4.1 Manpower training in aquaculture technologies
4.2 Manpower training in management
4.3 Aquaculture research in the region
4.4 Management of credit
4.5 Associations of professionals in the region
4.6 Information for professionals
4.7 Technical assistance projects in the sub-sector
In general the background required in aquaculture technology includes education and training at various levels from undergraduate to graduate university education, and from technical schools to extension and continuing education functions for producers.
At present undergraduate programmes at Canadian universities are not designed to produce graduates in aquaculture. However, that will change in September 1989 when the University of British Columbia (Faculty of Agricultural Sciences) will offer a four year programme leading to a B.Aqua.Sc. degree. Universities and technical colleges presently offering undergraduate courses and training in aquaculture are University of British Columbia (Departments of Animal Science and Bio-Resources Engineering), University of Victoria, Simon Eraser University, Bamfield Marine Station, University of Alberta, University of New Brunswick (Department of Biology and the Marine Research Group), University of Moncton, Memorial University, Technical University of Nova Scotia, Dalhousie University, University of Prince Edward Island (Atlantic Veterinary College), University of Guelph (Departments of Nutrition, Pathology, Zoology, and School of Continuing Education), University of Montreal, University of Quebec at Chicoutimi, University of Quebec at Trois Rivieres, and the University of Quebec at Rimouski.
Across the USA, at least 50 universities and colleges offer courses and training in various aspects of aquaculture. Such courses and training form part of the traditional fisheries and wildlife curricula, which US institutions have been offering for many years. The main institutions with specialized courses or training in aquaculture include: Auburn University, Clemson University, Texas A & M University, Louisiana State University, University of California at Davis, Florida Institute of Technology, University of Hawaii at Manoa, University of Washington, Rutgers State University, University of Delaware, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Oregon State University, Hofstra University, Colorado State University, and the University of South Carolina. Also, the Consortium for International Fisheries and Aquaculture Development offers short courses in aquaculture held at the various member universities. The Consortium includes the University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff, University of Hawaii, University of Michigan, Michigan State University, and Oregon State University, where it is based.
Post-graduate training in Canada is usually limited in scope to the interest of the professor and the university facilities available. However a few opportunities do exist to receive specialized aquaculture training at the M.Sc. and Ph.D. levels at most of the Canadian universities mentioned previously.
Aquaculture training in the USA at the post-graduate level is very good. Many universities offer specialized M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in aquaculture and have excellent research and experimental facilities. Land grant colleges and universities have a tradition of freshwater aquaculture (mainly biology) and good extension and continuing education services. The Sea Grant-funded universities and colleges deal mainly with brackishwater and marine aquaculture. Again, facilities are usually very good and research in specialized aquaculture fields - or with particular species/groups - is possible.
A number of practical aquaculture training courses and programmes are available in North America, some for as long as one to two years, leading to an aquaculture technician's qualification.
In Canada such courses and programmes are offered at the Aquaculture Resource Centre of Capilano College (Sechelt Campus), Northwest Community College in Prince Rupert (12 month course in aquaculture), Malaspina College in Nanaimo (two year aquaculture technician training programme). Harbour City Trade School, Huntsman Marine Laboratory in N.B. (aquaculture technician training programme, 23 weeks classroom/laboratory and 25 weeks practical work), Newfoundland and Labrador Institute of Fisheries and Marine Technology (technician training), Holland College in PEI (aquaculture technician training, 48 weeks). Sir Sandford Fleming College (technician training), and St. Felicien CEGEP (network of community colleges offering aquaculture training) in Quebec (technician training).
In the USA practical courses and one and two year aquaculture training programmes for technicians are available from a number of junior or community colleges. The Lummi Indian College of Fisheries in Washington has a two-year programme leading to an associate degree in aquaculture. The Windward Community College in Hawaii offers a two-year programme in Small Scale Aquaculture (technician training). Grays Harbor College in Washington and Haywood Technical College in North Carolina both offer two-year training programmes leading to technical degrees (aquaculture technician training).
Each year, short term aquaculture courses and workshops offer specialized training in Canada. For example, in 1988 a few examples were: Malaspina College's Aquaculture Extension Department (Nanaimo, B.C.) gave practical training courses in (1) Culture of salmon and trout, (2) Farm fish processing and marketing, (3) Fish health, (4) Trout culture, (5) Culture of molluscs (oysters, clams, mussels, scallops and abalone), (6) Computer applications in aquaculture, and (7) Fish feed technology. Also in B.C. during the summer of 1988 Bamfield Marine Station gave a six week course for technical level aquaculturists on (1) Principals of aquaculture, (2) Biology of marine molluscs, (3) Marine phycology, and (4) Larval biology. A few examples from the USA are: Financing Aquaculture and Mariculture Projects (Virginia); Culturing of Striped Bass and its Hybrids (Virginia), Marine Shrimp Farming (Florida); Seafood Foreign Market Development (Virginia); AquaVet (Mass.); Aquaculture Economics (South Carolina); Marine Shrimp Culture (Hawaii); Pathology in Marine Aquaculture (Virginia).
During the last few years in North America training opportunities in the broad field of management have been made available. For example, the short courses and workshops in aquaculture mentioned in the above paragraph are excellent sources of information for managers involved in business, farming, credit, and research. Other examples of opportunities include the University of British Columbia home-study course "Salmonid Culture: Fundamentals and Practice for British Columbia". It provides a comprehensive, technical grounding with some scientific background for current and potential aquaculturists and managers of fish farming operations.
Both in Canada and the USA some universities with aquaculture courses and training also have departments of Continuing Education and of Aquaculture Extension, where management training is available. For example, the University of British Columbia has an active Department of Continuing Education within the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences. In 1988 a Fish Farmers' Extension Centre opened in the University of Guelph. In the USA the University of Georgia has an Aquaculture and Fisheries Extension Department. The Waddell Mariculture Research and Development Center, in South Carolina, works closely with Clemson University's Cooperative Extension Service and the Clemson Sea Grant Marine Extension Program to provide aquaculture management training. Also, the national Sea Grant Program, in addition to supporting 100 aquaculture projects at 30 US academic institutions, expends major funding for aquaculture education, training, advisory/extension services, and planning activities. Training in the broad field of aquaculture management is covered.
At the national level the main federal agency responsible for aquaculture research in Canada is the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, which has well equipped and staffed research centres in Nanaimo and Vancouver, B.C. (including the Pacific Salmon Enhancement Project); in Winnipeg, Manitoba; in St. Andrews and Halifax in Nova Scotia; and in St. Johns, Newfoundland. Within the DFO headquarters in Ottawa, is the Aquaculture and Resource Development Branch, part of the Fisheries Research Directorate. The Aquaculture and Resource Development Branch is therefore directly responsible for aquaculture research in Canada. Research in less commercial aspects of aquaculture is also undertaken by Canadian universities. The Prime Minister of Canada announced in early 1988 Chat the federal government would provide Can$ 1.3 thousand million to Canadian universities for scientific research during the next five years. Some of this funding will support aquaculture research and technology.
It should be noted that the focus of science and technology policy in Canada has shifted from "science" to the related but different dominion of "technology", to be closely integrated with other policies for promoting economic growth. Governments in Canada are committed to work in partnership with business, universities and labour to: encourage the commercialization of technology by promoting technology diffusion and strengthening applied research and industrial innovation; develop technologies strategic to the growth of manufacturing, service and natural resource-based sectors; ensure the availability of the necessary highly-qualified people; encourage the basic and applied research and development fundamental to Canada's scientific capability; ensure all Canadians share in the benefits and opportunities of science and technology; and ensure science and technology become an integral part of Canadian culture. Recognition was thus imperative of the private business sector role in initiating innovation and new investment, at the same time seeking collaborative mechanisms with other governments and university sectors.
Canada's programmes of research in aquaculture have been responsive to these policies, indeed are models to other technological developments, and the Canadian aquaculture industry has been the beneficiary. This was possible in part because Canada has had a fisheries research community which has been first rate and world recognized, with results disseminated widely. There remained a solid core of researchers who recognized as inevitable the growth of multi-disciplined science, including socio-economics and physical sciences as well as biology; also the trends toward applied systems approaches for holistic use of the aquatic environment, strategic rather than tactical planning, and the integration of the research planning process with development.
No aquaculture research is in progress in Greenland. However, marine biological research is undertaken by Greenland Fishery Investigation in Copenhagen and through membership of the North Atlantic Fisheries Organization, the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission, and the North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization. Economic and social research dealing with fisheries is carried out at the Innit Institute of Nuuk and the Danish University Centre of Roskilde.
Most of the aquaculture research in the USA is undertaken by three large departments of the Federal Government: the US Department of the Interior, the US Department of Commerce, and the US Department of Agriculture.
The bulk of the Department of the Interior's (USDI) aquaculture-related programmes are conducted by the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). The FWS has a comprehensive programme of research, development, extension, and training in many areas of freshwater fish production. .Most funding is appropriated by Congress with the ultimate objective being the enhancement of sport fishing. However, many of the activities and research results are applicable to commercial aquaculture. The Service has strong programmes in fish health and nutrition and many other areas of importance to aquaculture.
FWS aquaculture and related research is conducted at the National Fisheries Center (Leetown, West Virginia), eight laboratories and field stations, and five fish culture development centres. Major subjects under study include: fish disease control methods, biology of fish production, nutrition and diet, registration of fishery drugs and chemicals, improvement of cultural methods, genetics and breeding, re-use and treatment of wastewater, and evaluation of non-indigenous species for aquaculture.
All of the 25 Cooperative Fishery Research Units have the capability to conduct aquaculture research in cooperation with their host universities and state agencies. Currently, 11 of the units are conducting 16 aquaculture research projects. Much of their other research produces information that can also be used by aquaculturists.
National Fish Hatcheries produce and distribute five species of trout, seven species of anadromous salmonids, and several species of warmwater and coolwater fishes. The FWS has 16 hatchery biologists at 12 locations who provide fish disease diagnostic services, disease inspections, and certification inspections to federal, state, Indian and private hatcheries.
Also within the USDI is the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). The BIA provides funding for the construction of Indian tribal hatcheries and other aquaculture related projects. Tribal aquaculture activities include the operation of approximately 13 salmon hatcheries and commercial pilot projects. Most of the Indian aquaculture projects are in the Pacific Northwest.
Most of the Department of Commerce's aquaculture research and development activities are the responsibility of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NOAA conducts aquaculture research and development through the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and the Office of Sea Grant (OSG). Research supported by NMFS is conducted primarily by laboratories and field stations. OSG supports research through grants to universities and other entities. The technology gained from this research is utilized by private industry for commercial purposes and by public agencies for augmenting natural stocks through enhancement programmes.
In 1982, NMFS conducted aquaculture research programmes at six main laboratories and field stations. These programmes included research on development of salmon diets utilizing fish by-products as feed ingredients in diets and improved broodstock fecundity through dietary control (Seattle, Washington); monitoring smoltification enzyme activities for determination of best procedures for conditioning hatchery produced salmon for their migration into the sea, identifying diseases in salmon and developing control measures, developing biochemical and genetic techniques to identify stocks of hatchery and wild salmonids, and improved husbandry techniques for Atlantic salmon broodstock and subsequent egg production for stocking New England streams (Manchester, Washington); development of high quality salmon fry and smolts for release into the ocean, and bio-environmental estuarine and marine studies to determine the causes of fluctuations in juvenile-to-adult stage survival of both hatchery and wild salmon stocks (Auke Bay, Alaska); maturation and spawning of marine shrimp indigenous to the Gulf of Mexico, and head-start techniques for marine turtles (Galveston, Texas); diagnosis of diseases of shellfish (Oxford, Maryland); and a variety of molluscan studies on natural diets, genetics, culture methods, disinfection techniques for contaminated hatchery water for oysters, and the development of methodology for the culture of bay scallops and surf clams (Milford, Connecticut).
During 1982-83, 100 aquaculture projects were supported by the OSG, involving scientists in 30 USA academic institutions. Major centres of Sea Grant-sponsored work on aquaculture exist in all coastal and Great Lakes regions of the United States with the research generally focused on one or two species. These centres are: University of Hawaii (Malaysian prawn (Macrobrachium), and seaweeds), University of Alaska (salmon), University of Washington (salmon, bivalve molluscs, and seaweeds), Oregon State University (salmon and oysters), University of California (abalone, shrimp, lobster, and seaweeds), Texas A & M University (shrimp), South Carolina Marine Science Consortium (Macrobrachium), North Carolina (finfish), Virginia Graduate Marine Science Consortium (oysters), University of Delaware (oysters), State University of New York (finfish and bivalve molluscs), Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (bivalve molluscs), University of New Hampshire (seaweeds), and University of Wisconsin (finfish). In addition, OSG expends major funding for aquaculture education, training, advisory/extension services, and planning activities.
In 1982, over 500 aquaculture-related research activities or projects (including extension, production and marketing of aquacultural food species and products) were being undertaken or sponsored by 75 agencies and institutions within the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) - State agricultural research system. Components of the USDA-State system were chiefly USDA research agencies, the state agricultural experiment stations and land-grant colleges, Tuskegee Institute, state forestry schools and other cooperating state institutions.
Hawaii expects by 1991 to have one of the most advanced tropical aquaculture research establishments in the world. Named the Applied Aquaculture Research Center, the yet to be built facility is scheduled to draw some US$ 25 million annually in aquaculture research contracts alone. The Center will be an outgrowth of the present Oceanic Institute, which has already received US$ 6.3 million in federal funds for the project. A total matching commitment of US$ 6 million is expected from the state of Hawaii. The US Congress will provide a further US$ 4 million for equipment. The research centre will employ a staff of about 250, according to the Oceanic Institute. The institute itself is presently receiving federal funding to investigate the feasibility of shrimp farming in the United States.
In Canada the main government assistance in credit, loans and incentives for commercial aquaculture operators is through (1) the Department of Industry, Trade and Commerce, (2) the Federal Business Development Bank, (3) Department of Regional Economic Expansion and Agriculture, and (4) the Industrial Development Bank.
Credit is also available and managed through the federal-provincial Economic Regional Development Agreement. In New Brunswick, for example, the Can$ 500 000 annual ERDA budget supports aquaculture projects involving trout, salmon, oysters and mussels.
Many of the major national banks in Canada now have some in-house expertise on aquaculture which they use to establish policy guidelines and to assess loan/credit applications. The Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce in 1988 established an Aquaculture Section (and appointed a well qualified manager) to provide specialized financial services to the sub-sector. However, because aquaculture is a new industry, banks have been quite cautious in their involvement.
In the private sector, International Aquaculture Capital Corporation (Aqua Capital) was formed in 1987 to provide equity funding to smaller owner-operated aquaculture ventures in Canada.
Going public is not for everyone, but several aquaculture enterprises have successfully gone through this process to list their shares on the exchange. The Vancouver Stock Exchange (VSE) for instance has provided much assistance to companies which have needed funding but have not always had debt capital available to them. Many companies, following a successful launch, reach a stage where additional funding, beyond that available from private sources and lending institutions, is required to achieve additional growth or to pursue new goals. For Chose emerging companies the sale of shares to the public can be a good choice.
In 1987 five new aquaculture issues were listed on the Vancouver Stock Exchange: Abalone Resources, Aquarius Seafarms, Eagle Mountain Trout Farms, Royal Pacific Seafarms, and Wonder Marine Resources. This brings to 10 the number of aquaculture-related companies trading on the VSE, with several more operations considering the public financing option.
At the national level in the USA several Government-supported institutions provide loans and credit to commercial aquaculture operators.
The Small Business Administration (SBA) makes guaranteed, immediate participation, and direct loans to aquaculture operators. SBA loans may be used for purchase and improvement of land or buildings, construction, machinery and equipment, operating expenses and refinancing of debts. SBA also provides disaster loans in authorized areas. Since SBA does not separate its loan funds according to enterprise, there are no means to assess current levels of aquaculture loans.
The Farmers Home Administration (FHA) extends credit to aquaculture operators. Direct or guaranteed loans for aquacultural purposes may be used for production of aquatic organisms under controlled conditions. This involves feeding, tending, harvesting, and other activities necessary to raise and market the products. Economic emergency loans to aquaculture producers are also available from FHA.
The Farm Credit Administration (FCA) supervises and examines the banks and associations that make up the Farm Credit System. These FCA institutions make loans on commercial terms to farmers, ranchers, producers, and harvesters of aquatic products and to their cooperatives. Aquatic loans are defined as those supporting the production or harvesting of species under controlled conditions, primarily the fishing industry. The FCA considers aquaculture under controlled conditions to be a form of agriculture.
The Farm Credit System makes funds available to deserving aquacultural production applicants on the same basis as agricultural and marine fishery (vessel) loans. Loans have been made to catfish farmers in Arkansas, Mississippi, and other southern states. Several small oyster and clam operations have also been financed in the northwest and the middle Atlantic coastal areas.
The Aquaculture Association of Canada was established in 1983 and at present has 650 members representing all sectors of aquaculture in Canada. The purpose of the Association is to foster the development of aquaculture in Canada by promoting research, communication and education. An annual meeting and trade exhibition are held.
In 1988 the Association of Aquaculture Veterinarians of British Columbia (AAVBC) was established. The AAVBC is committed to serving the aquaculture industry of B.C. through the promotion of fish health management. AAVBC members have advanced knowledge and experience in one or more areas of research, diagnosis, treatment and management and are located throughout the province.
Two other national associations are (1) the Canadian Aquaculture Producers' Council, which is the umbrella organization for most of the regional and provincial aquaculture associations in the country; and (2) the Canadian Aquaculture Suppliers' Association.
The World Aquaculture Society is the main association in the USA for people concerned with any sector of aquaculture. It was formed in 1970, has a world-wide membership of over 2 000 (the majority of whom are in the USA), and holds an annual meeting and trade show.
Associations of professionals in more specialized sectors of commercial aquaculture are: (1) American Catfish Institute, (2) American Fisheries Society (Fish Culture Section), (3) Catfish Farmers of America, (4) National Ornamental Goldfish Growers' Association, (5) US Trout Farmers' Association, (6) National Shellfisheries Association, and (7) Pacific Coast Oyster Growers' Association.
Other aquaculture meetings of interest to the region include: the Aquaculture International Congress and Exposition (in Vancouver, Canada, in 1988 and 1990); the Annual Louisiana Aquaculture Conference (in Baton Rouge in 1988); the Shrimp Technology and Export Trading Show (in Florida in 1988); St. Andrews Aquaculture Fair (Canada in 1988); Aquaculture '89 (in Los Angeles in January 1989), Atlantic Aquaculture Fair (Canada in June 1989); Aquaculture Association of Canada annual meeting and trade exhibition (July 1989); World Aquaculture Business (September 1989 in New York), and Fish Farming Expo III aquaculture conference and exhibition (December 1989 in New Orleans), to name only a few of the main ones.
A wide range of international publications, journals and books dealing with aquaculture is freely available in Canada and the USA for professionals. Current copies and back issues are available at libraries of state, provincial and federal fishery and aquaculture research centres, as well as at libraries of universities and colleges having departments of aquaculture, fisheries and/or biological sciences.
The monthly Fish Farming International is popular in Canada and the USA and is easily obtained, as is Aquaculture Digest, a monthly international report on fish and shellfish farming. National magazines dealing with many aspects of aquaculture of interest to professionals are (1) Canadian Aquaculture, and (2) Aquaculture Magazine (with much news for the USA). State and federal research centres also publish aquaculture papers in their own journals.
The Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System (ASFIS) is an international information system for the science, technology and management of marine and freshwater environments, including their socio-economic and legal aspects. The system's information outputs currently include: (1) the computer searchable ASFA database and its print product derivatives, Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts (ASFA) and ASFA Aquaculture Abstracts; (2) Marine Science Contents Tables; (3) Freshwater and Aquaculture Contents Tables; (4) the ASFIS Meetings Register; and (5) the World List of Serial Titles in Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries.
For Canada and the USA the main international databases that include aquaculture are:
(1) ASFA-I (Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts).
(2) Biosis Previews (BioSciences Information Service publications).
(3) ICLARM (International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management).
(4) CAB Abstracts (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International).
(5) AGRIS International (Agricultural Sciences and Technology).
(6) Clearing House for Fisheries Advisory Services (FAO/UNDP project).
The National Agricultural Library (NAL) in the USA compiled and published two directories in 1983 for wide use in the aquaculture community:
(1) a listing of primary contacts at federal, state and county levels for assistance and information on programmes for aquaculturists, and(2) a directory of major informational resources with inquiry, literature, and datafile holdings and capabilities within the USA.
Two additional publications were being worked on in NAL: (1) an aquaculture bibliography, and (2) a comprehensive directory of major aquaculture associations, education and research resources in the USA.
Also, NAL has responsibility to operate the Aquaculture Information Center, which was established in 1985 for the purpose of collecting, analyzing and disseminating literature and other aquaculture-related materials to the aquaculture community. The National Aquaculture Improvement Act of 1985 (included in Title XVII of the Food and Security Act of 1985), authorized the establishment of this Center within the US Department of Agriculture.
The "AquaRef system" for information was developed by the Aquaculture Information Center staff as a means to improve USA aquaculture information transfer. Other activities include: representation within the Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture; creation of bibliographies and other resource tools on aquaculture for aquaculturists, extension personnel, and researchers; exploration of new computer technologies for storing full-text aquaculture publications; and networking with other libraries/information facilities to enhance the exchange of information.
The US Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, and others inform NAL of the aquaculture research information and related literature in their data banks. NAL is responsible for providing access by all user groups to aquaculture information maintained in these agency data systems. Dissemination of information is conducted through existing delivery systems and commercial trade magazines.
In 1989, NAL/ADCP/FAO cooperated to develop REGIS - a new information system using hypermedia and expert system software to provide information on aquaculture in an easy-to-use form for administrators. The first region covered by the REGIS prototype was sub-Saharan Africa; other regions may follow, including North America.
Other national databases in the USA and Canada include (1) AQUACULTURE (produced by NOAA but stopped in 1980; back records are available for searching), and (2) AGRICOLA (Agricultural Online Access, produced by the US Department of Agriculture).
There are no foreign-funded technical assistance projects in the sub-sector in North America. However, both Canada and the USA provide technical assistance - mainly to developing countries - in many sub-sectors of aquaculture. Most of the assistance is provided through their government- funded development agencies. In Canada they are the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), and the International Centre for Ocean Development (ICOD). The Agency for International Development (AID) serves as the principal foreign assistance arm of the US Government. Technical assistance with agriculture and food production includes fishery development. The fisheries staff of AID's Science and Technology Bureau handle development of both commercial fisheries and aquaculture activities. The US Peace Corps is also involved in basic level aquaculture projects in developing countries.
