4.1 Manpower training in aquaculture technologies
4.2 Manpower training in management
4.3 Aquaculture research in the region
4.4 Management of credit
4.5 Associations of professionals in the region
4.6 Information for professionals
4.7 Technical assistance projects in the sub-sector
4.8 Capital assistance projects in the sub-sector
There are many facilities in the West Asia region for training and education in aquaculture at specialist and advanced levels. Most technical institutions conduct both long- and short-term training courses for nationals as part of graduate education programmes and as special courses for technicians. Some participate in international training funded by regional organizations and programmes.
In May 1987 the Asian Fisheries Society published proceedings of a workshop to review fisheries (including aquaculture) education and training in Asia, which concluded the following:
The major educational issues confronting fisheries development in Asia are: (1) inadequate appropriate technical manpower, (2) lack of significant contributions to fisheries development by fisheries professionals in general; and (3) deficiencies in the fisheries education systems. Five courses of action are put forward toward improving the situation: development of a policy which incorporates fisheries education and training into fisheries manpower development strategies; regular review of fisheries education programmes in line with development trends in the industry; upgrading the fisheries training capabilities; a network of fisheries educational institutions with areas of excellence; stronger linkages among fisheries educational professionals in government, universities and the private sector, and steps to improve the image and status of fisheries professionals.
In Thailand six universities offer courses at an undergraduate level. Approximately 4 undergraduate degrees in fisheries are given annually. The universities include: Kasetsart University (aquaculture, fisheries biology, marine science, resource management) and Culalongkorn University (marine science), in addition to post-graduate research. There are also degree programmes at the Prince of Songkhla University (food sciences and agriculture), Srinikarin Viraj University (aquatic sciences), Chiang Mai University and Bang Saen University (biological sciences) and Phuket Community College (aquaculture). Technical courses for short-term specialist training are carried out by the National Inland Fisheries Institute (NIFI). Topics include culture of freshwater fish, molluscs, and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium spp.). The National Institute of Coastal Aquaculture offers post-graduate degree courses in aquaculture at the Master's level. AIT offers tertiary education (M.Sc. and Ph.D.) and international training courses in a number of aquaculture specialities, particularly integrated farming.
In India the Central Institute for Fisheries Education (CIFE) offers freshwater aquaculture training particularly for the culture of the Indian major carps. CIFE also offers Masters degrees and diplomas in Fishery Sciences. The Institute has three sub-centres in Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA) offers courses on composite fish culture (polyculture systems), and the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) offers parallel courses in marine culture practices.
In addition to these federal institutes, each state in India has its own training centre for courses in general aquaculture, farm management, and aquaculture engineering. Some of the principal state institutes are the Central Institute of Coastal Aquaculture Engineering (CICAE) in Bangalore, the Central Institute of Fishery Nautical Engineering Trade (CIFNET) in Cochin, the Trainer's Training Centre in Orissa, the Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) in Cochin. There are also two demonstration centres at Sukabumi and Jepara.
Higher education at graduate and post-graduate levels, usually associated with fisheries as a whole, is offered at CIFE; the National Institute of Oceanography; the College of Fisheries, Bangalore Agricultural University; the Faculty of Fisheries, Konkan Agricultural University; the University of Kalyani; the College of Fisheries, Kerala Agricultural University; Tamil Nadu Agricultural University; the Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University; the Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology; the University of Agricultural Sciences at Mangalore; Mangalore University; University of Kerala; the Cochin University of Science and Technology. In addition to education, most of the above centres offer specialized training courses for farm management, aquaculture, disease control, hatchery management and operations, seed packing and transportation, manpower development, etc.
There are several academic institutions in Burma which provide education in fisheries and related subjects. These include: the University of Moulmein, University of Rangoon, Mandalay University and the Rangoon Institute of Technology. The University of Moulmein is the main training centre in the country in aquaculture and coastal fisheries. Both B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees are offered.
In Indonesia aquaculture is included in the graduate and post-graduate fisheries programmes of the Universitas Rio, the Diponegoro University, the Universitas Islam Riou, the Brawijaya University, the Hasanuddin University, Bogor Agricultural University, and the Universitas Sam Ratulangi. Special courses are held by several of these institutions together with the TOC Aquaculture Development Project at Kaltim at a vocational level and the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Tropical Biology (BIOTROP) at Bogor on certain assay procedures.
In Malaysia the Department of Fisheries organizes vocational courses. The principal universities which conduct aquaculture courses in their degree programmes are the University Pertanian Malaysis, University Sains Malaysia, and Pajadjaran University. In addition special courses are held by Ebor Research on fish production in ponds at rubber plantations.
In Pakistan the Faisalabad University has a department of Zoology and Fisheries. In addition specialized fisheries training and education are available through the Fisheries Research and Training Institute which is operated as part of the Punjab University. Students are given preparation for Master's degrees in fisheries as well as vocational training.
In Sri Lanka the National Aquatic Resource Agency (NARA) organizes training programmes for aquaculture. The Ruhuna University, the University of Kelaniya, and the University of Colombo all include aquaculture in the zoological programmes, and the University of Kelaniya holds short courses.
In Singapore aquaculture is included in the zoological courses at the National University of Singapore.
Several of the other countries in the region offer aquaculture education as part of more traditional degree and training programmes. In Nepal aquaculture is taught in zoology graduate courses at the Tribhuvan University.
There are also regional centres offering specialized aquaculture education. A large number of training opportunities are offered through the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia (NACA) from its headquarters in Thailand. NACA, through its associated lead centre in the Philippines at SEAFDEC-AQD, contributes to the production of trained personnel with an annual course leading to a post-graduate degree (Master of Aquaculture Technology, M. Aqua.) awarded by the University of the Philippines in the Visayas. About 20 individuals graduate from the programme each year. Since its inception there have been graduates from Bangladesh (7), Burma (1), India (8), Indonesia (14), Malaysia (10), Nepal (2), Pakistan (5), Singapore (2), Sri Lanka (12), and Thailand (14).
NACA also offers special short-term courses. Each year a four-month course on integrated farming is offered at the Integrated Fish Farming Centre at Wuxi in China. Successful participants from this course have come from Bangladesh (7), Burma (7), India (10), Indonesia (5), Malaysia (12), Nepal (8), Pakistan (5), Sri Lanka (12), and Thailand (19). In addition there have been other special courses at which some 194 individuals from all the above countries, plus Bhutan (1), have participated.
The UNDP/FAO Regional Sea Farming Development and Demonstration Project (based in Thailand) organizes a variety of short-term training in aquaculture specialities for the region. Although not held on a regular basis, the training includes aquaculture practices in net pens and cages, technology and propagation of regional species.
Manpower development in management credit and business areas is taking place primarily within banking institutions. Projects requiring credit from rural banks must be evaluated both economically and technically. Many aquaculture and fishery graduates have joined banks as specialists to appraise, monitor, coordinate, and evaluate projects. In addition to their technical expertise banks now participate in conducting training courses through their training institutions.
In India most of the commercial banks (and the parent institution the National Bank) organize rural project development courses and short-term courses on fisheries financing for loan officers and civil servants involved in these procedures. District level training courses, seminars, workshops, etc., are also arranged by banks in India to improve the quality of lending. The Asian Institute of Commercial Aquaculture in Malaysia carries out short courses in technical and business management, including aquaculture. It also operates field facilities for demonstration.
The training of loan officers and other staff in aquaculture has had a significant effect in improving the credit situation for the industry. For example, the Agrani Bank in Bangladesh has financed the training of bank staff in aquaculture and as a result has had close to a 100% recovery rate of its loans.
The ADB runs short workshops on project management for managers of ADB projects, including fisheries and aquaculture. Such workshops focus on ADB procedures but also Couch on fund management/disbursement and related subjects.
Research in aquaculture is primarily carried out through established university and research centres operated by the respective departments of fisheries in the countries of this region. There are numerous individual projects sponsored through international programmes. Two research stations in Bangladesh, the Aquaculture Experiment Station at Mymensingh and the Mariculture and Coastal Aquaculture Research Station at Cox's Bazaar, are responsible for carrying out government sponsored research. In addition, the Chittagong University of Bangladesh has a Department of Marine Biology which maintains an active marine research programme.
Burma operates the Thakata Fishery Research Centre specifically to carry out research on Macrobrachium. The Centre is financed by the People's Pearls and Fisheries Corporation. The Aquaculture Research Centre is operated by the University of Moulmein. There are running seawater facilities and laboratories in support of applied culture work with Crustacea, mollusca, and various fish species. Six experimental fish ponds are used for on-growing work.
In India the principal research centres are the federal institutes. These include the Central Inland Capture Fisheries Resource Institute for capture fishing and reservoir development and management; the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute at Cochin for marine culture, particularly shrimps; the Aquaculture Engineering Department of the Indian Institute of Technology (ITT) at Kharagpur for farm engineering; the Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA) at Dhauli for freshwater fish culture and propagation; the Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture (CIBA) at Madras for brackishwater fish and shellfish culture; the Central Cold Water Fisheries Research Institute (CCFRI) for cold water fish; the Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE) at Bombay for freshwater fish culture and hatchery technology; the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources Center for fish genetics; the National Institute of Oceanography at Goa for marine fish and shellfish culture. In addition there is the Fisheries Research Institute at Bhavaneger for both freshwater and marine culture. Most state agricultural universities carry out a variety of research projects according to their state needs.
Other centres of research in the region include: the Research Institute for Freshwater Fisheries (RIFF) and the Research Institute for Coastal Aquaculture Fisheries (RICAF) in Indonesia; the Fisheries Research Institute, specializing in freshwater prawns and the Batu Berendum Freshwater Fish Culture Station, emphasizing Chinese carps and integrated farming in Malaysia; the Fisheries Research Division Punjab of the Agricultural Research Council and the Fisheries Research Institute, Punjab in Pakistan; the Changi Fisheries Research Station, studying fish propagation and the cage culture of sea bass, and aquarium fish research at the Freshwater Fish Research Station at Sembairang in Singapore; Marine Shrimp and Fish Research at the National Aquatic Resource Agency (NARA) in Sri Lanka; and in Thailand the National Inland Fisheries Institute (NIFI) works on freshwater fish breeding and the National Institute of Coastal Aquaculture (NICA) develops technologies in producing brackishwater fish and shellfish.
USAID is supporting the Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP) in Thailand.
ICLARM conducts research on specific aquaculture problems through collaboration with other research and/or academic institutions in the region. It has no research facilities of its own other than resource information. Through multilateral and bilateral agencies it obtains grants and contracts for collaborative research and provides senior specialists for joint research teams. ICLARM now has a Coastal Aquaculture Centre in the Solomon Islands and is planning to develop a Genetics Unit in the Philippines and an Integrated Farming Unit in Thailand. ICLARM's tilapia genetics research has been with CLSU and the Marine Science Institute of the University of the Philippines at Diliman. ICLARM is linked with SEAFDEC for the Asian Fisheries Social Science Research Network, of which SEAFDEC is a member. ICLARM, like SEAFDEC-AQD, publishes research results and findings in newsletters for circulation throughout the region, and in reports and books. Newest among these is the Asian Fisheries Society's Journal "Asian Fisheries Science" which includes aquaculture.
Almost all the countries in the region provide credit to the aquaculture sector through their financial institutions. In India, for example, the central and state governments have provided large sums for local and national infrastructure creating extension services, research support, education and training facilities, export promotion agencies, fisheries development corporations, fish farmer's development agencies, fisheries cooperatives, and fishermen's federations. The importance of the sector in the overall development of the country has been realized by the Government's injection of some I.Rs. 50 000 million during the Cusseur 7th plan (1985-90).
In India there are 14 nationalized commercial banks, state cooperation banks, land development banks, or regional rural banks. These banks operate under the parent National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development and provide loans to the industry on easy repayment instalments and minimal rates. The repayment schedule is decided on the basis of internal rates of return. The banks provide both medium- and long-term loans to small farmers, marginal farmers, and others. Loans to individuals and companies are available to a limit of 75-90% of the total project cost; the balance of 10-25% is considered the borrower's contribution as margin. The rate of interest is 10-12.5% depending on circumstances.
Other development finance organizations in India include: Agricultural Finance Corporation Ltd., which assists member banks through technical assistance including provision of consulting services; the Credit Guarantee Corporation of India, Ltd., which guarantees loans by commercial banks; and the Industrial Development Bank of India which promotes and finances industrial development.
Until the 1970's credit lending in India was more toward the marine sector (about 75% of the total disbursement in the fisheries sector) but lately this has changed and more loans are given to the schemes coming from the inland fisheries sector. The 1986 data show that the credit ratio between the inland and marine sectors from the National Bank was 3:1.
There are a host of banking institutions within other countries in the region, as well. Many of these focus on more traditional types of agriculture and rural development, but do have within their charters sufficient leeway to provide credit to aquaculture.
There are four development finance organizations in Burma. The Bangladesh Krishi Bank provides credit facilities for agricultural and rural development. The Bangladesh Samabaya Bank provides credit to agricultural cooperatives. Credit to the landless rural poor is available through Grameen Bank. Finally, the Investment Corporation of Bangladesh provides development financing. Two State Banks, Myanma Agricultural Bank and Myanma Economic Bank provide agricultural credit to farmers, cooperatives, state economic organizations, and municipalities.
The Bank Pembanguan Indonesia is the development bank of Indonesia and provides medium- and long-term loans to new and existing business enterprises. The National Bank of Kampuchea provides loans through credits given by international organizations. There are two development banks in Malaysia, the Development Bank of Malaysia and the Sabah Development Bank.
The Agricultural Development Bank in Nepal provides credit to agriculture cooperatives, individual farmers, and associations. In addition to a network of offices it operates 3 zonal training centres and 2 demonstration centres for agriculture. The Nepal Industrial Development Corporation (NIDC) is a state-owned bank which offers financial and technical assistance to private sector industries.
In Pakistan the Federal Bank for Cooperatives provides credit facilities to each of four provincial cooperative banks and regulates their operation. Credit to individual cooperatives is available through this organization. The Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan provides credit to individual borrowers and cottage industries.
The Development Bank of Singapore, Ltd. provides credit and takes equity positions in a variety of projects.
There are four state development banks in Sri Lanka which provide short-to long-term credit. These are: the Agricultural and Industrial Credit Corporation of Ceylon; Development Finance Corporation of Ceylon; Investment and Credit Bank, Ltd.; and the National Development Bank of Sri Lanka.
In Thailand development finance is provided through the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, and the Board of Investment. In addition the Industrial Finance Corporation of Thailand and the Small Industries Finance Office assist in the establishment, expansion, and modernization of industries. The former organizes the pooling of funds to provide credit which might otherwise be difficult to obtain.
There are several professional societies in the region which fishery scientists, administrators, farm managers, and hatchery managers can join. Most of these societies organize annual meetings, workshops, seminars, conferences, and lectures of guest speakers, for updating the knowledge of their members.
The Asian Fisheries Society which was organized in 1987 is based at the ICLARM offices in Manila in the Philippines. It is open to all fisheries professionals in Asia. The Society had its first large scientific meeting in Manila in 1987 which was attended by fisheries professionals, including a significant number of aquaculturists. Also based at the ICLARM offices is the newly established Network of Tropical Aquaculture Scientists, which includes many members from West Asian countries.
Many professionals in Asia are members of the World Aquaculture Society (WAS). This society is based in the USA and disseminates scientific research information and arranges annual conferences. An affiliate of WAS is the EAS, based in Belgium; this society also has members from the region and arranges conferences in which the development of aquaculture in Asia is often discussed. Membership is individual or commercial, and materials can also be obtained through library membership. Many of these professionals obtained their post-graduate education or training abroad and joined the aquaculture societies in the regions where they studied.
Aquaculture professionals in the region have access to a rich variety of information sources in the form of published material of all kinds (technical/scientific, semi-technical journals, newsletters, magazines, agency annual and progress reports, hand-outs, brochures, among others); audio-visual aids (e.g. slides, film strips); data bases (e.g. ASFIS); and even workshops, seminars, and various conferences.
Most of the technical and scientific journals published within the region by SEAFDEC-AQD, ICLARM, IDRC, FAO/UNDP, and ESCAP, to name a few, are available in the main libraries within each country. These libraries also have the international journals like "Aquaculture" on their shelves and professionals can have their own copies through subscription.
SEAFDEC publications include those produced by the Secretariat in Thailand and those published by the three different departments. The former include a quarterly newsletter; Fishery Statistical Bulletins for the South China Sea Area (which include statistics on aquaculture production volumes and values); and a directory of scientists and technologists in the fields of fisheries research, development, and management in the Southeast Asian region. The SEAFDEC-AQD produces research papers, technical reports, extension manuals, a newsletter, and "Aqua Farm News". The SEAFDEC-AQD library maintains a good collection of scientific literature as well as other published materials in the fields of aquaculture. The library maintains over 250 subscriptions to journals in fisheries and aquaculture, and has over 8 000 volumes. It also has audio-visual materials (film strips) on various aquaculture production methods and systems.
ICLARM has a well-developed Information Programme comprising a special library, publications unit, and research projects. ICLARM has 7 technical publications series: (i) Studies and Reviews, (ii) Conference Proceedings, (iii) Technical Reports, (iv) Bibliographies, (v) Translations, (vi) Education, (vii) Software, as well as six Newsletters, and the quarterly magazine NAGA. A Selective Fisheries Information Service provides in-depth answers to enquiries from researchers. The ICLARM library maintains an up-to-date collection of material relating to fisheries and aquaculture in tropical countries. Its book and monograph holdings exceed 8 000 volumes; there are 650 serial titles and 3 400 reprints. A microfiche reader/printer is available. Databases from other organizations such as FAO, US National Agricultural Library, and Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, can be searched online by the library's modern link. Two electronic mail services are used to facilitate overseas retrieval. The CD-ROM version of the major aquaculture database, FAO's ASFA, is also available.
Aquabyte, the newsletter of the Network of Tropical Aquaculture Scientists (c/o ICLARM), links aquaculture scientists, especially Chose engaged in research in the genetics of fish cultured in the tropics, tropical integrated agriculture-aquaculture farming systems, and coastal aquaculture of tropical molluscs.
IDRC in Singapore publishes scientific monographs and technical reports as well as more general materials on aquaculture and aquaculture research. There are also printed and audio-visual materials, including films and slides, relating to IDRC projects in developing countries.
There are a number of smaller libraries in the Asia region to which professionals have access. For example, the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, and the NACA office, both in Thailand, as well as the BIOTROP library in Bogor, Indonesia, all provide fisheries scientists with information. The National Inland Fisheries Institute in Thailand has a collection of papers on aquaculture but many are written in Thai with abstracts in English.
The libraries in the important fisheries academies and research institutes in China and Japan are rich sources of information on aquaculture but much is in Chinese and Japanese.
Professionals have access to a considerable volume of information about aquaculture outside the region because of good communications with the Mediterranean and European regions, and also with North America. These are usually through library membership, individual membership, or personal subscription to journals and societies.
The EAS based in Belgium publishes a regular Newsletter for members which also contains the contents of some abstracts of the more important aquaculture journals. It also publishes special volumes on aquaculture technology available at reduced rates to members. The EAS is an affiliate of the WAS which is based in the USA, and members have reciprocal benefits. The WAS produces the Journal of the World Aquaculture Society which is free to members.
The other specialist journals on aquaculture are obtained on subscription. These are Aquaculture (the Netherlands), Aquaculture and Fisheries Management (UK), Aquaculture Engineering (UK), Bamidgeh/Journal of Aquaculture (Israel), Bulletin Français de la Pêche et de la Pisciculture (France), Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (Canada), Diseases of Aquatic Organisms (Germany, Fed. Rep.), Journal of Fish Biology (UK), Journal of Fish Diseases (UK), Progressive Fish Culturist (USA), Transactions of the American Fisheries Society (USA), etc.
The largest resource of information for scientists and technical professionals in the sector is FAO in Rome, Italy. FAO produces a series of publications many of which are specific to aquaculture. These are FAO Fisheries Reports, FAO Fisheries Technical Papers, and FAO Fisheries Synopses, All titles are categorized and lists are regularly produced. Some documents are free and others are sold at cost. It maintains a large serial collection on all subjects related to fish and fisheries received from fisheries institutes, government departments, and commercial publishers throughout the world, together with a special collection of documents on a country basis, and subject files.
FAO maintains a database in which aquaculture information can be found. ASFA is an international bibliographic database providing comprehensive coverage of publications on the science, technology, and management of marine and freshwater environments. The database can be searched via terminals and personal computers to retrieval systems in Europe and North America; the database is also available on compact disc. Aquaculture Abstracts from ASFA are available in printed form through subscription.
ICLARM and SEAFDEC-AQD maintain ASFA-I (Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts), BRAIS (Brackishwater Aquaculture Information System), and SEAFIS (Southeast-Asian Fisheries Information Service).
At ICLARM the DIALOG system of over 120 databases can be searched interactively through a teletype facility. The SEAFDEC Secretariat in Thailand has established a Fisheries Information Service which is a clearing house for extension materials for small-scale fishermen and fish farmers in Southeast Asia.
There has been a long list of technical assistance projects in the region. These have been directly funded by many countries as well as indirectly funded through regional aquaculture and fisheries development centres. Some of the principal sources of technical assistance and the countries in the region which have benefited are: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (Indonesia); Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) (Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand); Asian and Pacific Development Centre; Asian Development Bank (Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand); Bay of Bengal Project (Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand); Canadian International Development Project (Thailand); Danish International Development Agency (Bangladesh, Burma, India); Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (Indonesia); Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); International Centre for Living Aquatic Resource Management (ICLARM); International Development and Research Centre (India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand); Indo-Pacific Fishery Commission; Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) (Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand); Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia (India and Thailand); and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco) (Burma, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand).
Bilateral agreements between countries in the region and various foreign countries and institutions have been established to assist in manpower development, training, guidance, etc. Some of the countries and organizations which have agreed to provide facilities and technical assistance are: Oceanic Institute (USA), Pacific Science Association, SEAFDEC, Swedish International Development Authority, South Pacific Commission, Tropical Development and Research Institute, USAID, World Bank, Unesco, the Netherlands, and UK.
Many donors, now numbering 21 in all, support the collaborative research of ICLARM. The Centre's aquaculture research programme, one of three programme areas of ICLARM, focuses on coastal aquaculture (specifically bivalve molluscs), genetics (specifically tilapias and carps), and integrated farming systems. While ICLARM's aquaculture programme has been centred in Southeast Asia, with particularly strong links with institutions in the Philippines and Thailand, it has now expanded to the South Pacific and to southern Africa. ICLARM also coordinates two aquaculture-related networks - the Asian Fisheries Social Science Research Network and the Network of Tropical Aquaculture Scientists.
A wide range of research, management and national infrastructure development projects has been funded within the region. Some of them have been on a local level with the intention that they would serve as demonstration centres and models for similar projects elsewhere in the region. Others clearly were intended to assist in overall sector development. In 1988, Government fish farms were being developed in both Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. A pilot farm programme was under development in Thailand. Twenty-six research projects, including work in genetics, fish growth, larval rearing, nutrition, pond dynamics, and reproduction are currently funded in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
