The Inland Fisheries Unit (IFU) was created in 1977 in the Ministry of Agriculture, particularly as a counterpart agency for the USAID sponsored project “Inland Fisheries Development”.
The actual project (Phase II), “The Fish Production System Development Project” will run to July 1983, with hopefully a one-year extension to July 1984. This project is involved in extension, production, training and research.
(i) Extension
Extension services to farmers for pond culture of T. nilotica is one of the main activities of IFU, including the production of male fingerlings sold to the farmers.
They are two regional extension officers and about 15 extension agents. The project has suffered from the loss of trained personnel who joined the private sector. It has been recommended to increase the number of extension staff as soon as possible and also to increase the number of contacts with small farmers in order to expand the programme. The present status (March 1983) of tilapia fish farming in Jamaica is as follows, according to IFU:
Number of fish farmers: 174, of which 100 are owners of small farms and 74 of large farms.
Number of acres (total): 196.4
Number of ponds to be constructed: 312
Number of fingerlings produced in 1982: 533 000
Production of food fish 1 (1982): 320 000 1bs.
Initially farmers were provided with much Government support, but now that they are developing their technical skills and have confidence in the economic feasibility of fish farming, these supports are gradually being withdrawn. During the early stages of development, fish were sexed, stocked and harvested by project personnel. This service is being phased out as small groups of men are being trained as “sexers” to service the needs of the private sector, especially those farmers with nursery ponds (Cooke and Mooyoung, 1982).
Their services will also be available for harvesting ponds using the farmers' equipment. To assist the farmers in this area, the Inland Fisheries project has a 'farmers commodity' component which allows them to purchase essential fish farming equipment at cost. Until this is in place, ponds are still being harvested by project personnel at a charge high enough to encourage more farmer participation.
As mentioned, one of the main functions of IFU is to provide fingerlings for the private sector production ponds. The number of male fingerlings distributed to the private sector increased from 12 000 in 1978 to 150 000 during the first 8 months of 1982. Their distribution, however, has not kept pace with the increase in the number of private ponds over the years. This resulted in longer “down time” between crops for farmers, thus reducing annual net profits from food-fish ponds. In an effort to alleviate this situation, the nursery pond system was introduced to farmers in March 1982. Farmers with greater than 0.4 ha were encouraged to construct a nursery pond. For small-scale producers the suggested size of a nursery pond is one-half that of the production pond. In general, results in the private sector are similar to those obtained during the initial research (37 000 males per ha of nursery ponds during a 7–11 week rearing period) (Cooke and Mooyoung, 1982).
From March to August 1982, 722 000 fry (both male and female), have been stocked in 15 private nursery pond
(ii) Production
IFU is also a commercial producer of fish. In 1977, approximately 2 200 kg were sold, but in 1978 total production rose to more than 33 000 kg, sold mainly to the Government-owned Agricultural Marketing Corporation which processed and marketed the fish. This agency phased out of the marketing the following year, and total fish sales dropped to 17 000 kg annually as private distribution systems began to be developed. Since 1980 most of the Government-owned fish production facilities have been used to supply male fingerlings to the private sector, but food-fish sales have gradually increased from 7 000 kg in 1980 to 36 tons in 1982.
1 Food fish: term frequently used in Jamaica. It is equivalent to market size fish
(iii) Training
Hatchery and extension staff have been trained and training in skilled fish culture commenced in 1982. Prospective farmers also received in-service training at the Mitchell Town fish farm.
A recent review mission has recommended to increase training at all levels and expand output of trained personnel beyond projected targets to compensate for drop-outs and changes in careers.
(iv) Research
Research has been conducted in several fields. During 1981 the demand for male tilapia fingerlings had been consistently greater than available supplies at Government facilities. Continued growth in freshwater food-fish production would be dependent upon the ability of private commercial food-fish producers to provide their own male fingerlings. However, based on the policy of encouraging only those fish farming practices which had been technically and economically proven, private sector production of male fingerlings was not emphasized for commercial fish farmers until actual production and cost-returns data could be provided. Research carried out by the Inland Fisheries project to develop efficient methods of fingerling production has yielded the following results.
Ten nursery ponds (0.12 to 0.28 hectares each) at the Government-owned facilities at Mitchell Town and Twickenham Park in Jamaica were used for experimental rearing of Tilapia nilotica fingerlings. These fish were subsequently hand-sexed for stocking in privately-owned monosex food-fish production ponds. When 1g unsorted fry were stocked at a rate of 150 000 to 190 000/hectare and fed a locally produced fish feed, an average of 37 100 males per hectare per 9-week cycle were produced. Assuming that the female fingerlings had no economic value, production cost for the male fingerlings, with an average weight of 24 g, was US$ 2.66 per kg or US$ 0.06 per individual (Cooper et al, 1982). As females are said to have no commercial value but cost the same as males to raise to 25 g, the cost of both should be charged to males. Therefore, the cost in fact was US$ 0.12 per male fingerling.
Fry to stock the nursery ponds were taken from 3 brood ponds with a combined area of 0.7 ha that had been stocked at a density of 7 500 to 10 000/ha (3 females:1 male). Weekly partial harvesting of the brood ponds began after six weeks with a 6 mm square mesh seine. A total of 1.6 million fry, with an average weight of 0.8 g were taken from the brood ponds during an average harvest period of 17 weeks.
These preliminary results form the basis for implementing the policy that fingerling nursery ponds be included in the management system of commercial silver perch (T. nilotica) producers who have more than one acre in food-fish production (Cooper et al, 1982).
Investigation has begun on feed formulation, stocking densities and feeding rates in food-fish ponds, and 28 research ponds are now available at Twickenham Park. Hormonal sex reversal of T. nilotica females is also being investigated.
To utilize pond productivity more efficiently, research is presently being conducted on two species of carps; the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). These will eventually be used as secondary species in polyculture with T. nilotica. A species of small shrimp (Macrobrachium amazonicum) was also introduced as a potential species for polyculture. This small shrimp completes its life cycle within a pond, requiring no additional inputs for its reproduction. The silver carp (Hypothalmichthys molitrix) and the bighead carp (Arystichthys nobilis) were also introduced from Panama for use as secondary species in polyculture. Some brood stock will reach sexual maturity in 1983. Plans to introduce the Cachama (Colossoma spp.) from Venezuela are now being finalized. It is impossible to know what conclusions will be drawn from this research, but one fact is certain: - a simple but economically attractive fish culture system has developed in Jamaica, and only field-tested and proven modifications should be taken to the producers (Cooke and Mooyoung, 1982).
In 1977 the Department of Fisheries, and the University of the West Indies (UWI), with support from the International Development Research Centre of Canada (IDRC), decided to investigate the possibility of oyster culture in Jamaica. A project mainly executed by UWI was started at Bowden, Port Morant.
The project sponsors aimed at developing an activity which would include the local coastal population, both as producers and consumers. The technology had to be simple and the oyster preferably a local one. Investigations were started with the mangrove oyster, Crassostrea rhizophora. It is indigenous to Jamaica, and has been cultured with some success in Cuba.
Since then raft culture technology has been adapted to Jamaican conditions. It is simple, with two phases. In the first phase the young oyster (spat) is collected as it changes from its free-swimming stage to its sedentary phase. Once settled (in the very inshore waters) the spat is placed on more suitable grow-out structures and moved to deeper waters. The grow-out period is from 4 to 6 months. This culture method has been described in more detail by Wade et al (1980).
Spat collection has so far proven to be successful only at Bowden (Port Morant). Although spat has been collected also in other areas, the quantities obtained are, in the opinion of project staff, not sufficient to support any substantial local grow-out activity.
At Bowden the project has produced oysters which have been sold in Kingston at a price of about J$ 2.00 for 12 oysters. However, the quantities sold to date are small.
In early 1983 the project was having grow-out trials at four locations on the Jamaican coastline; Bowden, Port Antonio, Montego Bay and Green Island. Results have varied; partly because of predators, partly because of differences in nutrient contents of the waters. The best results to date have been obtained at Port Antonio.
Project staff believe that the oyster culture with present technology is economically viable in Jamaica (see Annex 9, section 1). However, no private individual or group has yet started oyster-culture as a subsistence or commercial operation.
The Jamaican National Investment Promotions Ltd. (JNIP) is a Government-owned corporation providing entrepreneurs and investors with information on benefits extended by the Government of Jamaica under its statutory incentives programme. It also advises on such issues as sources of financing, site selection and work permits.
The JNIP has received a number of proposals and queries concerning possibilities to invest in aquaculture. In early 1983 the JNIP Investment Promotions Officer handling livestock and fisheries had about half a dozen projects under consideration. Most of them had been initiated by foreign investors. They concerned culture of tilapia, fresh water shrimps, oysters, artemia, spirulina, aquatic plants and ornamental fish.
The Jamaica National Investment Company Ltd. (JNIC) is a Government corporation promoting investments in Jamaica, sometimes by establishing joint ventures with local or foreign entrepreneurs.
In early 1983 JNIC had not yet actually invested any funds into aquaculture production projects, but were about to do so. The establishment of a 1 000 acre (400 hectares) farm for the polyculture of tilapia and fresh water shrimp was closest to realization. The project was estimated to need an investment of J$ 7.8 million over a four-year period. An additional three projects (tilapia, fresh water shrimp, saltwater shrimp) were under study.
Neither the JNIC nor the JNIP have amongst their staff personnel with the knowhow and experience required to evaluate the technical feasibility of most aquaculture proposals. Several of the proposals received by these organizations concern species and/or techniques not now being used in Jamaica. As a result both corporations are forced to turn to outside expatriate specialists to carry out feasibility studies.
It has not always been possible to obtain the services of specialists who do not have an interest in promoting a particular technology.
The University of the West Indies, Mona Campus, has on its staff academic personnel with an interest in aquaculture, and is presently considering offering a course in aquaculture. So far, the University has offered aquaculture as one of the subjects in the course on marine biology.
In early 1983, a few University staff were engaged in research programmes which might have an interest for aquaculture production projects:
dietary habits of tilapia
algal culture (spirulina)
general biology of mountain mullet (Agonostomus monticola)
The University in early 1983 was planning for the establishment, using funds made available by the European Development Fund, of a fresh water prawns (Macrobrachium) hatchery at Port Royal, Kingston. The Professor of Zoology at UWI sees the purpose to be to conduct research on development and early growth of Macrobrachium spp and to provide a source of juvenile shrimps for commercial purpose.
A preliminary study on the rate of growth of the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) has been conducted by two post-graduate students of the University of the West Indies 1 at the UWI Marine Laboratory at Port Royal. Using captured, newly hatched turtles, these were reared in 1 000 gallon conical tanks and fed ad libitum with chopped fish and oyster meat. They grew from 4 cm shell length (12–14 g) to 19 cm shell length in six months. Unfortunately, the study had to be discontinued.
The Underground Water Authority and the National Water Commission execute Government policy and ensures the observation of laws with respect of use of fresh water in Jamaica. These two agencies are advised on technical matters by the Water Resources Division of the Ministry of Agriculture. The Underground Water Authority issues licenses for the construction of wells, while the National Water Commission, a branch of the Ministry of Local Government, is responsible for the supply of water for human consumption, for industrial use, as well as for irrigation and drainage systems. Farmers who want to culture fish or shrimps will have to obtain the approval from either of the above Government agencies for the manner in which they intend to obtain water for their ponds or raceways.
The Natural Resources Conservation Department (NRCD) of the Ministry of Mining administers the implementation of the Beach Control Act. This act gives the Government regulatory powers over all economic activities, including construction, that takes place in coastal waters and on the beach within 25 m of the water line. The NRCD does not directly control the wetlands of Jamaica, but has been given the task of studying them. The use of the mangrove areas in the wetlands in regulated under the ‘Town and Country Planning Act’, which provides for Parish Development Orders. However, any proposal for modification of the existing mangrove stands would be referred to NRCD for their comments on implication for endangered species (one of which is the local crocodile).
1 Personal communication with Ms. Lesley Wilkins and Mr. Guy Harvey
The current method of producing tilapia in Jamaica involves brood ponds, nursery ponds and food-fish production ponds. Brood ponds are stocked at a density of 7 500 to 10 000 adults/ha using a ratio of 3 females to 1 male. Frequent partial harvesting of 1g fry begins approximately 5 to 6 weeks later and continues for about 3 to 4 months, after which the pond is drained. The average yield of fry is 150 000/ha/week. These fry are transferred to nursery ponds which are stocked at a density of 170 000 fry/ha. With supplemental feeding, fry attain an average weight of 20 to 25 g in 7 to 11 weeks. Average yield of male fingerlings is 30 000 to 38 000/ha/cycle (Cooke and Mooyoung, 1982).
The present culturing method is monosex culture, so fingerlings averaging 20 to 25 g are hand-sexed by visual examination of the papilla before being stocked into food-fish production ponds. A stocking density of 15 000 males/ha is used for these ponds. In 12 to 16 weeks with supplemental feeding, fish generally attain an average weight of 200 to 250 g. Expected yields of 2 000 to 2 500 kg/ha/cycle are normal (Cooke and Mooyoung, 1982).
Production ponds and nursery pond cycles are not synchronized, so small systems require a greater ratio of nursery ponds to production ponds. On a large scale, however, approximately 10 ha of food-fish production ponds require support from 3 ha of nursery ponds and 1 ha of brood ponds.
Production data from private commercial farms indicate a continuous increase in the amount of fish produced, increasing from an initial annual rate of 4 238 kg in 1978 to 145 000 kg during 1982, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Annual production (lbs) of food fish, Tilapia nilotica, in the public and private sectors in Jamaica from 1977 to 1982 1
Source: Cooke and Mooyoung, 1982
| Year | Public Sector | Private Sector | Total |
| 1977 | 4 840 | - | 4 840 |
| 1978 2 | 73 480 | 9 680 | 83 160 |
| 1979 2 | 37 840 | 18 260 | 53 900 |
| 1980 | 15 180 | 29 480 | 44 660 |
| 1981 | 16 280 | 55 000 | 71 280 |
| 1982 3 | 80 000 | 206 000 | 286 000 |
| 1983 3 4 | 500 000 |
1 Production figures include documented harvests
2 During these years smaller fish termed “soup fish” were accepted at the Government-owned processing and marketing plant. Since this time, only the larger fish were considered marketable
3 According to Cooper, personal communication, 1983
4 Projected
There were two attempts in the 1970's to start commercial culture of the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii; both efforts were unsuccessful. Ocean Proteins established a hatchery and 80 ha of ponds at Ferris Cross, Westmorland. This farm was operated for four years and went out of business in 1975. A second prawn farm was established by Marbeck at Elim, St. Elizabeth, and operated only three years. It has been said that the major problem encountered was pollution from a nearby sugar factory and difficulties concerning lease of the land (ADCP, 1981). Since 1982, Jamaica Aqua-Farms Ltd. has re-opened the Macrobrachium rosenbergii hatchery at Ferris Cross, near Savanna-la-Mar. Jamaica Aqua-Farms is now offering post-larvae for sale.
The hatchery building was originally designed to be able to be heated, and is therefore more costly than necessary. It houses a total of 34 fibreglass pools, each with a capacity of 1 000 US gallons. Twenty-two of these pools are used for the Macrobrachium programme, the remaining 12 are at the disposition of the Tilapia sex-reversal trials. The farm complex is provided with water from a source just north of the facilities. It is reported to be flowing at the rate of 550 gallons/minute and could have double that flow if a small (5–10 hp) diesel pump plus engine were installed. The water comes to the farm site in an 8-inch pipe and is then divided into one canal for the ponds (flowing through a 4-inch pipe) and one for the hatchery. In addition, there are three deep wells on the property, each bored down to 110 feet; water drawn at 20 feet. There is one at the hatchery and one south-west of the present ponds.
The gravid females are kept outside in concrete tanks to reach maturity. They are then taken in to spawn in approximately 1 × 1 m plastic pools with a rapid water exchange. Some pieces of plastic pipes were lying in the pool to provide shelter. The hatched larvae are carried out of the pool by the spill water and collected on a fine screen. They are then transferred into the 1 000 gallon plastic fibreglass tanks. The water system in the hatchery is in principle closed. The water goes through a biological filter and is also subject to ultraviolet light.
Feeding into the 1 000 gallon pools is automatic, and apparently around the clock. The management is trying to replace artemia to reduce the production costs. The period spent before the post-larvae stage is reached was mentioned to be about 35 to 40 days but also believed to vary with the temperature of the water. Once out of the pools as post-larvae (by dipnet), they are acclimatized during 40 hours. Reaching the adult stage was stated to take about 8 months.
In 1970–73 when the farm only reached about 2 000 lbs/acre/cycle, the batch system of production was used. The Manager is now of the opinion that a continuous harvesting system will give better results. His present projections are that the first 12 months of a project should give about 1 500 lbs/acre, the following year the production should go up to about 3 000 lbs/acre and the third year to about 4 000 lbs/acre.
In the nursery ponds, the post-larvae are stocked at a density of about 80 per square foot. They are kept for 2–3 months with a diet containing 40 percent protein. There are 16 ponds, each of 1 acre size, at the fish farm. They are used as nursery ponds for post-larvae and for production trials.
