Jamaica is mountainous; its highest peak is 2 146 m. Almost half the island is more than 300 metres above sea-level. The western two-thirds of the island is composed of soluble white limestone or sheets of calcareous marine sediments. At least seventy, short, fast-flowing rivers descend to the north and south coasts. The only navigable river is the Black River and that only by small craft. The coastal plains vary greatly in width, being more extensive on the southern coast. There are few large and natural water bodies. Although the island is fringed by coral reefs, the coast, particularly in the north, is subject to the effects of winds. More detail on the sea shore environment of Jamaica is provided in Annex 10.
The average annual rainfall for Jamaica is between 188 and 196 cm, but it varies greatly from place to place. In Kingston it is about 190 cm; at Port Antonio, 320 cm; in the western provinces in the order of 215 cm; and on the north-east slope of the Blue Mountains it is over 500 cm. Generally, the rainy season starts in May and extends through November with maximum rainfall during the last three months. Cold fronts originating in North America have an effect on Jamaica during the winter months. Temperatures drop and it rains heavily, particularly on the northern slopes (Macpherson, 1979).
Ambient temperatures are high and stable. This favours aquaculture. Most fresh water and marine fish and crustacea in Jamaica grow all year round as a result, thus shortening growing cycles and improving the economic results of aquaculture activities.
The lack of open fresh water bodies means that fresh water aquaculture will be carried out mostly in ponds or raceways. Given the variability in surface water supplies due to the irregularities of rainfall, special precautions must be taken to ensure continued water supply to raceways and ponds.
Coastal currents and water salinities do not raise any obstacles to developing mariculture. While hurricanes are a danger, in particular to mariculture installations, they reach Jamaica with a frequency that is much below that normal in the eastern part of the Caribbean. The tidal amplitude is narrow, which means that water exchange in mariculture ponds must be done through pumping.
In Jamaica, as elsewhere, aquaculture will not expand unless there is a demand for its products. Therefore, a sound Government policy for aquaculture needs a sound estimate of the magnitude and characteristics of future markets. Although Jamaica is short of fish, the future is not bright for all the species which possibly can be cultured in Jamaica. This chapter will briefly explain why.
Fish is a staple food in Jamaica, though it has become less so during the last two decades. In the 1960's the consumption per caput and year was recorded at above 30 kgs; in the late 1970's it was thought to be in the order of only 15 kgs per person and year. The main causes of the decrease are: (i) a stagnating marine fishery, (ii) shortage of foreign exchange to pay for imports of fish, and (iii) increased production of substitutes (poultry).
Traditionally Jamaica imports between 70 and 80 percent of the fish consumed. Imports used to be all cured fish. Lately, a part of the imports are fish, fresh or frozen, which are cured by the Jamaica Frozen Foods Ltd., Kingston. Frozen marine shrimps are imported for the local hotel trade.
Presently, cured or canned fish products constitute about half of the apparent fish consumption in Jamaica. Locally caught marine fish is consumed mostly in fresh form, as is fresh water fish.
In Jamaica most informed observers agree that the inshore marine fishery is unable to significantly increase its output. There is not enough fish. Marine fish landings will increase only if fishing, under license, develops on distant fishing grounds now controlled by other nations. Jamaica has attempted to obtain such licenses during the past decade without notable success. The study group concludes that in the foreseeable future the Jamaican fishing industry will not eliminate the need to import fish. In view of the increasing scarcity - and rising world market prices - of the species traditionally imported into Jamaica, the (real) price of marine fish may rise in Jamaica during the next decade.
Jamaica's population has been increasing at a rate of about 1.5 percent per year. This leads, of course, to an increase in the demand for fish. If the per caput consumption of fish (at about 15 kgs) was static, this would mean a yearly increase of about 500 metric tons (live weight) per year. If, in addition, an improved standard of living should cause the per caput demand to rise, the yearly increase in potential demand might soon reach 1 000 tons.
The species of primary interest for aquaculture in Jamaica are: marine and fresh water shrimps, tilapia and various reef fishes (snappers, groupers and jacks). At present local fishermen land about 10 tonnes of marine shrimps per year. That quantity does not satisfy the Jamaican market, and frozen shrimps are imported. Tourists constitute the main market. Their purchasing power allows the hotels to pay more for the product than what most foreign (U.S.) importers of shrimps could pay. Thus, marine shrimps, if cultured in Jamaica, are likely to find their most attractive market in the island.
Small quantities of indigenous fresh water shrimps are caught and consumed in Jamaica. The product is traditional; most of the shrimps are boiled soon after capture and then sold by roadside vendors. At present there is no production or sale of M. rosenbergii, the fresh water prawn of immediate interest for culture. Like marine shrimps, fresh water shrimps would be sold to the tourist market, a part, no doubt, as replacement for imported marine shrimps. Only when this market is satisfied would it be of interest to sell fresh water shrimps in the lower-priced U.S. market.
Since late 1980 the Jamaican public has been offered Tilapia nilotica. This species has been accepted, and the general view is that most people prefer it to the slightly darker Tilapia mossambica. However, to date consumption is not significant; a few hundred tons per year. Tilapia fetches a lower price in most markets than do marine fish. It is neither a fish that is traded internationally in any significant quantities, nor is it a common species in the Caribbean basin, although it has been introduced in Central America and in several of the Caribbean islands. There is, however, a growing market for tilapia in the U.S. Nonetheless it is too early to think of supplying this market from Jamaica.
Fish in fresh form is obviously not the best substitute for cured fish. Thus it might be unduly optimistic to assume that the (real) price of tilapia will rise with that of other fish in the near future. It seems likely therefore that a rapid expansion of the supply (say to 1 000 tons within a few years) will require an effort of sales promotion and will make it unlikely that the market price of tilapia will increase at the same rate as that of marine fish.
The study group has not been able to obtain statistics on the Jamaican landings of snappers, groupers and similar reef fish. However, these species are in high demand in Jamaica, and in the Caribbean as a whole, and any significant increase in production would find a ready market inside or outside the island.
In Jamaica civil servants, farmers, entrepreneurs and the general public appear to consider aquaculture very favourably. The Government has repeatedly and publicly identified aquaculture as one of the sectors in which it expects rapid expansion. This view is reflected in the activities of civil servants responsible for general development, as well as amongst those responsible for the Government's support to fishermen and aquaculturists.
The large farmers and corporate enterprises on the island are actively considering aquaculture as a field of investment.
Summarizing, the study group does not feel that aquaculture development will be hampered by unfavourable attitudes either in Government or in the private sector.
The major inputs needed for aquaculture production are: manpower, land, water, fish stock, fish feeds, fertilizers, construction material and capital. These inputs are used throughout the economy. Therefore their availability to aquaculturists is dependent upon the extent to which they are in demand elsewhere. This is in particular true for factors used in fresh water aquaculture.
In Jamaica one person out of every four in the labour force is unemployed. Therefore unskilled labour to man aquaculture installations should be available.
It is trained and experienced aquaculturists who constitute the scarce factor in aquaculture development. In the beginning of 1983 there were about half a dozen academically trained aquaculturists in Jamaica, almost all of whom were employed in the Inland Fisheries Unit. If private sector plans for commercial aquaculture materialize, it seems likely that the aquaculturists who are now in Government service soon will be employed by aquaculture enterprises. Given the fact that there is no specialized (university level) aquaculture course in Jamaica, it seems unlikely that the availability of skilled aquaculturists will keep up with demand during the next few years.
The Government would be well advised to consider this aspect very carefully, as skilled personnel is the key element in any attempt to involve in aquaculture development also those sectors which cannot be described as corporate or commercial. Small commercial farmers are unlikely to make much headway unless Government assistance is available during a start-up phase.
Aquaculture enterprises occupy space. The requirements for space differ from one type of aquaculture technology to another, as is evident from other sections of this report. In this context, it is convenient to consider the availability of sites under the categories of sites for mariculture and sites for fresh water aquaculture.
Mariculture can take place in protected marine waters or on land; in brackish or saline waters.
Most protected bays in Jamaica are small and located on the north coast. On the south coast the obvious locations for mariculture activities are the Portland Bight and Port Morant Bay. Mariculture can be carried out in some of the bays on the northern coast. However, the local tourist industry is concentrated to the north coast of the island and the study group believes that aquaculture cannot in the long run compete successfully with the tourists for access to the sheltered bays.
Usually both fresh and salt water should be available to create the conditions for pond-based mariculture (primarily for shrimps). The following areas on the Jamaican coastline are believed by the study group to have such characteristics: Bowden, St. Thomas; Duckenfield Hall, St. Thomas; Lucca Harbour, Hanover; Bluff Point, Savanna-la-Mar, Westmorland; Black River, St. Elizabeth; Salt River, Clarendon.
Amongst them, the site just east of the mouth of the Black River is believed to be the most suitable.
Ponds for freshwater aquaculture should preferably be located in areas where the soil retains water and where need for land clearing and levelling is minimal. Such land is available primarily in the form of marginal sugar cane fields. The Jamaican sugar cane growers who control some 100 000 acres of the most fertile land in Jamaica, do not recover their costs, and marginal lands are being used for other crops or being allowed to lie fallow. Such land is (at least theoretically) in ample supply.
Jamaica also has extensive areas covered by peat. Normally such soils are too acid to permit fish culture. However, this does not seem to be the case in Jamaica. Possibly this is due to the limestone over which ground water flows. Therefore, it is not impossible that the morasses also can become the sites for fresh water aquaculture.
Summarizing, the study group concludes that (i) land is not a limiting factor for development of pond-based fish culture in fresh water, while (ii) there are few locations which evidently lend themselves to pond-based mariculture.
Freshwater is unevenly distributed over Jamaica, primarily because of the rainfall pattern which is irregular and concentrated to some parts of the island. This influences ground-water supplies. These and existing irrigation schemes are the main sources of water for pond-based freshwater aquaculture, as Jamaica has almost no lakes and few perennial rivers. In fact, the geology of the island is such that a part of the rainwater run-off flows on the bed-rock as underground rivers, appearing at or shortly before the coast.
Ground-water resources have been severely tapped in the region around Kingston and southwest of the city. It is unlikely that permits will be given for sinking more wells in this area for usage other than as drinking water.
The water supply is one of the major factors in selecting suitable sites for aquaculture in Jamaica. The surface waters of the country show marked seasonal variations in their flow rate, and smaller rivers are completely dry during the dry season, except for those in the wettest north-eastern part of the island.
In the dryest south-western part of the country, water supply and irrigation of the sugar cane is based on groundwater wells instead of surface waters. There is a danger of overpumping the groundwater reserves, especially in the coastal areas, which has very often already led to irrigation with highly saline waters which, in turn, spoiled the productivity of formerly fertile land.
The scarcity of fresh water and the long-term nature of pond-based aquaculture make the study group conclude that fresh water definitely is a factor which will restrain growth of fresh water aquaculture to certain regions of the island.
It is expected that in future private entrepreneurs will produce the major part of the required male T. nilotica fingerlings. The projections for 1986 already indicate a demand for 10 million fingerlings. The supply of Macrobrachium post-larvae does not appear to be a limiting factor if the hatchery at Ferris Cross can produce the post-larvae required to stock the commercial shrimp farms to be constructed in the near future.
For cages and pens in marine waters, the availability of stocking material is assured if T. mossambica is used. Juveniles of the more expensive marine species, on the other hand, pose an immediate problem, and studies on the occurrence and abundance of the fry, their collection and eventual rearing to stockable size under an organized nursery management system, will have to be investigated.
The fact that oyster spats only are available in significant quantities from Bowden presents some problems in the expansion of the oyster culture programme, as it will be necessary to depend upon Bowden for supplying spats to other areas.
There is a well-established animal feed industry in Jamaica, which produces mostly for the expanding poultry industry. At present the annual production is on the order of 200 000 tonnes/year from three mills. The largest of these mills is owned by Jamaica's largest broiler producer.
Two of these mills have produced feed especially intended for tilapia. The main obstacle at the moment is that the quantities needed in the fish culture sector are so small as to be of little interest for the feed manufacturer. However, it is unlikely that the provision of feed will become a bottle-neck for aquaculturists willing to culture tilapia.
Feed for post-larvae and juvenile shrimps is another matter. A considerable part of this will have to be imported. However, the quantities needed during the next few years will be small.
Both organic and chemical fertilizers are available in Jamaica. Chemical fertilizers are imported and generally available. Organic fertilizers, particularly chicken manure, are available but under-utilized.
The reasons for the under-utilization of chicken manure are said to be two: on the one hand ignorance of its benefits; on the other, and perhaps more convincingly, the cost of transport from the broiler farm to the fish pond.
The artificial setting which needs to be created for commercial aquaculture involves the construction of structures to hold or house target species and the necessary facilities the culture schemes require. Availability of materials, local or otherwise, becomes of prime importance in development, improvement, repair and replacement as normally required particularly where time is of the essence.
Fortunately for Jamaica, construction materials for cage, pen, raceway, off-bottom and pond culture systems as suggested in this report are present, or otherwise can be procured from abroad.
In the beginning of 1983 costs of capital were high in Jamaica. Commercial farmers would have to pay the equivalent of about 18 percent annual interest on their commercial loans; concessional loans could be obtained by small farmers at a cost of about 12 to 15 percent yearly interest from the Agricultural Credit Bank of Jamaica.
These comparatively high rates naturally act as a break on those commercial farmers who had an interest in starting pond culture of tilapia or other species. The corporate sector does not seem to suffer from lack of funds.
