The following chapter, which has been prepared by ADCP, organizes the brief summaries made by the expert consultation at each sub-sectoral level. The summaries were prepared following the discussion in order to select and group key issues and opportunities which would respond to collective external assistance and intervention. The individual opportunities (65 in number) are described in Chapter 3 for seven geographic regions, namely Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, and the Near East. The connotation of "opportunity" is inferred in its broadest sense, namely the expenditure of capital, human resources, and time.
The opportunities are predominantly a group of identified needs or ideas for technical assistance to developing countries, which collectively will assist in guiding investment decisions primarily at the national level in both the public and private sectors. The opportunities are not all new, or are to be considered in isolation. Many complement or reinforce existing activities in the seven regions.
The priority for these opportunities is for those which respond directly to specific actions at the national level to meet a country's individual needs and objectives. Because of the great diversity of aquaculture and the variations in social, economic, and environmental conditions from country to country this is most important to recognize. However, many of these opportunities can be supported and at times best met through regional and sub-regional initiatives (such as the composite approach proposed for Latin America and the Caribbean, as resources of manpower and knowledge are scarce), while others may be met through interregional initiatives (for example, the framework for national policy and planning).
The 65 identified opportunities, for easy reference, are tabulated and described in Annex II. The following summaries have been identified for the corresponding actions through regional and sub-regional initiatives, and in some cases interregional, in support of these national opportunities and subsequent investment decisions. Not all these activities are equally important to all regions and sub-regions, and where appropriate this has been mentioned.
2.1 Consumption of Aquaculture Products and Marketing
The consumption of aquaculture products should be promoted. The majority of aquaculture products, which are fish, offer low-cost alternatives to either no animal protein at all or the high-priced products from land animals. Although poultry and some cheap white meats often compete with fish in price, fish offers the consumers choice of attractive variations, and almost all fish produced by aquaculture is sold fresh.
Aquaculture products are also highly nutritious. Compared with poultry and land animals they have a higher percentage of utilizable flesh and less wastage, with some exceptions (such as shellfish), as well as high levels of minerals, vitamins, and trace elements. Increasing consumption of all fish and fisheries products for the benefit of health is a priority, where feasible, in all countries where malnutrition is evident, and also in many countries simply for increasing national standards of health. This is also true of Asian countries where the average consumption of fisheries and aquaculture products is already high. In most regions all fisheries products compete with red and white meats, and poultry, and aquaculture products have competition from under-utilized natural resources of fish.
Almost all current national and regional projects are directed toward increased consumption for the benefits of nutrition. Few, if any, projects include specific activities which interface with the consumers.
Appropriate long-term action through education should be taken to promote fish consumption at the national level. This should begin in schools, especially in Africa, as this is where the greatest long-term impact will be made. Consumer education should be included in all national projects. Further supportive actions can be taken at a regional level to assist in organizing programmes of education. This is particularly important in Latin America, where fish consumption and aquaculture are not traditional.
Marketing information about fish and fisheries products must be expanded, particularly the coverage of aquaculture commodities. This is a priority in all countries seeking to increase consumption for national reasons and to create an industry, and again in all regions including Asia where products are already an integral part of all markets. Information important to buyers is the range of commodities and respective prices, and quantity and quality of the commodities, particularly their availability out of the traditional season.
For aquaculture marketing activities, emphasis should be placed on information which interfaces with the national producers. Again, few, if any, national projects include the collection and dissemination of marketing information for aquaculture products and this must be corrected.
As many countries export aquaculture products active support should also be implemented at the regional levels through existing services (such as the regional FAO INFOFISH network and GLOBEFISH) to separate aquaculture commodity data from fisheries commodity data.
Marketing information is also required about inputs into the industry. Supportive guidance should also be provided at the interregional and regional levels to encourage national activities to provide information about other key industry commodities, such as the quantity and price of seed (fingerlings, post-larvae, spat), and feed prices including fish meal.
Application of existing post-harvest technologies for aquaculture products is required. Introduction of traditional technologies to producers is particularly important, especially to maintain the quality of the products from remote areas and to safeguard public health. This is a priority common to all regions. A number of national projects and the regional projects in Africa and Asia include some specific activities in post-harvest technology (such as fish preservation, and depuration of shellfish), but at a low level.
Because of the diversity of aquaculture products, and the differing demands of local markets, the required post-harvest technologies vary from country to country (and possibly within country). At the national level action should be taken to apply the appropriate technical development in all projects which are involved in production. In most cases the economic infrastructure to transfer the technology has to be established. Assistance can also be provided regionally for disseminating general information on post-harvest technologies for the principal production species produced in the respective region.
2.2 Production
Increasing production of aquaculture in response to market demand is one of the highest priorities for the sector because of the economic importance. For most countries as their populations increase aquaculture products can reduce the widening gap between the national market demand for fish and the supply. This gap is presently exacerbated by the static growth of capture fisheries brought about by the diminishing natural stocks and the high cost of traditional fishing. Aquaculture products offer an immediate alternative source of a variety of fish and shellfish.
Increasing production of certain high value species for international markets is important for earning foreign exchange. It also provides employment, particularly in depressed and remote areas. Among poor rural populations where farmers pursue a number of agricultural practices, increasing food production through aquaculture adds to the household food and capital income.
Already many national projects and regional projects in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Mediterranean, and the Near East, are active in demonstrating and encouraging production in support of national food security and economic benefits. These efforts must be expanded and must include testing of the social, economic, and environmental feasibility of aquaculture.
At the national level, activities which increase production in response to local market demands and the number of farmers operating in the sector, including the construction of production units, must continue to be given the highest priority. This is essential in all countries of Africa, the Near East, Latin America and the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, and the Pacific regions, and in those countries of Asia where aquaculture is not well developed.
New long-term approaches to increase production of low-cost fish through aquaculture and fisheries technologies are required for those countries and sub-regions where population growth is rapidly accelerating the gap between market demand for fish and all potential sources of supply, including traditional aquaculture. A number of countries in Asia and some in Africa are potentially in this position. Special priority should be given to the promotion of appropriate production systems, which are feasible from a socio-economic and environmental point of view, to enhance production in bodies of water which are not presently considered utilizable. Of particular importance is the promotion and management of culture-based fisheries (particularly in Africa and Latin America); of coastal lagoons (in Africa, Latin America, and the Mediterranean); and in open-water systems (potentially all regions).
These potentially useful enhancement programmes are long-term activities, involving organized producers working in association with systems-oriented research and development. Therefore, appropriate progressive actions must be taken:
(a) first at an interregional level to (i) prepare a catalogue listing available systems and practices of production, (ii) consider new approaches to production through an expert consultation, and (iii) consider and refine the findings of the consultation for transfer to specific test and demonstration sites;(b) followed at sub-regional and national levels to identify and select the appropriate test systems and practices for the selected site(s), organize research and development, select participating institutions, select producers, and disseminate information;
(c) followed at a national level to organize further distribution channels as required.
2.3 Local Infrastructure
In all countries in all regions improving the ways of delivering appropriate extension information to the producers is required, particularly where new technology is involved. Extension is an important interface between the national producers and advancing technology. All the current national projects involved in production have a component of extension, and this practice must be continued. A number of the regional projects (in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Mediterranean) organize short-term courses on technical topics for government representatives responsible for aspects of national production.
Extension is a national function (and in many cases local) because of the diversity of aquaculture practices, languages, environment, and social and economic conditions. One immediate action at the national level is to seek wider involvement of agriculturists, particularly agriculture extension workers, to provide channels for improving the promotion of aquaculture in rural populations. However, support to the improvement of national extension can be provided at:
(a) the regional and sub-regional level to (i) organize and provide appropriate training for extension leaders at focal centres, (ii) transmit information about the concepts and importance of extension to senior management in government administrations through sensitization seminars, and (iii) assist in the translation of extension materials to national languages, and even local languages;(b) with further support provided at an interregional level to (i) examine and analyse known effective extension services and catalogue, (ii) explore new approaches to extension, and (iii) disseminate new information to the regions.
The increased availability of good quality seed is important to the producers in all countries in every region. It is particularly important in Africa and Latin America where there is a shortage of hatcheries or the national hatcheries are inefficiently operated. It is also important in countries where farmers rely on the capture of wild seed resources for stocking. Many national projects are currently involved in seed production, but are not necessarily concerned with supporting the producers' requirements or producing sufficient to select for quality.
For the reasons as noted above (i.e. the diversity of products, local conditions, etc.), priority action must be taken at the national level to (i) upgrade existing seed production facilities through capital investment, (ii) encourage private investment in hatcheries, and (iii) train farmers for the responsibility of producing their own seed requirements.
Further support should also be provided at the regional and sub-regional levels, particularly in Africa and Latin America, and in the countries of Asia which are not yet advanced in aquaculture, to (i) organize and provide appropriate training for hatchery managers and technicians at focal centres; (ii) organize technical cooperation between countries to share expertise, and (iii) produce and disseminate technical information about hatchery technology to national sectors.
2.4 Rational Infrastructure
Research, both fundamental and applied, remains one of the highest priorities for the development of the sector world-wide. This report does not go into detail regarding research needs and priorities, because of the broad range of regional expertise which is required for the task. However, a special session was devoted to the subject of "International Research in Aquaculture: organization and management of international assistance" (see Annex IV). It was noted that in 1989 there will be an inter-organizational study on fisheries research, including aquaculture, and it was felt that the recommendations of this and other studies on aquaculture research (by CGIAR) will clearly outline the needs of the aquaculture sector and the priority research required for development.
The need for more research particularly applies to Asia, which, in spite of the great breadth and depth of the aquaculture sector in the region, continues to be constrained by the lack of research information. But the need for research in both biotechnical areas (such as reproductive physiology, genetics, disease, nutrition, and engineering) and non-biotechnical areas (such as economics, environmental impacts, social implications, public health, and farm management) is paramount in all countries in all regions, but with differing emphasis. In the Mediterranean and Asia, for example, there are priority concerns for the environmental impact of aquaculture, both positive and negative. In the Mediterranean this is because of the contiguity of the region for realising the potentials of marine aquaculture, particularly in the large coastal lagoons; in Asia it is because of the intensity of production on small farms and also the concerns over aspects of integrated farming on public health. In Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and in some countries of the Near East, research is required from the collection of basic data to the adaptation of production systems and their improvement under local conditions; in other Near East countries priority is with intensive systems for high-value products; and in the Pacific systems-development with other economic sectors (such as tourism and agricultural land-use) is more important.
Almost every national and regional project has a component of applied research. Most of this research is carried out independently, or through networking institutions to study regional problems. Together with technical training, applied research is receiving the largest share of international assistance, and this must continue.
Much applied research, which is important at the national and often local levels, is not being performed effectively. Action must be taken at the national level to give priority to well planned applied research through more effective organization of trained manpower and facilities, and to increase the dissemination of the results. Support action should be taken at the regional and sub-regional levels to organize more research networks dealing with common national problems, and to disseminate the results. Action should also be taken at this level to guide national institutions in (i) the management of research, (ii) identification of other relevant research areas, such as those non-biotechnical issues noted above, and (iii) organizing research projects on problems which transcend national boundaries, such as the utilization of common water resources, disease epidemics, and genetic improvement and conservation.
Basic research is also a priority decided at a national level. With the exception of certain countries in Asia, the amount of basic research being carried out in the other regions is relatively small and mostly confined to biotechnical problems. Much of this is being carried out through links to institutions in developed countries, or through international research fellowships, and this approach should be encouraged. Basic research often requires considerable economies of scale, and benefits from international attention. A number of research issues of regional importance are being undertaken by existing regional projects at appropriate national institutions through networking.
Technical information at all levels of the sector is important for all the regions and continues to be in high demand. It is particularly a priority in Africa and Latin America. The use of available technical information is made at the national level, and several countries in Asia produce their own national databases in Asian countries. Many regional projects and international organizations (particularly in Asia, and one in Latin America) produce separate aquaculture databases, or include aquaculture information in general fisheries or fisheries science databases, but there are few if any outside these regions. Unfortunately these databases have been developed independently and many duplicate the same information, or are produced on computerized systems which are not compatible.
Direct support for the collection and dissemination of technical information is still necessary at the regional level, particularly in Africa, the Near East, and the Mediterranean. Additional support should also be provided in Asia, probably at the interregional level, to review the existing information databases and standardize systems to maximize the efficiency of information flow. This could be achieved by an expert consultation on the enhanced use and compatibility of global and regional databases.
Undergraduate or tertiary education in aquaculture is a priority in Asian countries where the aquaculture sector is substantial. Undergraduate education in aquaculture is less important in the other regions at this time. Many institutions in Asian countries include aquaculture courses in their fisheries or marine science degree programmes and several have already established general first degree programmes in aquaculture. A few institutions in Latin America now offer first degrees in aquaculture, and several include aquaculture courses as components of other degrees. Undergraduate education is a national responsibility, and regional projects currently provide little support at this level.
Action is required at the national level to introduce or increase aquaculture courses into existing first degree programmes in related subjects (biology, marine science, engineering, economics). Supporting action is required at the regional and Interregional level to assist the process by providing (i) guidance on the content of such courses so that minimum standards are established, and (ii) bibliographic lists for institutional libraries.
Post-graduate education in aquaculture is one of the top priorities in all regions to complement priorities of research. Much post-graduate education in both specific and general topics of aquaculture is being supported at the national universities by governments, and supplemented significantly by fellowships through international assistance, particularly in Asia. Post-graduate education has probably received the largest share of assistance throughout the last decade, and has been highly successful. Two regional projects, in Asia and Africa, have been focal points for post-graduate education in general aquaculture for almost a decade, with second degrees awarded by affiliation with local institutions.
The emphasis on post-graduate education, particularly for special topics (such as reproductive physiology, pathology, nutrition, engineering, economics, social sciences, environmental sciences) should be continued, and reinforced in all regions. Action should be taken at the regional level to establish national capabilities in post-graduate education through (i) guidance on the content of post-graduate courses so that minimum standards are established, and (ii) providing course instructors to assist national staff to carry out courses.
High level non-academic training for administrators and senior management is required particularly in Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, and the Near East regions. Long-term academic training has been provided by regional projects in Africa, Asia, and Latin America for government administrators but it has been heavily biotechnical in content.
Supportive action is first required at the interregional level because of the lack of information and instructors by providing (i) guidance on the content of such courses so that minimum standards are established, and (ii) organizing and operating one or more demonstration courses. This should be followed at the regional level to continue to meet the continuous demand by almost all countries through the implementation of short-term courses focused directly on the needs of government administrators and directors (planning, sectoral administration, investment, legislation, environment, farm systems) rather than biotechnical administrators.
In all regions credit for aquaculture investment, particularly for small-scale producers, is currently under-utilized. Most producers prefer to use more traditional credit lines as they lack collateral. Although almost every project supported by the development banks has a credit line, few if any projects in aquaculture deal with the processes of credit and credit management.
Action must be taken at the national level to familiarize local credit disbursement officers about the needs of the producers, and vice versa. This can best be achieved first by action at the regional and sub-regional levels to sensitize credit managers to the particular requirements and economics of small-scale aquaculture through seminars provided by experts.
2.5 National Sector Management
National policy preparation and planning (including project planning) are of major importance to the successful development of the aquaculture sector in all countries in all regions. In the last three years the interregional Aquaculture Development and Coordination Programme (ADCP) has focused attention on this priority and produced guidelines, and the regional projects in Latin America and Africa are assisting a number of countries to produce national sector surveys for subsequent use for planners. Assistance has also been provided to one or two countries to prepare national planning documents.
Action must be taken at the national level to produce national plans, through the work of appropriate financial, economic development, and technical institutions, and other planning documents (on resource utilization, manpower training, research). Supportive action is required at the regional and sub-regional levels to provide (i) guidance in the framework and contents of the plan, (ii) expert assistance where necessary, and (iii) short-term training courses for planning coordinators.
As a consequence of the emphasis on sectoral development through planning national legislation in support of aquaculture is becoming increasingly important. Few developing countries at the present time are enacting legislation dealing with aquaculture, other than regulations regarding the importation of species (as guided by their respective regional fisheries commissions). There are no projects currently directed toward the development of appropriate national legislation for the sector.
Legislation is a national responsibility, but first action is required at an interregional level to identify and classify model legislation, and to provide general guidelines. This should then be followed by action at the regional and sub-regional levels to (i) transfer such model legislation into comprehensive guidelines for nations within the region to use or amend as appropriate for their own use, (ii) organize meetings among groups of nations to discuss legislation for issues of common interest (such as introduction of species, genetic conservation, water resource use), and (iii) provide expert assistance when required.
A further important aspect of sectoral development through planning is the production of reliable national statistics of the industry. Most countries produce national production data regularly, but they are not always reliable and they are often confused with data for capture fisheries. No projects include components directed towards the production of national statistics, except the ADCP which has been assembling and publishing global data intermittently over a decade, and working with FAO (Fishery Statistics Unit) to improve the format and publish the data annually. The regional projects in Africa and Latin America are including the collection of statistical data in the national surveys (see above).
Action must be taken at a national level to provide timely annual statistics, which are reliable, and to assemble information not only on production, but the numbers of producers, the value of the products, and exports and imports. Information is also required on production from hatcheries, fish releases into capture fisheries, feed production, together with prices.
Guidance on the composition of national aquaculture statistics is being produced at the interregional level, and this must be continued. Supportive action should also be taken at the regional and sub-regional levels to assist countries to improve national statistics collection and collation through (i) the dissemination of information, (ii) the sensitization of senior administrators on the importance of reliable data for the sector, and (iii) short-term technical training for government staff responsible for data compilation.
FAO should continue to take the lead in the initiatives towards the objective of producing accurate global data for all these components.
2.6 Regional Sector Management
The review and dissemination of information on key issues and constraints continues to be important to the development of a new sector, such as aquaculture. Certain issues (such as aquaculture planning, legislation, environmental compatibility, socio-economic aspects, information for donors) are best reviewed first at a global or interregional level. Other more biotechnical issues (such as establishing priorities in research, technical training in specialities) are best reviewed first at the regional level. However, identification of these issues and constraints is first stimulated at the national level so chat the subsequent activities are responsive to national needs.
Reviewing key issues and coordinating the solutions has, in the past, been recognized as an important activity and should be improved. Better cooperation between the different donors is also recommended. Only one interregional project exists to review specific issues, to disseminate information to countries through the regional projects, and to coordinate aquaculture development. This is the ADCP, which was established by UNDP in 1976. UNDP funding for the ADCP will terminate at the end of 1989 at which time most of the activities will be taken over by the FAO under its Regular Programme.
A number of opportunities to deal with key issues and constraints are identified in the previous sections (items 2.1-2.5) at the interregional level. Actions in response to these opportunities (such as the production of marketing information, production of technical information, production of reliable statistics) are already within the mandate of FAO, whilst others (such as university level education and graduate degrees) are the mandate of Unesco. However immediate actions should be initiated on those activities which cannot (for lack of resources) be given adequate attention by an international organization (such as the identification of new approaches to increase production of low cost fish, exploring appropriate approaches to extension, high-level non-academic training for administrators and senior managers, guiding national legislation in aquaculture), with participation of the respective organizations. Nine activities have been identified by the expert consultation which first require action at the regional or interregional levels. In order of priority these are:
(1) Standardize database systems to enhance information flow. The approach should be through a review of existing systems, and other options, and a regional workshop of organizations/institutions which compile databases to agree on uniformity, standards, and responsibilities. The workshop should be held in the Asia region as it has the greatest proliferation of systems.(2) Assist sectoral management in the preparation of national policies and plans. As expertise is currently limited the approach should be through the organization of international training courses at an existing institution, possibly creating an international centre, where training would be given to government planners, bankers, and others concerned with planning and investment in the sector; also for the publication of guideline documents, and for public information which stresses sectoral management, and gives guidance on project planning.
(3) Assist sectoral management through the production of information regarding legislation and regulation. The approach should be to include legislative awareness and planning in the activities proposed in Priority 2 (above). Preliminary work is required to review current legislation and to prepare options to meet individual national sectors.
(4) Assist sectoral management through the production of reliable sectoral data, particularly national production statistics. The approach should be to include sectoral data awareness in the activities proposed in Priority 2 (above). Preliminary work is required to review the current data collection methodology of FAO, and to produce a common format.
(5) Introduce aquaculture into the existing university/college educational structure of developing countries. The approach should be to work with the existing international educational agencies to prepare a range of aquaculture course units for introduction into existing first degree courses in the natural sciences, agriculture, engineering, economics, and related aquaculture fields, etc. of national universities and academic institutions. The course units would be prepared from existing first degree course materials used by regional aquaculture projects throughout the last decade, following review by educational experts. The course units should also be translated into appropriate languages.
(6) Identify new approaches to aquaculture production of low-cost fish; there should be a review of existing production systems and practices, and publication of a compendium. This should be followed by an expert consultation to identify new approaches to production through the integration of several systems. At least one systems-oriented project should then be prepared. Implementation and close monitoring should then follow at a regional level.
(7) Emphasize the importance of extension, and disseminate information on effective extension methods. The approach should be a review of existing extension services and methodologies through case studies, and publication of a compendium. Follow through should be at the regional level with seminars for administrators on extension awareness, and implementation of appropriate methods and materials at the national level through assistance projects.
(8) Provide educational and training institutions with minimum bibliographic bases for aquaculture. The approach should be to prepare a list of the basic reference works for institutional libraries involved in education and research in aquaculture. In addition to details of supplier and price, the works should be annotated to simplify selection. This activity should be included in the approach proposed in Priority 5 (above).
(9) Introduce aquaculture marketing information through supplements to existing publications. The approach should be to encourage existing interregional/regional marketing services and publications to separate aquaculture commodity data from fisheries commodity data, in view of the different audience and variation in commodites, such as the inclusion of seed and feed prices, etc. As marketing and publication services are operated commercially, preliminary work should be done to assess the economic viability of publishing a regular supplement vis-a-vis projected sales.
