3.1 THE SUB-SAHARA REGION OF AFRICA
3.2 THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION
3.3 THE NEAR EAST REGION
3.4 THE ASIA REGION
3.5 THE PACIFIC REGION
3.6 THE LATIN AMERICA REGION
3.7 THE CARIBBEAN REGION
The following sections (3.1-3.7) are regional summary statements prepared by the individual working groups. Therefore they differ in style and detail. The summary statements are only common in that they follow the sectoral framework (see Annex III) which was used to make certain that attention and consideration were given to each sub-sectoral component.
Priority opportunities, where identified, are included in the regional summary statements; they are numbered individually (1-65) and indented in the text (see for example number 1, below).
Any attempt at characterizing the aquaculture of the Sub-Sahara region of Africa must contain generalizations for which many exceptions can be found. With this qualification an overview of the existing situation and general pattern for future development can be summarized as follows, with eleven (1-11) opportunities identified.
Consumption and Markets
Fish is one of the main sources of animal protein in Africa, but demand exceeds supply. Recently, with few exceptions, the situation has been exacerbated by a decline in exploitable fish stocks in both the marine and inland waters as well as an increase in the human population. Owing to economic hardships, imports of fish products have been on the decline. Consumption patterns are highly variable within the region, as is the supply.
Established fish marketing channels exist in most parts of the region; however, in areas where production from aquaculture and culture-based fisheries increases, investment in marketing infrastructure and development may be needed (market surveys, post-harvest handling, preservation methods, storage, transport). Opportunities for export should not be overlooked. Aquaculture development should be guided by the market.
1. Promote improved fish consumption at the village level through school projects. Long-term approaches to increasing fish consumption to benefit nutrition are required. The approach should be through participatory education, particularly at school level, with projects which encourage construction of ponds and operated by school children, teachers, parents, etc., complemented by farming instruction and education in nutrition.
Production
Aquaculture production in the region is still very low. Recorded annual production is estimated to be about 10 000 tonnes, with Nigeria, Cote d'Ivoire, Kenya, and Zambia being the more important producers. Production is characterized by small-scale rural activities rather than intensive commercial operations. Most of the production is provided by small-scale subsistence and semi-intensive farming of tilapia species in freshwater ponds. It is assumed that this will continue to be the principal focus for development activities in the region.
Available statistics are inadequate for planning purposes and collection methodology should be revised.
A variety of systems has been proposed for aquaculture production in the region but further testing of the appropriateness of these systems is required.
Except in a few countries, attempts at large-scale commercial ventures have not maintained their momentum, or even remained viable. Nonetheless, large-scale commercial ventures remain an option for aquaculture development in the region. Culture-based fisheries should be encouraged where appropriate.
NGOs have particular strengths in their links to communities, and their interest in aquaculture should be encouraged. Technical assistance agencies can complement NGOs by contributing technical inputs. NGOs can be used in defining development problems as well as in increasing aquaculture production.
2. Introduce appropriate technology for a range of production practices. Continued effort in introducing aquaculture technology is required to increase production. A number of potentially suitable practices still require further application, testing and incorporating inputs from other systems. The approach should be to test appropriate technologies to local ecological, socio-cultural and economic conditions, followed by strong demonstration and introduction programmes.
Local Infrastructure
Local infrastructure to support the primary beneficiaries, and upon which to base further development, is inadequate. Most of the work in the field is being done by personnel who have little training and limited facilities. The extension services are over-staffed and not well-equipped. There are a number of existing training institutions which could be used to train small cadres of agents. Many farmers are dependent on government support for fish seeds, but most hatcheries are not productive at the present time.
Formal credit facilities are limited, owing to the unknown success rate of aquaculture enterprises and farmers' lack of collateral. Informal credit systems have been the principal source of financing.
An effective extension service is a prerequisite for successful aquaculture development, but this is lacking in many countries of the region. The structure and functioning of existing extension services should be reviewed and be revised where necessary. Appropriate extension materials should be produced and disseminated, and the links between the farmer, the extension service, and research should be strengthened.
Vocational (career) and special training of extension agents should be reviewed and adapted to local conditions. In most cases this will require technical assistance for the training of instructors, the acquisition of extension tools, and capital investment to upgrade existing facilities.
Government should be assisted to refurbish existing breeding facilities to meet the demand for fish seeds, but a high priority should be given to the production of seeds by the private sector.
Where the use of feeds is cost effective, its use should be encouraged. Otherwise emphasis should be placed on enhancing natural productivity for grow-out.
With regard to other services to aquaculture industry, some technical expertise is available in consulting firms and universities and should be mobilized.
3. Upgrade existing extension services. The present extension structures in most countries require review, as well as the many extension approaches, in order to select the most cost-effective services for Africa. The need is to create small and efficient services with limited geographical focus working in pilot zones, with eventual expansion to other areas. This first requires the training of a core of national instructors with follow-up training/supervision of national courses. Selected training centres should be improved. There is also the need to raise the consciousness about the importance of extension among administrators.4. Produce and disseminate extension materials to meet the demand for information by farmers. Considerable information, even of basic techniques, is still required by producers. The approach should be to prepare and disseminate more effectively production-oriented information which can readily be communicated (in the local language as required), on production practices and techniques. This should be distributed through the extension services.
5. Establish self-sufficiency in seed supply. Long-term approaches to assist farmers to obtain or produce their own seed are required. These should start with refurbishing of national fish production stations which can be used as focal points for training and demonstration of modern methods, including training technicians and extension leaders. On-farm production and demonstration should follow at a national level.
National Infrastructure
There are a number of educated and technically trained personnel in the region; however, many have limited exposure to aquaculture and the facilities to put their knowledge to use are limited. This applies equally to research facilities and national managerial institutions. Professional associations in the sector are few. Although a certain amount of technical information has been produced within the region, it is not easily accessible.
There should be a strong network for applied aquaculture research with multi-donor funding. A Technical Advisory Committee whose members are chosen based on their technical qualifications, should guide, direct, orient, and coordinate the activities of the network. A series of applied research projects should be supported on a long-term basis to test and improve aquaculture systems, including their economic viability. There is a need to ensure technical information flow within the region. Existing professional associations should be supported, and the formation of others encouraged.
There is a need for capital investment to rehabilitate and in some cases upgrade existing research facilities to fulfil their mandate effectively. There is a need for at least one bilingual (English-French) Regional Aquaculture Training Centre for the region. This could be built effectively on existing facilities.
6. Conduct applied research on a range of practices with systems-orientation. There is considerable need for research on biotechnical and socio-economic aspects of production, such as farm size, input/output relations, use of local inputs, species and species combinations, market potential and demand, marketing channels, profitability, social acceptability of practices, complementarity with other farming systems. The approach should be to develop a number of individual research projects, to coordinate through a regional research network.7. Increase research capacity through organization and coordination. There is need to strengthen the applied research capacity and produce more reliable research results in African aquaculture. Improved support for research activities (such as a regional aquaculture newsletter, training courses, technical workshops, consultancy visits, visits and cooperation between individual/national projects) could best be channelled through a network structure, with a coordinating unit (or units) to act as a focal point.
8. Establish a bilingual regional training centre. Professional level technical training for research and for upper and mid-level management continues to be required by all countries in the region. One or more regional training facilities are required where bilingual training resources can be concentrated. Pedagogical capacity should also be developed and used for national courses where appropriate. Regional training priorities should be well defined. Centres should give short-and medium-term refresher courses. Such centres might also serve as focal points for information flow, data collection and distribution, and other bilingual services.
9. Prepare model curricula for higher level education. There is a need to increase the use of national universities in aquaculture education through the development and introduction of aquaculture courses into the existing degree structures. This can be achieved by preparing model curricula for aquaculture education, including graduate level courses, seminars, research, and study tours. Assistance from consultants and experts would be required and collaboration with international educational organizations (such as Unesco).
10. Upgrade communications at all levels. Information at all levels of the sector is still required. Existing information centres (for collection, cataloguing, searching, translating, production, and dissemination) should be strengthened and equipped to serve both regional and national needs.
National Sector Management
In those countries where there is the need for the aquaculture sector to make a significant contribution to the supply of animal protein and to the national economy, a major policy change is required, giving the sector higher priority.
Governments should be urged to give effective support to the sector. In some cases this may be implemented better through phased development. The first goal however should be the testing of social and economic feasibility of aquaculture. The next goal should be to implant self-sustaining aquaculture in key areas, followed by expansion.
The fact that responsibility for aquaculture development is dispersed through several government departments is not always a constraint to development. In the case of extension services, for example, it may be possible to reach greater numbers and types of fish farmers by using the extension services of several departments. It may be more efficient to have a single coordinating authority.
Within government, policing functions (enforcements of regulations, statistics collection) should be separated from support functions (extension, research).
Legislation to ensure security of land and water tenure is required to support aquaculture development.
11. Improve sectoral data. Precision and reliability of aquaculture data must be improved to support effective management and development, particularly production statistics. The approach should be (a) at the interregional level to ensure compatibility of data collection methodology and format, (b) at the regional level to sensitize senior government administrators about the importance of accurate data collection annually, followed by (c) national training for technical staff responsible for data collection and analysis. This activity should be guided by FAO.
Regional Sector Management
Coordination between the activities of all agencies involved in aquaculture development should be improved. Projects to establish aquaculture units should be designed to be self-sustaining once external support has been withdrawn. Problems of project implementation have been analysed in the Thematic Evaluation Study and the Study's recommendations concerning technical assistance activities should be considered in future project development.
Regional institutions may be effective vehicles for aquaculture development activities, but care should be taken to identify their limitations. Much support should be directed toward national projects in preference to regional projects; and regional projects should have as their primary role support to national activities.
In the Mediterranean two sub-regions can be distinguished according to their geographical position and economical situation, namely the northern Mediterranean countries extending from Portugal to Greece, and including Malta and Cyprus, and the southern Mediterranean countries extending from Morocco to Egypt, including Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey.
In both sub-regions further groupings are possible according to the general level of development in aquaculture. In the northern Mediterranean there is (a) a high level of aquaculture development and production, as found in France, Italy, and Spain; (b) an intermediate level, such as that of Yugoslavia; and (c) a relatively low level, as is found in Portugal and Greece. In the southern Mediterranean there is (a) Israel with an exceptionally high, and Egypt with a substantial level of production, and both with a large number of commercial and development activities; (b) an intermediate level, such as that of Tunisia and Turkey; and (c) largely under-utilized but restricted aquaculture potentials, such as those of Algeria and Morocco.
On the basis of the sub-division of the Mediterranean region an intraregional flow of know-how and a transfer of technology from north to south is envisaged and, hence, rather direct lines of bi- and multilateral assistance and cooperation. Within this general picture, Israel is in a unique position as it has environmental conditions similar to the other Southern Mediterranean countries, but a technology level comparable to that of the most advanced Northern Mediterranean countries.
Aquaculture development in the Mediterranean region will be supported for the next 3-5 years by two proposed major regional development programmes:
- the Government of Italy-funded programme Aquaculture in the Mediterranean (AQUAMED);- the UNDP-funded second phase of the Mediterranean Regional Aquaculture Project (MEDRAP II).
The following statements regarding aquaculture development and assistance are intended therefore to be complementary to the two regional programmes above, and to focus on two specific aspects, namely:
1. the identification of additional major needs, and
2. the increased emphasis on issues of particular importance.
Nine opportunities (12-20) are identified.
Consumption and Markets
The Mediterranean region represents a total population of 364 million. The total consumption of fishery products in the region is 5 140 000 tonnes (t) and there is a net deficit of 1 234 000 t (that is close to 3.4 kg per caput per year).
The average per caput consumption of fish and fishery products in the region is 11.8 kg/year. As the low per caput consumption levels and dependence on relatively high levels of imports indicate, there is, from a general point of view, considerable room in the market for the expansion of supplies. Markets for prime species are known to exist in countries in the region and in other parts of the world.
However, continuous and reliable region-wide monitoring should be provided on sea bass and sea bream supply versus market demand. Information on domestic market potentials is also necessary for the development of new production in countries where aquaculture is less developed, e.g. in several of the southern Mediterranean countries.
Quality control is indispensable for all aquaculture products, but in particular for shellfish. Depuration of shellfish should be part of project packages for any new shellfish production, e.g. in North African countries. Projects promoting the introduction of quality standards and control should include rules for handling, processing, and transport in agreement with the standards of the international Codex Alimentarius.
12. Create an independent marketing information service. There is a need to collect and disseminate marketing information in the region as all countries produce the same aquaculture commodities (including fry). This could be achieved by supplementing existing marketing channels (such as the INFOFISH network) with experts to advise on the structure for maintaining separate commodity marketing data.13. Demonstrate and apply post-harvest technologies for aquaculture products. There is a need for improving the post-harvest handling of products in the region, particularly the depuration of shellfish. Actions to develop and introduce appropriate post-harvest technologies should be considered collectively at a regional level, and then followed through at a national level with demonstrations.
Production
There is a need to make better use of coastal lagoons and their resources. Wild fish fry resources should be assessed, managed, and used accordingly. Extensive and semi-intensive production systems should be encouraged in accordance with site opportunities and infrastructure development. Shellfish culture in coastal lagoons should be encouraged.
More extensive use of inland water bodies for culture-based fisheries and, where ecologically feasible, for cage culture, should be considered and possibly included in national aquaculture development plans. Projects for aquaculture and fisheries development in inland water bodies should be based on assessment of market potentials, consumer habits, and processing opportunities with special consideration for human settlements situated in the vicinity of the production sites. Stocking of inland waters should be preceded by thorough limnological assessment of natural productivity, ecological habitats available and, in particular, of their carrying capacity with respect to stocking densities and cage culture. The choice of suitable marine and freshwater species should correspond to the environmental conditions ascertained.
The proposed AQUAMED project will deal with inland fish culture in the Maghreb countries (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia).
14. Increase production through the management of coastal lagoons. There is a need to develop the potential of regional resources for aquaculture, particularly the large coastal lagoons, but in association with other competing industries and uses. Consequently management is of prime importance. The approach should be (a) at a regional level to identify appropriate systems and practices, and disseminate information, and (b) at a sub-regional and national level, select, test, demonstrate, and disseminate the results of new systems and practices.
Local Infrastructure
Planning and construction of seed production facilities for prime species (sea bass and sea bream) should be linked directly to the capacity of the on growing facilities available, and indirectly to reliable information on the market demand for the final product.
Training and extension should be provided according to the assessed requirements.
The proposed MEDRAP II project will assist with the development of the region's capabilities to manage human resources in areas which are important for the support of aquaculture, especially in the fields of research, training and extension. The proposed AQUAMED project includes basic training in seed (fish fry) collection, selection, transport, and stocking.
Development assistance to southern Mediterranean countries can provide excellent opportunities for northern Mediterranean countries to supply aquaculture equipment for new developments.
An important need for the region is for adequate credit schemes to be made available to promote and develop new aquaculture production. Such credits should include operational support in addition to capital investment. Action must be taken to sensitize credit managers and bank staff to the particular requirements and economics of small-scale aquaculture.
Greater use should be made of videos, for instruction and subsequent follow-up on return, in training courses and extension. The need is for professional videos on aquaculture technologies and practices. Production of videos could be handled through the regional projects with professional help as required, and some central library or file to monitor collection and distribute at cost.
15. Establish a library service of technical training materials, particularly video casettes. There is a continuous need for instructive technical teaching aids for established courses and for independent use. Greater use could be made of videos. The approach should be for the regional programmes to compile, catalogue, and provide a library service on aquaculture techniques and practices, particularly for professionally prepared videos, complete with texts which can be translated. Assistance from consultants/experts would be required.16. Increase the flow of credit into the sector. In certain countries of the region, where there is an increasing number of small-scale producers, there is a need to improve credit flow. At the regional level the approach should be (a) short-term awareness seminars to sensitize credit managers and loan officers on aspects of credit and economic management of small-scale aquaculture activities, followed by (b) national training courses for credit officers.
National Infrastructure
The major emphasis at this level is the recognition of research needs. Specific research requirements are:
(a) Identification of research priorities according to the needs of the producers, and orientation of research funding according to the economic benefits expected.(b) Adequate consideration and funding for the solution of socio-economic and related problems.
(c) Long-term financial support for and carrying through research projects which require considerable time to achieve conclusive results.
(d) Increase awareness of the necessity to control reproduction of species through more than one generation, this being indispensable for a sustained production independent of supplies from the wild. Such sustained reproduction in captivity is also a prerequisite for genetic improvement of strains and species.
(e) Ensure that applied research is adequately linked to fundamental research for subjects, such as controlled reproduction.
Considerable attention to the priority and networking of regional research activities is to be given by the new regional project, MEDRAP II.
National Sector Management
National policy preparation and planning (including project planning) remain important to the successful development of the sector. Direct administrative and organizational support are required for the preparation of national policies and plans through appropriate regional and national institutions.
National planning of long-term land and water use should be based on appropriate legislation and regulation. Aquaculture laws and regulations should include adequate consideration for the protection of aquaculture sites from pollution and contamination from external sources, and at the same time for the protection of the environment from pollution and contamination through aquaculture activities.
Therefore, national legislation in support of aquaculture is needed at the regional level to transfer such model legislation into comprehensive guidelines for nations to use or amend as appropriate for their sectors.
Better production statistics for the aquaculture sector are needed, especially from the southern Mediterranean countries. Action at the regional level must be taken to assist nations to produce accurate statistics through (i) the production of guideline documents, (ii) sensitization for senior administrators, and (iii) training courses for technical staff. FAO should continue to take the lead in these initiatives toward the objective of the production of accurate global data.
There is a need to upgrade and strengthen fish health management capabilities in the region in support of aquaculture development programmes. The aim should be to elevate aquaculture to the level of animal husbandry, in which the various aspects (such as health, feed and nutrition, breeding and genetics, as well as environmental factors) are within the management capabilities of fish farmers.
The establishment of veterinary services for new productions in the southern Mediterranean can easily be assisted by northern Mediterranean countries, as well as by Israel.
17. Assist sectoral development through national planning. The sectors in most countries of the region are still developing without the benefit of objectives for growth and long-range plans. The approach should be (a) at a regional level (through workshops and publications) to produce guidelines for planning, and (b) provide assistance for individual national plans and creating the national management structure for producing annual sector profiles.18. Develop model legislation for national development. Aquaculture development in the region is proceeding unregulated and uncontrolled and there is increasing competition and impact from other sectors. The approach should be to develop model legislation for the aquaculture sector, including options as appropriate for integration with other sectors. This should begin with a compendium of legislation currently existing, followed by guidelines for relevant legislation as appropriate for the utilization of resources.
19. Improve data collection and flow in the region. Production data and other statistics of the sector (marketing information, manufacturers, suppliers, etc.) are not developed and considerable sectoral resources are not collected or disseminated. Opportunities exist in the region for such a service because of the compactness and high level of industrial development of several countries. The approach should be to establish a modern electronic network of information exchange, associated with training for the continuous input of information in a standardized form.
20. Manage and control fish health. Because of the contiguous nature of the region there is the need to maintain cooperative vigilance over the risks to the health of all aquaculture products. The long-term approach should be the regular attention to the problem through regional workshops and the networking of information (research included), and particularly technical cooperation between the northern countries with those of the south.
Regional Sector Management
Management of selected components of the sector will be supported by the two proposed Mediterranean programmes, AQUAMED and MEDRAP II.
The proposed Italian Government-funded AQUAMED programme is mainly expected to (1) establish a regional aquaculture information and data service, (2) establish a system for regional cooperation and communication through national programme coordinators, and (3) increase the supply of fish and fish products within the Maghreb region (Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia).
The UNDP-funded phase II of MEDRAP is mainly expected to (1) establish a structure for cooperation in aquaculture development between countries through the development of networks between institutions in the region, and (2) develop countries' capabilities to manage human resources in areas which are important for the support of aquaculture, especially in the fields of research, training, and extension.
Coverage of aquaculture development by information systems and research networks should give due consideration to other international development activities in the region, such as those of the General Fisheries Council of the Mediterranean (GFCM) and the Programme "Science for Stability" of the Science Division of NATO.
The Near East region, as described, includes the populated northern countries of Iran and Iraq, and to a lesser extent Jordan, and the many countries of the Peninsula, including Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates to the south. Both Iran and Iraq have traditions of freshwater fish farming in ponds, and together produce almost the entire 15 000 tonnes in the region; the Peninsula countries have no history of aquaculture, and their present interests are with marine fish and shellfish because of the limitation of their water resources and requirement for high value products.
Thirteen opportunities (21-33) are identified.
Consumption and Markets
Although the general animal protein consumption in the region is relatively high (over 20 kg/caput/annum) it is desirable to increase the production and consumption of fish which is currently low (about 5.11 kg/caput/annum) in all countries. Although there is still potential for increasing production from natural fish resources, almost every country imports fish. The targets for aquaculture products in all cases are therefore the national consumers, rather than the exploitation of earning foreign exchange through exports.
In the Peninsula countries the principal objective of aquaculture production is to contribute to food self-sufficiency - a stated goal of all countries. All Peninsula countries import fish at the present time. Some of this is in response to the increasing population growth rates of the indigenous people, but also for the large numbers of temporary immigrants who provide services in the country. However, this latter market is only temporary and small.
National marketing activities are nonetheless required by all the Peninsula countries in response to any new species which might be introduced and cultured. These marketing activities should be carried out at a local level with domestic campaigns having specific marketing goals, such as identification of the buyers, and preferences for product form.
In the northern countries where there are existing small but productive aquaculture sectors, a further national objective is to increase aquaculture production for improved nutrition especially in the rural areas. Because of the existing sector in these countries, marketing infrastructure and channels exist, and the need is to keep them expanding relative to planned growth of aquaculture. Again, domestic campaigns are required to identify the buyers, the preferred product forms, and to establish marketing goals.
21. Collect and disseminate marketing information. There is considerable need for all types of marketing information including suppliers and prices of seed. This could be achieved by supplementing the existing regional project, INFOSAMAK, with experts or consultants to advise the project on new areas of aquaculture in the region, and to maintain separate aquaculture commodity statistics.
Producers
In the northern countries aquaculture production is predominantly freshwater pond fish farming with carps. In the Peninsula countries the production practices are intensive (raceways, floating cages) with marine species.
In the northern countries there is a prime need to transfer modern technology to the traditional practices with all freshwater fish, but particularly the cyprinids. Specific needs are in modern hatchery technology and farm management, particularly in the intensification of pond production and also cages. Opportunities exist for increasing production through integration with water utilization and rural development schemes, where they are economic.
In the Peninsula countries there is limited potential for production utilizing currently known technologies. For social, economic, and environmental reasons production of low-cost fish is not feasible. Production relies on high technical practices, and is costly. It is being undertaken, however, by private investors. This should continue to be encouraged, possibly through joint ventures.
In Peninsula countries seed resources are either produced as part of the production process, or are purchased from abroad. There is a need to monitor and regulate introductions of species to avoid the introduction of diseases, and to conserve genetic resources. Producers in these countries should also consider components of hatcheries as end products (e.g. broodstock, eggs, fingerlings), and for export if economic.
22. Increase aquaculture production through technical cooperation. Certain countries have established practices which need modernization. This can be achieved directly through technical cooperation in the region (with Egypt) and outside the region (China and other Asian countries) for increasing production at farm level, and in cyprinid hatcheries (including broodstock husbandry, fingerling production), as well as with floating cage practices.23. Increase production in the marine environment. There is a need to introduce new systems and practices of aquaculture production into the region, particularly for marine species. Appropriate species should be identified by their market potential and economic viability. Development would best be achieved by technical cooperation with countries in the Mediterranean and Asian regions where such systems and practices are being used and are productive followed by careful application to local conditions.
Local Infrastructure
In Peninsula countries the role of the extension agents is being filled by consultants. This is effective and should continue. As the number of farms will always be few and widely dispersed traditional extension methods are not practical.
In northern countries where there are many producers, and close together, the traditional extension methods are required. There is a need to provide existing and new agents with further training on appropriate and modern techniques in carp and other freshwater fish production practices, and to produce new materials.
There is also a need to link researchers more directly with farmers, and their problems. Governments should be more perceptive about the benefits and concepts of extension, and of the appropriate practices for their particular sectors.
There is no shortage of credit for the construction of facilities in the region. In the Peninsula investment credits are provided privately. In the northern countries many national development schemes (especially rural development and irrigation projects) have a credit component provided by the State.
24. Upgrade the quality of national extension services. There is a need to improve the traditional extension services in some countries, including technical competence, modern materials, and mobility. Target countries in the region (including Egypt and Albania from outside the region, which also have large numbers of small-scale farmers) should receive assistance to create small national forces of effective well-trained specialists, complete with resources to function. At the same time, workshops should be organized for government administrators (using a multidisciplinary approach) on the concepts for extension to producers, product quality as guided by processors, and linkages between farmers and researchers.
National Infrastructure
At this time, when all countries in the region have small or no aquaculture sectors, there is no requirement for national universities to produce graduates and post-graduates in aquaculture within their systems. However, there is a need to increase awareness about aquaculture at the tertiary education level. This can be achieved by introducing a variety of aquaculture course units into existing degree courses in agriculture, marine science, the natural sciences, engineering, economics, etc., of the national universities.
Biotechnical and non-biotechnical training at an advanced level continues to be an important requirement throughout the region, both on existing and new technologies. This training can, in most cases, be carried out at existing institutions, model farms, and demonstration centres, with the help of experts.
Most countries continue to require research on a large number of topics (both biotechnical and non-biotechnical). It is important to identify the purpose of research and its orientation towards other disciplines. Considerable assistance can be given to research in the region through technical cooperation, particularly in the development of marine aquaculture which is presently only starting.
Topics of research should be producer-oriented with selection for those which will respond to research initiatives. Identification of such key constraints should be through surveys (among owner/operators), workshops (among owner/non-operators) and through feedback from extension agents.
In all countries there is a need for greater awareness between credit managers and the producers. Considerable onus still remains with producers to provide better data about production economics and other facets of operations; similarly for managers to provide credit terms not necessarily the same as those given to fishermen or agriculture farmers. Credit planning should be a part of national planning for the sector.
25. Establish the capacity for tertiary education. There is the need to use the many national universities in the region to establish higher level education courses in aquaculture. The approach should be to prepare model curricula using existing materials for (a) degree course units, and (b) graduate refresher courses with study tours, and subsequently translated into local languages. The assistance from appropriate international agencies should be sought (such as Unesco) and other experts.26. Establish a baseline of educational and technical information. Most of the existing educational institutions and research centres are without the basic resources of educational and technical texts. The approach should be to prepare a minimum annotated bibliography of aquaculture documents for use by national and regional education, research and training institution libraries. Assistance from international agencies (such as FAO, Unesco) and experts should be sought.
27. Conduct short-term biotechnical and non-biotechnical training courses at a national level. There Is the continuous need for short-term courses in a wide variety of aquaculture fields. The approach should be to plan and provide a series of short-term courses on a variety of subjects relevant to the national sector, including engineering, farm management, administration, etc. These could be provided at national centres with auxiliary support from consultants and experts supplementing national specialists.
28. Conduct short-term biotechnical and non-biotechnical training courses at a regional level. Certain advanced or common aspects of aquaculture are still required and, because of the lack of expertise, should first be handled at a regional level. The approach should be to plan and provide a series of short-term courses on a variety of subjects (see 27 above) using existing regional and national centres. The important additional emphasis of these courses should be the teaching methodology for a particular field or subject, as well as the training of future national trainers. Each course would include the preparation of a teacher's guide. Assistance from experts would be required.
29. Produce and utilize more technical teaching aids. Because of the lack of technical knowledge and other informative resources, and the wide distribution of producers in many countries of the region, there is the need to increase the availability of personal instructive aids. This can be achieved through videos. The approach should be to compile, catalogue, and provide a library service of existing and new videos of aquaculture techniques and practices relevant to the region. This should be operated by a central service (a regional project) supplying professionally prepared videos, complete with texts which can be translated. Assistance from experts would be required.
30. Improve applied research and disseminate research information. Much of the applied research in the region is not producing repeatable and reliable results. Action should be taken at regional and national levels to give priority to well planned applied research, following collaborative Identification and selection of research topics. Improved organization of resources and increased dissemination of results will be included. Applied research should be carried out in-country using available national resources, assisted where appropriate by twinning with universities in developed countries and possible networking of universities in the region.
31. Improve credit management in the sector. In certain countries of the region, where development is or will be through large numbers of small-scale producers, there is a need to improve the flow of credit. The approach should first be to conduct seminars and short courses to sensitize credit managers and loan officers on aspects of credit and economic management of small-scale aquaculture activities. This should be achieved through a small team of international and local experts holding sessions on bank premises and among production areas.
National Sector Management
There is considerable awareness and interest in aquaculture throughout the region, but as yet there is not strong governmental support. Planning continues to be a prime requirement for all countries, particularly where aquaculture competes with other resource utilization.
In all countries there is a need for accurate sector profiles and statistics of production, and a register of farmers.
32. Promote the importance of national policies and plans for the sector. Much of the development of aquaculture in all countries is proceeding without acceptance of national objectives, realism, and long-term plans. The approach at a regional level should be to provide technical assistance through experts to guide and advise nationals, and also to establish the management structures for compiling annual sector profiles.33. Develop model legislation for the sector. Most of the development of aquaculture in the region is proceeding unregulated and uncontrolled. The approach at a regional level should be to develop model legislation, including options as appropriate for integration with other sectors. A compendium of legislation currently existing and relevant to aquaculture in the region should be prepared for subsequent use at the national level.
Regional Sector Management
The Near East region as described is a difficult grouping of countries for collective advancement of their sector, for many reasons. Some better geographic linkages are possible based on the interest in common species, and environmental resources. The Peninsula countries as a whole have many commonalities, as does Iraq with countries of the Mediterranean, and Iran with West Asia.
The Asia region, with its long tradition of aquaculture, has emerged the leading producer with over 80X of the global aquaculture output in 1984, an increasingly important portion of which consists of high-value commodities such as shrimp and shellfish for the international markets.
While this is the case, however, there are countries within the region which have little aquaculture, or none at all. A distinction could thus be drawn in the region between two broad groups of countries: (a) those where aquaculture has developed to a high level over the years (as in China, Japan, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, the Philippines, and Indonesia), and (b) those where aquaculture either remains at a low level or is practically non-existent (as in Burma, Laos, Kampuchea, and Mongolia).
Asia is the most important region as far as aquaculture is concerned, leading the way in many aspects of technology development, and providing expertise and skills in project management and operation both within and outside the region. Asian experiences demonstrate that development is better handled by the private sector.
Nineteen opportunities (34-52) are identified.
Consumption and Markets
In most countries of the region fish constitutes an important food item in the local diets. Asians are generally fish-eating people and as such there is no need to develop the domestic markets for locally-produced fish, or to conduct market studies on the supply and demand for aquaculture commodities intended for the local markets.
There is, however, some concern about the future market situation for shrimps which are being produced at ever-increasing volumes by a rapidly growing number of producers in many countries in the region. It was noted that while market studies to determine future demand for shrimps in the major markets (like Japan and the USA) are desirable, it is difficult to make accurate projections due to the large number of variables involved. Previous econometric studies have failed to predict the significant expansion of shrimp production and trade which has been attained in the past few years. This area of concern will be addressed by the World Bank study on the future market for shrimps produced through aquaculture.
Attention should be directed toward the improvement of post-harvest handling technology, especially in those countries within the region where there is a need to improve the quality of the product as a means of increasing its market value. A regional project would introduce better technology on fish handling and processing, in places like Viet Nam and Laos, and it would also address the problems of fish waste utilization and the establishment and maintenance of quality control standards for aquaculture products, particularly those which are intended for the international markets.
34. Improve post-harvest technologies for aquaculture products. There is a need to adapt (and in some cases develop) appropriate procedures and technology for post-harvest handling and elementary processing of products aimed at improving the quality and marketability (and minimizing loss and spoilage) to ensure better economic returns to producers. The approach should be to apply appropriate technology through demonstration (and in some cases research and testing) for producers and technicians through a networking system.
Production
Asia has a wide variety of aquaculture practices using varying levels of technology, and produces a great diversity of cultured species ranging from freshwater and marine fish to high value shrimps, shellfish, and seaweeds. It also has a large number of successful commercial operations which have increased over the last decade mainly on the strength of private interest and initiative, and with little government support.
In those countries where extensive hectarages of traditional fish ponds exist, and where the availability of suitable areas is seldom a constraint to aquaculture development, the approach taken by most private entrepreneurs at present involves the development of intensive farms, especially for shrimps, rather than the improvement of existing traditional fish ponds for better yields at lower costs.
In the Philippines and Indonesia, for example, private businessmen have preferred to open up new areas of sugar lands and mangrove swamplands for intensive shrimp ponds rather than to upgrade existing milkfish ponds and "tambaks" for semi-intensive shrimp culture, or extensive shrimp monoculture, or milkfish-shrimp polyculture, as the case may be.
This great interest in intensive shrimp farming in Asia, while feasible in large commercial ventures, is not appropriate for small-scale farmers (smallholders) in view of the high capital investment and subsequent operational costs. It is therefore necessary to encourage the development of extensive or semi-intensive systems, with relatively simpler and less expensive culture strategies.
If aquaculture is to fill in the gap between fish supply and demand which capture fisheries cannot meet, new approaches to aquaculture have to be developed and subsequently actively promoted. While aquaculture technologies now in place in Asia have been useful in increasing fish protein supplies in a host of countries in the region, there are also other means of producing cheap fish in large quantities for the increasing populations of Asia. New approaches to aquaculture development could utilize the large open water areas available in a number of countries in the region, and activities could address not only the need for more fish but also the need to conserve and/or rehabilitate the fragile and highly vulnerable ecosystems, such as the coastal zones which have suffered from severe environmental degradation brought about by past human activities.
New approaches could possibly involve resource enhancement programmes which may be linked with aquaculture systems, as in fish stocking, and restocking in lakes, rivers, floodplains, and even coastal zone areas in selected countries in the region, as has been practised in Japan and China. The establishment of artificial reefs simultaneously with the implementation of a resource enhancement programme, as is being undertaken in Thailand and Malaysia, is another possible approach together with organized research.
Such activities (which, it is recognized, are difficult to undertake) may be made part of a comprehensive environmental management programme which is deemed of utmost importance in the region, considering its present extent of aquaculture development. Concern has been expressed that aquaculture in a number of countries in Asia (e.g. Thailand, the Philippines, and Taiwan, Province of China) has progressed to a point where its possible negative impacts on the environment have started to be felt, and where steps have to be taken to prevent further deterioration.
Conversely, in these same countries, significant aquaculture development has been taking place in areas where highly polluting industrial or agricultural activities are located and which often impact negatively on aquaculture production. There is clearly a need therefore to look into the environmental aspects of aquaculture as well as into the problem of resource allocation in the region in order to prevent, or at least minimize, possible conflicts of land and water use.
35. Identify and test approaches for aquaculture production of low-cost fish. There is a need to stimulate ideas on innovative and appropriate approaches whereby aquaculture technology can be applied towards the management of large water bodies for increased low-cost fish production. The approach should be a review of existing projects, technologies, and resources of the region, followed by a regional expert consultation to identify specific research opportunities and outline a model project which is systems-oriented in design and application.
Local Infrastructure
The shortage of extension personnel is a major problem in certain countries in Asia. The larger and more important issue is the quality of the service being provided by the extension staff in the various countries.
In general, extension workers, being among the lowest paid government personnel who do not enjoy a high status, do not have much incentive to undertake their assigned tasks. Because of their inexperience, their advice is often disregarded. In contrast, fisheries technicians hired by large private farms to provide technical assistance to operators participating in contract-growing or similar schemes, have been very successful in transferring technology to the end users.
There are several examples of private technicians working as extension agents in aquaculture. These technicians, being highly trained and professional, are well respected by the private fish pond owners/operators to whom they provide assistance. As a result, the technology is transferred to the private sector and target yields are attained.
This example could be used as a basis for recommending that governments utilize more senior fisheries officers and extension personnel, and that lower level extension workers are given higher salaries and other benefits (such as transportation and appropriate extension aids) in an effort to elevate their status. Unfortunately, however, in most countries of the region, civil service and other regulations often limit or restrict the upgrading of extension workers.
Furthermore, most government officials may not be fully aware of the value of a good extension service in the attainment of set production targets, or have funds to support a good service. This suggests that there is a need to educate senior government managers on the role of extension agents in development and that, given the reality of existing government inflexibility, it is important that new or innovative approaches to extension are developed.
It is necessary for a study to be made to examine possible innovations in extension approaches and methodologies based on experiences learned from the private sector, and possibly using contract fish farmers within a training and visit extension system.
There is also a need for a regional workshop for senior government officials with the twofold aim of determining the needs of each country with regard to extension, and to raise their level of awareness of the importance of a good extension service in aquaculture development.
Manufacture and supply of aquacultural equipment for the industry in Asia was considered adequate as many new manufacturers are emerging. This increasing trade in equipment among countries is beneficial. Asian manufacturers may also be able to help supply the equipment needs in other regions.
There is a regional need for fish health cooperative services to respond to disease epidemics. These should include disease diagnosis, treatment, and animal quarantine. Although several countries in the region have national capabilities, the needs of the industry are not being met at present as available funding is insufficient. Expansion of present management activities and establishment of a new applied research project are required (see also National Infrastructure which follows).
Current credit programmes are considered to be unsatisfactory as a source of funding for small farmers. The problems are numerous and complex. There is a need for a comprehensive review of existing credit facilities followed by workshops and training to familiarize bankers with aquaculture practices and economics.
36. Upgrade extension services with new approaches. In certain countries of the region there is still a need to provide more efficient and effective extension and to make services more in proportion with national objectives for the sector. At a regional level the approach should be to review existing extension methodologies and to sensitize administrators to the importance of extension, followed by national efforts to upgrade extension through training and the production of appropriate materials.37. Establish fish health services. The need is to establish national services to respond to regional disease epidemics as well as upgrading national technical capabilities in disease diagnosis and treatment. The approach at a regional level is to produce guidelines for the management and control of fish health to reduce risks, and at a national level to establish and provide services immediately utilizable by producers. This could be achieved through networking using an existing regional project.
38. Improve credit flow to small-scale producers. Small-scale farmers in the region are not utilizing available credit, often because of procedural constraints. The approach at a regional level should be to review existing credit structures and to sensitize credit administrators with the needs of the aquaculture sector, followed by national training courses and the production of published materials, for disbursement officers of rural development banks.
National Infrastructure
Manpower training is an area of considerable activity. Nevertheless, additional needs were identified at both the technical and the managerial levels. Foremost among these needs are those of the Asian countries still in the early stages of aquacultural development.
Existing mechanisms, such as the NACA training programmes and TCDC, could be strengthened and the effectiveness of existing efforts could be improved through better selection of trainees and through better utilization of trained personnel on their return to the parent agencies.
Benefits could be realized through expansion of interregional training. A review of training programmes has been made (by ADCP) which will help guide development of more effective training programmes. There is a need for several activities for training, including training at commercial establishments, expansion of TCDC, and creation of a training network of tertiary institutions.
Important needs can be identified in the area of research, some of which require sustained inputs of a long-term nature. Sustained research involving large commitments of personnel and facilities are required in the areas of disease, genetics, and nutrition for both finfish and shellfish. While hatchery technology for certain species, notably shrimp, tilapia, and carp, has been developed and successfully adopted on a wide commercial scale, there is still a need to continue research and development work on low-cost seed production systems for current and new or alternative species. Research and development projects should be formulated to cover this particular area.
Several additional long-term research needs can be identified including development of improved methods for management of semi-intensive and extensive production systems, natural resource management/environmental studies, socio-economic aspects of aquaculture, and integration of aquaculture with agriculture. As aquaculture is maturing as an industry in Asia, it is time to apply some of the modern scientific techniques developed for animal husbandry along lines of investigation supported by the CGIAR centres for agronomy.
In those countries where aquaculture development is at a high level, a number of commercial feed manufacturers produce most of the feed requirements of the larger producers. In contrast, most smallholder fish farmers still formulate their own feeds or use locally available feed items, such as raw trash fish and rice bran, as feed. It is therefore necessary for efforts to be continuously directed toward the development of low-cost fish feeds utilizing local ingredients as substitutes for the expensive ingredients which are usually imported from abroad. A regional network for fish nutrition and feed research and development should be established in the region to address this specific concern in support of aquaculture production.
39. Conduct short-term technical training courses. In spite of the generally advanced level of technical knowledge in the region, there is still a need for certain specialized technical training courses in several countries, in particular for fisheries technicians from the "less aquaculturally developed" countries. The approach should be technical cooperation between the countries through an existing regional project (such as the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia, NACA). Emphasis should be on practical, hands-on training in situ using commercially-operating fish farms to expose the trainees to routine operations in fish production.40. Research finfish and shellfish diseases, and genetics. In addition to capabilities for regional cooperative services to counter epidemics (see 37, above) there is still a requirement for basic and applied research in finfish and shellfish health management, and to improve methods for diagnosis and treatment of diseases. In comparison with other forms of animal husbandry, aquaculture is seriously lagging behind in the area of genetic improvement. Great potential exists but realization of such potential requires the combined efforts of many researchers at numerous institutions in the region, and over many years. The approach for both disease and genetic research should be through networking of institutions in the region with capabilities and facilities to carry out specific long-term research topics, and closely linked to producers for trials and application.
41. Research finfish and shellfish nutrition, and feed technology. Nutrition remains the most fundamental research subject in aquaculture as the lack of knowledge constrains progress in other fields, particularly health management and genetics (see 40 above). The approach should be through networking of capable research institutions and the private sector manufacturers in the region to develop less expensive supplemental feeds and complete rations, and to conduct large-scale feed trials.
42. Research low-cost seed production. There is a continuous need for low-cost seed of most species by the farmers, particularly for extensive and semi-intensive systems. The approach at the regional level should be a workshop of hatchery technologists and producers to discuss potential technology for low-cost seed production, followed at a national level by testing selected practices. The national projects should be linked under a network.
43. Research the management of production systems. Many production practices, particularly pond production, could be enhanced by research for better management. The approach at a regional level should be the creation of a number of production-oriented networks after establishing strategies for increased production and improved management through the application of modern scientific knowledge and technology. Initially, the approach should include a regional workshop to identify priority areas, such as pond management and cage farming, and to select existing centres in the region to research specific problems.
44. Research environmental impacts of aquaculture. The environmental impacts of selected types of aquacultural practices (both positive and negative) are some of the key issues constraining the development in the region where production is at times so concentrated. At the regional level there is the need to document the range of environmental impacts for aquaculture, and to conduct an expert consultation to analyse the information and prioritize research activities; followed, at the national level, by in situ research in production areas.
45. Research socio-economic aspects of development. Social and cultural influences on development continue to be overlooked, and most information comes from case studies and post-project evaluation. The approach, at a national level, should be for specific research projects planned and monitored by national experts in economics and social-cultural fields based on small-scale production practices.
46. Conduct research on integrated farming. Integrated farming, with animal and plant husbandry, continues to provide opportunities for low-cost aquaculture production. The approach should be for continued research on integrated farming methods to build up the existing knowledge base and existing practices for waste and by-product recycling, composting, nutrient recycling, and multiple uses of stored water, and with specific concern for the micro-economics of each practice.
National Sector Management
Intragovernmental communication among ministries concerned with various aspects of aquaculture (e.g. environment, coastal resources, fisheries, agriculture, and land use groups) is often poor. Further, there is frequently an absence of coastal zone plans at the national level, thus resulting in increasing conflicts among competing interests.
There is a need to organize and coordinate government policy and planning to deal with the situation.
There is a lack of appropriate legislation pertaining to land ownership, use of public waters, permits, environmental regulations, species introductions, and related enabling or protecting regulations. A special study of legislative needs, including the preparation of model legislative packages, is required.
There is general concern about the unreliability of official production statistics reported by the various countries in the region. It is important that aquaculture production statistics should be segregated from those of capture fisheries in order to give a more accurate picture of the actual state of aquaculture development in the future. There is a need for activities which upgrade aquaculture production statistics.
47. Improve national sector management. In spite of the advanced state of aquaculture in the region, sector management in almost all countries remains inactive and weak. Of particular concern is the need for long-term policies and plans for the utilization of resources common to aquaculture and other competing sectors. Because of the shortage of experts in this field the approach should be first at the interregional level to organize training courses for administrators, planners, bankers, and investors, followed by similar activities at the regional level using these trained individuals to advise and guide the planning processes, through workshops and guideline documents pertinent to the region. This will be followed at the national level with the preparation of national plans using local experts. Several countries will require technical assistance to provide experts to advise and guide nationals, and to establish national management structures. The interregional effort could follow existing fisheries planning and management courses.48. Identify appropriate legislation for the sector. There is a lack of appropriate legislation for the sector in almost all countries of the region. The approach should be to include legislation awareness in the interregional courses proposed in 47 (above). At the regional level there should be efforts to produce a compendium of existing legislation and to develop model legislation for the aquaculture sector which would include options as appropriate for integration with other sectors.
49. Upgrade national production statistics. National production statistics in the region are still unreliable and do not conform, and there is a need for a common database for all production statistics, including hatchery data. The approach should be to include sectoral statistics in the interregional course identified in 47 (above) and, at the regional level, the production of guidelines for the collection of production statistics followed by national training courses for technologists charged with the responsibility of compiling annual data.
50. Improve cooperation for coastal zone management relevant to aquaculture. In all countries there is a need to consider aquaculture as one component in a group of economic and environmental systems, particularly in the coastal environment where the inter-related influences are most acute. One regional project should be identified as a model which would lead to the formulation of an action plan for rational development of coastal resources in countries with high potential for conflicting use. Working with local lead agencies (e.g. government planning departments or universities), and with Ministries of Agriculture, Tourism, Commerce, Natural Resources, plus Departments of Fisheries, Irrigation, Ports, Forestry, etc., the project should follow an expert consultation (possibly held at an interregional level) to review the potential conflicts and identify a model effort. Aerial surveys, land use maps, and existing documentation would be compiled as background material for the project.
Regional Sector Management
Regional sector needs are reflected in the above sections. Nonetheless, regional organizations dealing with aquaculture should be urged to collaborate more closely. The proposed activity on information resources is a case in point.
Aquaculture information systems in Asia are generally good. Some confusion and overlap of systems is observed, however, and it is necessary to facilitate better coordination between Asian institutions and better utilization of information by professionals and producers.
51. Rationalize and standardize regional information resources. Although databases of information are invaluable to the sector there is at present in the region a number of organizations producing databases which either overlap in subject matter, or do not conform to the same standard programmes. There is a need to rationalize and standardize these databases and to recognize limited responsibilities. The approach should be a regional workshop of organizations which produce databases to achieve agreement for responsibilities and to standardize programmes to make the information more broadly accessible.52. Establish a regional structure for technical cooperation. The Asia region includes several countries which have experience, advanced technology, and large numbers of national experts, and others which have few. There is the need to build on the cultural affinity and similarity of conditions in the region to assist the countries with poorly developed sectors. The approach should be to promote technical and economic cooperation in the region by first compiling a compendium of expertise, training resources, equipment, projects underway, and including joint venture investments. This should include a conference for investors and administrators, and for the exchange of technical cooperation needs. From this, information on capabilities and needs in aquaculture should be made available to countries of the region and various exchanges of expertise should develop.
Although there are vestiges of traditional subsistence aquaculture throughout the Pacific, there has been minimal development of commercial aquaculture using modern production techniques.
In general, the islands of the Pacific Ocean are characterized by under-exploited coastal fisheries resources with wide variations among them relative to supply and demand. On the basis of physical resources, the islands of the Pacific can be divided into three types, namely:
- high islands with seasonally abundant supplies of fresh water;
- low islands with limited fresh water resources, and
- atolls with extremely limited fresh water and high salinity.
Although aquaculture research and development has been conducted for many years in several locations throughout the region, to date there has been Halted commercialization of this technology. Ongoing research and/or development projects include (1) in French Polynesia, Fiji, and New Caledonia, government-sponsored brackishwater shrimp culture projects, (2) in Papua New Guinea, a fish stock enhancement project in Sepik River, and tilapia, carp, and salmonid fry culture projects in upland waters, (3) in Guam, the culture of rabbit fish, and sea cucumber production, (4) in Western Samoa, production trials on the cultivation of green mussels, and (5) in the Solomon Islands, a hatchery for giant clam production and restocking project.
Governments throughout the region are generally enthusiastic about the potential of aquaculture because of an indigenous cultural inclination toward aquaculture, abundant resources of unpolluted seawater, and the expectation of producing high value crops for export. Unfortunately, most of the island nations suffer from physical constraints which severely limit possibilities for the development of commercial aquaculture, including inaccessibility, high transport costs, limited marketing and distribution channels, and limited fresh water. Moreover, on most occasions, there is an abundant availability of high quality fish.
Although there may be some scope for the production of high valued species for select tourist markets, it is generally felt that most governments in the region would be better advised with regard to fish production to adopt policies for more effective management of reef resources.
A possible exception may be the high islands, such as Fiji and Papua New Guinea, where there is a need for the production of low-value fish for local consumption. Technical assistance projects are already ongoing in these countries but on the basis of available information, it is not possible to determine if these projects need to be strengthened.
It is concluded that the current regional aquaculture development project (funded by the Government of Japan) should be directed toward assisting government decision-makers to analyse all constraints to enable them to make informed decisions about future national investments in aquaculture or other sectors.
Only one opportunity (53) is identified.
53. Conduct management training for planners in investment opportunities. There is an increasing interest in aquaculture in the Pacific region, but there is a need to increase the awareness of planners of the social and economic implications of aquaculture development in comparison with other activities or sectors of interest, e.g. coral reef management, tourism, and fishing. The approach should be to organize short-term training for government administrators and planners from appropriate departments/units in various island nations. In the case of the Pacific special training courses should deal with selection of sectoral investment priorities with special reference to aquaculture. The training would consist primarily of case studies and hands-on experience based on real-life situations. A follow-up should be a regional seminar on aquaculture for senior officials or ministers.
The project is complementary to the proposed general project on aquaculture policy and planning proposed for the Asia region (see 47 above). There may be a need to conduct training separately in English and French.
Because of the abundance of fish resources in most areas of Latin America, the capture fisheries sector has assumed importance in national development plans. Extensive shelves (Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Guyana, Mexico) and upwelling systems (Chile, Peru, Ecuador) have enabled development of significant capture fisheries. In several countries (e.g. Bolivia, Paraguay, Colombia) there is under-exploitation of naturally occurring stocks.
In others (Peru, Ecuador, and certain regions of Brazil and Mexico) the resources are heavily exploited. Annual production from capture fisheries exceeds 14 million tonnes from the 21 countries of the region. A further 20% is caught but not marketed or utilized. The contribution from aquaculture to date is small but economically important to a number of countries. The most important needs for development in the region are strong national policies and planning.
Twelve opportunities (54-65) are identified.
Consumption and Markets
Within the region fish marketing is generally poorly developed, and traditional consumption patterns act against fish. In half of the countries, fish contributes 20-60% to the average animal protein diet, and In 8 countries less than 10%. Thus the opportunities and needs to promote fish consumption vary widely. It is likely that campaigns to promote fish consumption will benefit capture fisheries in the short term, and aquaculture in the long term.
Promotion campaigns have met with limited success in Peru and Mexico but effectiveness was constrained by distribution and quality problems which affect both domestic and export marketing. Regional capacity in post-harvest technologies is weak.
The policies of many governments in the region are directed toward generation of foreign exchange through the development of export oriented aquaculture in the private sector. This has led to the neglect of potential domestic markets for aquaculture production.
At present demand exceeds supply in export markets (shrimp, salmon, molluscs, algae), and this situation is likely to continue for at least the next 5-10 years. At some stage, in future, export markets will be limited by competition from new entrants into the industry (from within the region and beyond), and by limits on availability of raw materials for feed manufacture.
If internal markets are to be penetrated by aquaculture production, efforts should concentrate on molluscs, and traditionally consumed finfish. However, the potential for diversification is restricted by competition from capture fisheries already in place, and by the increasing production of poultry. Major competitors will be the marine and freshwater artisanal fisheries which may be seasonally important.
The potential for expansion of internal markets is limited to some countries (and some products) and has particularly high potential in the newly industrialized nations (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Venezuela). However, current economic trends in these and other countries which have reduced the purchasing power of the consumer will limit the potential domestic market unless production costs can be reduced through improved efficiency.
The region exports some 3 million tonnes of fish products annually. The contribution of aquaculture products is relatively small by weight, but their high value dominates foreign exchange earnings. The region imports some 350 000 tonnes of fish products annually. Most of these are specialized products which cannot be produced in the region, and not by aquaculture. There is little or no role for aquaculture in import substitution.
Marketing information is readily available throughout the region, but marketing statistics are not yet fully reported or reliable in many countries. Marketing skills are widely available in the private sector, but public sector management of marketing infrastructure and systems is weak.
54. Promote national consumption of fish on a long-term basis. Traditional consumption patterns in the region are against fish. There is a need for consumer education to stimulate consumption of fish products which, in the long term, will benefit aquaculture. Promotional campaigns should be organized and sustained at a national level.55. Support domestic marketing and provide services for export marketing. If consumption of fish in the region is to be increased there is a need to establish and maintain high product quality. There is also the need to maintain acceptable price structures in domestic markets which requires improved efficiency by producers as well as quality control. The approach should be to strengthen public sector quality control and distribution systems for domestic marketing and to provide services to assist export marketing.
Production
Aquaculture production in the region lies between 50 000-100 000 tonnes, 0.25-0.5% of total regional fisheries production, and less than 1% of world aquaculture production. There are insufficient and unreliable data on regional production. Production systems are mainly semi-intensive. The physical potential to increase production is high, particularly in brackish coastal waters for shrimp, molluscs, and finfish directed at both export and domestic markets, but for a wide range of investment costs.
In certain areas (particularly in coastal zones) development opportunities may be limited by social and environmental factors, in particular structural limitations such as land tenure, market imperfections and the lowly status of certain social classes. In such areas, production can be increased through improved management of the physical and human resources, following research for a better understanding of these components.
Distance from markets and lack of access to post-harvest technology may constrain small-scale production. Close liaison between producers and the market system is essential to overcome this constraint, and the formation of self-generated and managed marketing cooperatives by small scale producers should be encouraged.
At present there is insufficient seed production for most forms of aquaculture. One significant factor is the poor design and management of hatcheries. However, it is also because hatchery techniques have been successfully developed for only a few local species. The economics of hatchery operation may be significantly altered by environmental changes, as in Ecuador where, for example, the use of antibiotics in hatcheries may cause unacceptable environmental impact.
The further development of productive capacity in the export-oriented aquaculture industry should only be encouraged if parallel efforts are made to improve the ability of governments to regulate and control development and operation, with particular regard to social and environmental impact.
In many countries, production through small-scale pond culture is not thought to be economically or socially viable, except where small ponds constructed for other purposes can be stocked.
The stocking of larger natural and man-made water bodies with hatchery produced fingerlings to support culture-based fisheries is a low technology, low cost activity which offers great potential in many countries. This already contributes significantly to regional production and should be actively encouraged.
Production from culture-based fisheries may be constrained by non-availability of full time fishermen and conflict with other agricultural activities. Such fisheries require strong and effective management, the capacity for which is not widely available within the region.
56. Develop culture-based fisheries to increase production. Production of fish can be Increased significantly by low technology practices such as developing culture-based fisheries in large water bodies. The need is for facilities to produce seed of native species and/or exotic species where already present in the catchment, and appropriate management and exploitation. The approach should be guidance and advice at a regional level and monitoring assistance of national efforts, with appropriate concern for environmental and socio-economic impacts.57. Increase production through the management of coastal lagoons. Production of fish can be increased significantly in coastal lagoons but closely managed with regard to over-exploitation and other competing economic and social uses. The need is for training in methodologies and practices of lagoon management. The approach should be through sub-regional and national training courses for administrators, technicians, and producers, followed by one or more model projects.
Local Infrastructure
Extension services for small-scale producers are virtually non-existent in the fisheries sector. Effective systems are already in place in the agriculture sector. In most forms of small-scale aquaculture, there would be advantages in linking aquaculture more strongly with agriculture by provision of appropriate training to agricultural extension workers.
Export-oriented aquaculture can afford to purchase expertise in the market place, and does not suffer from lack of extension advice. At present there are sufficient hatcheries to supplement wild stock captures of seed to support export oriented aquaculture. However, hatchery production is inefficient, especially in the case of penaeid shrimp. The private sector is capable of overcoming these inefficiencies as and when necessary.
Small-scale producers and the development of culture-based fisheries are constrained by lack of appropriately-sited hatchery facilities, and by limitations on available skill and capacity outside the private sector companies. Improvement of seed production is a first priority in small-scale development and requires public sector support.
The availability of feeds is sufficient for existing extensive culture systems, but insufficient for the wider development of intensive culture systems. The current policies of Peru and Ecuador to increase direct human consumption of small pelagic species may in future reduce supplies of fish meal for feed production. More attention to feed formulation using agricultural wastes would provide long term benefit.
The availability of appropriate equipment for all levels of production is currently satisfactory. Future availability will depend upon the general economic performance of each country, but is unlikely to constrain that part of the aquaculture industry generating foreign exchange. Expansion of the industry will encourage local manufacture.
The intensification of both hatchery production and grow-out systems will impose demands on disease diagnosis services which are weak in this region. There are insufficient specialized engineering and other skills available and the industry is currently dominated by zoologists with limited horizons. This particularly affects the planning and development of small-scale aquaculture.
Credit for new development is readily available in the export-oriented sector, but small-scale producers do not attract such support and are often limited to informal credit at high rates of interest. The prevailing high rates of inflation have limited the effectiveness of all credit systems.
58. Train agriculture extension workers in aquaculture technologies. If production is to be increased through small-scale farming operations new and/or more effective extension services are required urgently. The approach should be to train existing agricultural agents in aquaculture technologies through national short-term training courses.59. Assist small-scale farmers to secure credit. Most small-scale farmers do not have collateral for credit and there is the need to increase the flow of credit if production is to be increased. Approaches can be the organization of cooperatives, or new government credit programmes for aquaculture, and appropriate familiarization for credit disbursement officers.
60. Produce cheaper supplementary feeds. Current artificial feeds are costly as they contain fish meal. The need is to replace fish meal with other ingredients such as agricultural wastes. The approach should be to encourage feed manufacturers, working with producers and extension agents, to produce and test new and cheap feed formulations.
61. Construct hatcheries and train hatchery operators. In support of new production goals through culture-based fisheries and lagoon management (see 56 and 57 above) there is a need for capital investment in fish hatcheries and skilled manpower. The approach should be for public support of hatchery construction and training, with the long-term objective of making small-scale producers self-sufficient for seed resources. Private investment should finance marine fish and shellfish hatcheries.
National Infrastructure
Aquaculture training in the region is relatively well developed, although mostly concentrated on biological aspects and generally oriented toward the production of high value species. The relative success of aquaculture for export earnings in the region will probably continue to influence the careers of students and their training institutions. Efforts must be made to diversify disciplines and to give greater emphasis to technical training in small-scale aquaculture.
There is general lack of public sector attention to applied aquaculture research. Much research effort is divorced from the requirements of the industry, and few results are ever implemented in practice. Few studies to date have provided information to improve regulation and management of the industry. This results in perpetuation of poor policy making, planning and management. The industry would benefit from greater research efforts in fields of socio-economics, environment, and farm systems management.
More effort is needed to establish successful culture of locally popular native species for which domestic markets are known to exist.
Much of the available information is generated outside the region. This is the result of the limited range of aquaculture disciplines in regional manpower and institutions. There is evidence that introduced technologies are sometimes inappropriate for environmental, social, or economic reasons.
62. Provide total support to build national infrastructure for producers. There is a serious lack of education, training, research, and credit management, in support of producers. All these must be emphasized by the public sector, together with improved sectoral management (see 63 below). The approach at the regional level should be to encourage the understanding of aquaculture as an economic and social activity requiring multidisciplinary support, with research and training in associated disciplines specifically directed Coward national sectors.
National Sector Management
Specific government policies for aquaculture are not commonly stated, and may be based on incomplete understanding of potential beneficial or adverse impacts. Such policies which exist usually emphasize the commercial sector, and largely ignore socially-oriented small-scale fish production, with some exceptions.
However, it should be recognized that aquaculture production is often insignificant compared with capture fisheries production, and that it is often cost effective to invest in improved capture fisheries management and technology rather than in aquaculture.
Because of this, public sector financing of aquaculture departments and in training manpower is limited. It seems unlikely that government manpower in support of aquaculture will increase significantly in the near- to mid-term. As it is recognized that government control of the aquaculture industry and support for development is weak, it may be necessary to identify other channels for provision of support to aquaculture outside the private sector. For example, the potential for development of culture-based fisheries at low investment cost should present governments with an opportunity to intervene. Aquaculture legislation is variable and is not usually strictly enforced even when it exists. Enforcement systems are weakly applied. Land tenure legislation often acts against the small-scale producer. Industrial aquaculture can overcome this by informal methods. However, in Mexico legislation reserving the coastal zone for small-scale producers is strictly enforced.
Legislation rarely covers environmental impact, although recent regional discussion on conservation of genetic resources and restrictions on movement of exotic species may attract support. Legislators must be made aware of the conflict between coastal aquaculture development and the potentially adverse effect on nursery grounds for capture fishery species, particularly in mangrove areas.
63. Assist and strengthen government institutions where appropriate. Increased production in the region, particularly through small-scale operations and culture-based fisheries, is dependent on well-organized institutions and management of the sector. The need is for national policies and plans, appropriate legislation for the regulation of all aspects of the national sector, and the collection of annual sectoral statistics, including annual production. The approach, through direction and guidance at a regional level, is being undertaken by the regional project AQUILA, but this will require continuous support for monitoring and assistance at a national level. Assistance for the collection of statistics should be guided by FAO.64. Make policies for the development and management of national and private hatcheries. Governments must pay more attention to hatchery development policy, and enterprises must reconsider appropriate hatchery design and management, not only for required seed production but also for consideration of environmental impacts from certain hatchery techniques. Guidance should be provided at the regional level, with implementation and monitoring at a national level.
Regional Sector Management
Regional sector management offers several direct benefits to export-oriented industrial aquaculture, and there are a number of indirect benefits in, for example, increased technology transfer and increased availability of trained manpower and services. The development of intraregional trade is not beneficial to the generation of hard currencies.
In the small-scale sub-sector there is a strong requirement for regional management to enable coordinated efforts in addressing common constraints. There are a number of appropriate organizations which can and do support such activities. Such organizations are well placed to assist in detailed examination of the aquaculture sector throughout the region, which is an essential precursor to the formulation of rational policies and national plans for further development.
The only direct implications of regional management for national planning occur where culture-based capture fisheries are to be developed in shared water bodies. In two such cases. Lake Titicaca (Bolivia/Peru) and Salto Grande Reservoir (Argentina/Uruguay), regional management strategies have already been agreed.
65. Continue to assist the Latin American (and Caribbean) region in rational sectoral development and management. Assistance to the Latin American and Caribbean countries is essential if the sector is to make any progress. The need is for long-term multilateral and bilateral assistance through regional coordination projects such as AQUILA (which ends in 1989). The approach should be the same, with a well-staffed multidisciplinary project to (a) train and support government officials responsible for formulation, implementation, and evaluation of national plans, programmes, and development projects; (b) promote and support research studies on specific aspects of planning and managing development, (c) enhance regional cooperation through (i) collection and dissemination of information derived from the above, (ii) exchange experiences and expertise among participating countries; (d) assist countries to identify needs and development projects, (e) support the establishment or strengthening of national development institutions.
The Caribbean region can be divided geographically into two different sub-regions:
- the Greater Antilles; namely Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Jamaica,
- the Lesser Antilles; all the other islands.
The Greater Antilles represent 85% of the total population and surface area; the average GNP per caput is much lower than in the Lesser Antilles.
Because of the close association of aquaculture development in Latin America, the Caribbean region has similar needs. Therefore, the twelve opportunites (54-65) identified for Latin America will include the participation of countries of the Caribbean.
Consumption and Markets
Throughout the region the demand for fish (and consequently importations) is increasing, but there are differences between the two sub-regions. In the Greater Antilles, demand is focused on low-priced fish for local populations. In the Lesser Antilles, because of the higher revenues and increasing tourist trade, demand is concentrated on high-value products. Marketing is not a problem in the Lesser Antilles, but it has to be organized in the Greater Antilles together with the promotion of fish, improvement of post-harvest handling and technology, product form, and distribution.
Marketing projects for the Caribbean region should be considered within efforts needed in Latin America (see 54 and 55, above).
Production
In the Greater and Lesser Antilles the production of fish (predominantly tilapia) through low-cost technology has to be encouraged; the use of culture-based fisheries, pond and cage culture is recommended. Technical and capital assistance are essential. The development of commercial ventures in crustacean culture does not need special capital and technical assistance, which could be provided by present companies operating in the region, and local or regional credit institutions.
Efforts to increase aquaculture production in the region might best be combined with the activities proposed for Latin America (see 56 and 57, above).
Local and National Infrastructures
The Greater Antilles should be included in those considerations being given to the continental Central and South American countries (see items 58, 59, 60, 61, and 62; above), and special attention needs to be paid to local and national infrastructure. Successful aquaculture development programmes in Jamaica and Cuba, for example, are also due to the attention paid to these sectors. In Haiti and the Dominican Republic, where the sectors have not been supported, development programmes continue to fail.
By contrast, in the Lesser Antilles, substantial local and national infrastructure appraisal is irrelevant because of their small dimensions; information on the developments in the region, technical information in the field of seed and feed production, and some technical training, are their only requirements.
National Sector Management
National sector management is weak in the region, except in Jamaica and Cuba where special units/departments for aquaculture development (including all the aspects of training, extension services, credit services, seed and feed production, and marketing) have been established. In the other countries there is a great need for training of government and financial decision-makers on the political, socio-economic, and environmental impacts of aquaculture development.
Activities proposed for the Caribbean region should complement those proposed for Latin America countries (see 63 and 64, above).
Regional Management
It is important in Haiti and the Dominican Republic to establish some structure, such as an aquaculture development corporation, to organize and support the sector, and to receive and utilize external technical and capital assistance.
Finally, better coordination between the different donors and an exchange of experience and expertise between the countries of the region are required to respond to the needs identified above.
Proposed activities for the Caribbean should again complement those proposed for the Latin America countries (see 65, above).
