thus the income of the small farmer dwindles accordingly, and a substantially increasing number of landless labourers suffer from un- or under-employment as agriculture cannot absorb them. It was estimated in 1971 that there were 211 agricultural workers for each km2 under cultivation (1 230 persons/km2)1. The average income for males employed in agriculture was Rp. 6 608/month in 1976; for women it was considerably lower (Rp. 3 530/month123. More than 70 percent of the monthly expenditure was spent on food4.
Analyzing the structural change of land ownership pattern, two trends are clearly visible: a concentration of more land in fewer hands on the one hand, and a decrease in size of small land-holdings and an increasing number of landless families on the other.
Both trends are strongly correlated, as a few farmers who are financially well-off buy land-holdings belonging to small farmers which are too small to be divided between the children after the owner dies5. In categorizing the present stratification of rural West Java five groups have been identified:
'the modern, politically strong farmers
more traditional farmers who have the necessary assets but are reluctant (to change)
farmers whose land-holdings are too small to innovate …,
landless labourers who are the clients (employees) of the innovative farmers …, and
landless labourers whose job opportunities and levels of income are steadily declining'6.
1 Central Bureau of Statistics, Annual Statistics, 1977/78
2 U.S.$ 1.00 = Rp. 623.00 (Indonesian Rupiahs)
3 Available statistics did not show cash and in-kind income separately
A sample survey conducted in 1971 produced the following size distribution of landholdings for West Java (sample size: 837 holdings).
Size of Cultivated Farm Land (ha)1
| 0 | 0.01–0.24 | 0.25–0.49 | 0.50–0.74 | 0.75–0.99 | 1.0> | |
| Percentage of households | 10 | 29 | 22 | 14 | 7 | 18 |
The survey illustrated the limited land resources from which the majority of the small farm families have to derive their income, as alternative earning opportunities are scarce.
As the trend of concentration of assets accelerates with the introduction of modern technology, the income level of small-scale farmers, who do not have the money to invest in capital goods or additional operational inputs, further declines. The landless labourers often only find seasonal employment as mechanized farming gradually replaces labour by capital, and development of rural industries cannot keep pace with an expanding work force. Regarding the present rural ownership structure, income distribution and employment availability, one can predict that these socio-economic conditions will most probably result in continued low rural incomes, particularly among small-holders and landless labourers.
The rural society of West Java has traditionally been based on the concept of independent small producers. Cooperation, more than competition, has been the dominant factor in group and individual interaction. Through a system of village welfare institutions socially explosive situations have been prevented as the ever-increasing population could, to a certain degree, be absorbed by highly labour intensive farming methods. This system of ‘shared poverty’ has reached its limits in the face of technological and consequently social change and as a result of strengthening of the market forces within a rural economy in transition from subsistence to market production1.
Two socio-cultural variables of this transitional process, which are of significant importance in the context of this study are:
Decision-making on the family level
The family has remained the central social unit, as well as the common production unit in rural West Java and any development effort aimed at the small farmers will have to take this into consideration. From interviews and discussions with local extension agents, as well as social scientists working in West Java, it was gathered that two features of family level decision-making are predominant:
In compliance with their religion, Islam, which clearly defines the roles of males and females, male members claim to decide on all issues except household affairs, viz. farm management, expenditures, external relations. According to the men interviewed, women have only household responsibilities; they also play a primary role in the education of the children and perhaps undertake some vegetable cultivation for home consumption.
In reality it appears that the woman is dominant in decision-making, and handling of household affairs, but also has a strong voice in farm management issues. In economic and financial matters, the voice of the woman appears to be decisive2
Professional role/functions within the socio-economic organization of the rural economy
During the field study, it became apparent that the division of labour during many stages of agricultural production, e.g., field preparation, weeding, marketing, etc., was well defined. Where a farmer could, for example, realize a much higher net return by marketing his produce himself, he always sold it to a dealer, who would then market it. The remarkable acceptance of role functions in the rural economy of West Java has its origin, probably, in the socially and culturally based system of resource sharing, which provides means of existence to as many people as possible. This system of extending benefits from existing assets is contrary to any modern, profit-maximizing concept of rationalization.
The study has highlighted some of the factors which make integrated or combined production of fish, crop and livestock more viable for the small farmer in West Java than monoculture operations. From a macro point of view, i.e., considering the potential role of integrated aquaculture within the context of integrated rural development, the presently practiced cultivation of fish, together with crops and livestock, indicates how limited resources can be exploited to a fuller extent, thus adjusting agriculture production to the needs of an increasing rural population, i.e., increased rural income, creation of additional employment, and more fish for local consumption.
To upgrade the existing practice of integrated aquaculture and to promote a wider application of upgraded practices can be considered a promising means for rural development in West Java.
For the adequate planning of a socio-economically sound development of integrated aquaculture the present available data base is insufficient. On the micro level further research would be needed in the following three fields:
Technical and biological aspects of integrated aquaculture, e.g., stocking densities, feeding and fertilizing, interaction of fish, livestock and crops, etc.
Economical parameters determining adequate management practices.
Socio-economic implications of integrated aquaculture.
Although technically and biologically integrated aquaculture is considered an established technology, the introduction of improved production practices would benefit from trials on a pilot base, in order to be adapted to local conditions. A pilot project could also investigate the farm level economical parameters determining integrated aquaculture under local conditions, i.e., quantify input requirement, project outputs, predict the profitability and identify potential constraints which would result from increased production. If the pilot trials were conducted under field conditions, involving a sample of small farmers over a sufficient period (on farm trials), the monitoring of the socio-economical impact of improved management practices on the farmer's family and other affected groups would indicate the magnitude and nature of the social and economic change which could be brought forward by a large-scale development effort.
For the national planners, the pilot project would provide insight into macro-economic and socio-economic implications of such development, i.e., incremental values produced, increased supply of fish for local consumption, effects on rural employment and incomes, possible socio-structural changes within the rural milieu, etc. It would also indicate infrastructural requirements necessary to facilitate such development, i.e., credit, extension, improved marketing systems, etc. A pilot project which involves a sample of the potentially benefiting strata directly and from the beginning will also allow the planning ‘from below’, taking motivational aspects, aims and values of the target group into consideration. Lastly it could also indicate strategies to assure that the development would actually benefit the target group, i.e., the small farmers with limited land-holdings and no capital means, not only as the producers but also as the usufructuary of increased agricultural output.
