The imbalance of the green revolution
Re: Your review of Vandana Shiva's The Violence of the Green Revolution (No. 140):
There is no doubt that, as Dr. Shiva points out, the Green Revolution in Punjab has led to an ecological and socio-political imbalance whose depth and vastness far exceeds that generally realized or admitted publicly. It has atrophied the choice of crops to a few - wheat, rice, cotton, sugar cane, rapeseed, mustard and maize - eliminating in the process naturally and ecologically balanced cropping systems and low-water budget crops. Presently, Punjab's agriculture could rightly be categorized as a highly efficient chemical/fertilizer/pesticide/herbicide-based "factory-like" agriculture. The upper-class landowner has mopped up the benefits of this capital-intensive Green Revolution, leaving the landless, marginal or small farmer on the wayside, groping for moorings. The whole of extension, credit, education and resource distribution is targeted at "riskworthy, economically sound patrons." Consequently, over the years, the gap has widened between haves and have-nots.
The revolution's rapid progress has also fired the aspirations of the younger generation for more economic benefits - resulting in a nouveau riche farmer class on one hand, and on the side of the have-nots, who would also like to possess the comforts and economic benefits created by this fast-changing society, a burning, hatred-cum-jealousy-ridden revenge feeling. The denial of the usual channels for the outflow of youthful energy, such as migration to foreign lands or absorption into the armed forces, along with denial of opportunities to be absorbed into higher technical professions, has further accelerated the economic disparities.
The fear of losing the river waters, the very broad base of the peasantry, was thus the flash-point, and the "fear psychosis" finally led to the type of conflict witnessed in the past decade. As long as the latent threat continues to exist, there cannot be a lasting solution to the conflicts raised in the Green Revolution's wake.
The Green Revolution is the cause, but not the culprit. The remedy lies first in accelerating economic development and industrialization, based on equity and distribution of wealth, so as to wean people from dependence on land as their sole source of wealth; second in setting peasants' fears of losing the river waters at rest. The more quickly steps are taken to alleviate these fears and provide alternate avenues of income, the better it will be for restoring normalcy in the Green Revolution belt.
R.S. Narang
Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana, India
African land reform: assertions unfounded
The articles on land reform in No. 139 were very interesting and stimulating. However, I'd like to comment on A.B.M. Mafeje's article, "Where the theory doesn't fit":
Mafeje emphasizes that attempts to establish freehold or private property in land may be premature at Africa's present stage of development, while the award of leasehold, recognition of the potential of smallholders and a review of women's land rights may constitute important elements of an agrarian reform strategy for alleviating poverty. I tend to agree with these positions, and think the leasehold system may be an intermediate stage before freehold can be established.
However, Mafeje makes a number of assertions not borne out by facts. For example, he says African farmers are resisting individualization of land rights, and this is a measure of their confidence in traditional systems. He further asserts that African farmers have chosen to forestall development of a market in land by insisting on customary tenure systems, and that governments which have adopted leasehold systems intended the same.
Distribution of sample fields according to tenure status
|
Tenure status |
% fields by country |
|||
|
Nigeria |
Cameroon |
Togo |
All |
|
|
Purchased/gift |
57 |
100 |
11 1 |
94 |
|
Divided inheritance |
486 |
560 |
252 |
373 |
|
Undivided inheritance |
338 |
336 |
328 |
332 |
|
Secondary access |
11 9 |
04 |
309 |
201 |
|
Total |
1000 |
1000 |
1000 |
1000 |
|
(N) |
654 |
411 |
1240 |
2305 |
Nigeria, southern Togo and south-central Cameroon found land owned/used by sample households falls into four tenure categories: purchased/received as gift, divided inheritance, undivided inheritance and secondary access. Divided inheritance means land is divided among heirs giving each full control over their own parcel, though this may not always imply private property or freehold. Land held under undivided inheritance means land passes to heirs collectively, with the result that no one person has absolute control over any part. Secondary access generally implies that land is obtained through a rental agreement, loan or pledge.
The table below shows the distribution of fields (a proxy for land area, which could not be accurately measured) according to tenure status. The predominance of divided inheritance in Nigeria and Cameroon and its eminence in Togo clearly refutes Mafeje's claim that African farmers are resisting individualization of land rights. In fact, it was observed in the study areas in all three countries that, with increased population pressure and urbanization, the amount of land under higher level lineage control is diminishing and land is being loaned, pledged, rented and sold, although some of these transactions may not have the sanction of law.
M.A. Jabbar
International Livestock Centre for Africa
Ibadan, Nigeria
Dream Green, Ceres
I'd like to convey the gratitude of a very large number of research scholars and students in this city for Ceres, which is also popular among academicians from disciplines outside of agriculture.
We plan to hold an exhibition of back issues of Ceres, under the title:
"Dream Green, Ceres." We hope to take it to state level, to create awareness of how things are around the world. Can you tell us how to obtain extra issues of the magazine, for use in this exhibit?
Sanjay Misra
Allahabad, India
Ed. Note: Thank you for your encouraging words. A set of back issues dating to the resumption of publication by Ceres in 1990 has been sent to you.
Bravo bubalis (but aren't those zebus?)
Ceres has done a great service to Bubalus bubalis by publishing "The Duce syndrome" and "A member of the family" in No. 141. Despite the misgivings of some of our experts, B. bubalis enjoys favored dairy animal status in Pakistan. This is evident from the fact that there are 15.03 million buffaloes in the country, compared to 17.78 million head of cattle - while 71 per cent of the milk consumed in Pakistan comes from buffaloes. Pakistan has nine per cent of the world's buffaloes, but produces 30 per cent of global buffalo milk, which says a lot about the quality of our animals. In terms of buffalo-to-human ratio, Pakistan ranks number one, at 1: 6, compared to India (1: 10) and China (1: 25).
I'd like to point out an error in the photo caption on p. 38 of the issue. The animals shown pulling the plow are. zebu bullocks, not water buffalo. I hope this minor display of the Duce syndrome was unintentional.
Ashiq H. Cheema
Director, Animal Sciences Institute
Islamabad, Pakistan
Ed. Note: Pakistan does indeed deserve congratulations for its successful work with dairy buffaloes. As for the photo, you are correct - they are zebus. Ceres blushes, and apologizes for the slip.
Africa's peasants are 'exploited to the bone'
In reading Ruth Gruber's article, "Running against the tide" (No. 139), I sensed how often in Poland the political parties seem to be fighting for good conditions for the poor peasants of that country. In Africa, it's a rare political party that fights for a better future for peasants. Rather, if a party decides to defend the interests of the peasantry, it's soon listed as subversive, a troubler of public order, etc. The peasant masses represent the majority of the population in most African countries. Yet for the African leadership, it seems the peasant is someone to exploit to the bone.
Victor Kinmagbahohoue
Ouesse, Benin
