by
O. Souvannavong, M. Malagnoux1 & C. Palmberg-Lerche
Forest Resources Division
Vialle delle Terme di Caracalla
001000 Rome, Italy
1 Secretary Silva Mediterranea c/o FAO
INTRODUCTION - THE MEDITERRANEAN ENVIRONMENT
Many writers and painters have depicted the splendour and diversity of Mediterranean landscapes, where forms and colours, light, relief and vegetation, combine splendidly. Characteristic landscapes thus portrayed include both natural ecosystems and areas of human influence: the cedar forests of North Africa, the pine forests of Calabria in Southern Italy and on the island of Corsica, the fir forests of Greece and Turkey, open stands of evergreen holm oak associated with pasture in Spain, the fertile oasis gardens of the township of Damas in Syria characterized by poplars and fruit trees, and others. The Mediterranean environment is a unique combination of harmony, contrast and diversity.
Throughout the paper the concepts, “the Mediterranean region” and “the Mediterranean”, unless otherwise stated, refer to the geographic, rather than the eco-regional zone (i.e. to the countries of the Mediterranean Basin).
The Mediterranean vegetation is the result of prevailing climatic conditions, characterized by a long hot and dry summer, and irregular but intense winter rains. These conditions lead to severe fire risks in summer heightened by dry winds and strong solar radiation, and to problems of water erosion in winter. Another feature common to the Mediterranean region is its extreme spacial fragmentation into a mosaic of vegetation types, which is the consequence of micro-variations in climate, topography and soils, coupled with a long history of human colonization.
The Mediterranean is often considered uniform, and is frequently referred to as “the region of the olive tree”. However, its very rich flora comprises some 25 000 higher plant species, of which approximately one-half are endemics. Some forest tree species such as the holm oak, Quercus ilex, and aleppo pine, Pinus halepensis, have a wide natural distribution, but most others have a more limited occurrence and are often restricted to relatively small areas, such as Cedrus brevifolia and Quercus alnifolia which are found only on the island of Cyprus. Many relatively widespread tree species, such as Pinus nigra and Cupressus sempervirens, are characterized by a disjunct distribution.
While constituting 11% of the world's land area, forests and woodlands in the Mediterranean region account for only 3% of the forests of the world, and contain only 2% of their standing volume (FAO 1994). This indicates that attention to forestry in this region has been either mediocre or poor.
In the south and the east of the Mediterranean Basin deforestation and degradation of woodlands is accelerating due to clearing for agriculture and overgrazing, leading to severe deterioration of mountain watersheds and desertification in drylands. In its northern and western parts, woodlands are frequently abandoned, un-managed and ravaged by fires. Increasing tourism in some areas adds to the pressures on the often fragile ecosystems (FAO 1993a, Marchand 1990, Seigue 1985).
Between the years 1981 and 1990, the average annual deforestation rate in the tropics was 0.8% (FAO 1993b), while the deforestation rate in developing countries in the Mediterranean was estimated at 1.0% (FAO 1994). This high rate is very worrying, and is largely unknown to the general public and frequently ignored by decision-makers. Raising of awareness and strengthened action aimed at the conservation and sustainable use of Mediterranean forests and woodlands and the genetic resources they contain, should be considered of highest priority.
INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES IN MEDITERRANEAN FORESTRY
Conscious of the value of the forests in the Mediterranean Basin, foresters meeting at the Ninth International Congress on Agriculture and Silviculture in Madrid in 1911 recommended the creation of a mechanism to facilitate cooperation in studies of problems facing the Mediterranean forests and “Silva Mediterranea” was established in 1922. One of the main tasks of Silva Mediterranea, which is since 1948 a statory body of FAO, is the coordination of forestry research in the Mediterranean through the establishment of coordinated research networks. Work is harmonised with that of other relevant FAO Statutory Bodies, including the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources (see e.g. article pp. 58 or FGRI no. 21), and is carried out in close cooperation with organizations such as the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO). Activities related to forest genetic resources form an important part of the research activities of Silva Mediterranea, and include its pioneering efforts in the exploration, exchange, evaluation and conservation of forest genetic resources.
The Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), adopted in 1975 at an International United Nations Environment Programme Conference in Barcelona, was originally aimed at the control of marine pollution and sea shore protection. However, it soon became apparent that there was a need to extend the mandate of the MAP also to the conservation of terrestrial ecosystems, with due consideration to socio-economic conditions and requirements. The Mediterranean “Blue Plan” was elaborated in response to such needs.
In 1988, the European Economic Community (EEC) adopted a Medium Term Action Programme for the Protection of the Mediterranean Environment (MEDSAP), complemented by a financial plan for investments in environmental programmes in low-income areas of the EEC (ENVIREG), including countries in the Mediterranean region. The same year (1988), the World Bank and the European Investment Bank launched a joint programme for the Mediterranean environment, in which they defined an environmental policy and corresponding, identified investment needs of the Mediterranean countries.
In response to repeated requests from the countries of the region for assistance in the elaboration of an action-oriented forestry programme for the Mediterranean, the Mediterranean Forest Action Programme (MED-FAP) was formulated over the past several years within the framework of Silva Mediterranea. MEDFAP has been conceived as a regional umbrella, under which the elaboration and implementation of National Forest Action Plans can be harmonized and supported. The Programme, which places emphasis on sustainable forest management and the conservation of biological diversity and genetic resources, has recently been adopted by the countries in the region (FAO 1993).
THE SILVA MEDITERRANEA RESEARCH NETWORKS
Within the framework of the country-driven research networks established and coordinated by Silva Mediterranea, a number of activities are under way for the conservation and management of genetic resources of native as well as introduced forest tree species. The research networks in this field include, among others, the following (FAO 1992):
“Selection of Stands of Mediterranean Conifers for the Production of Seeds for Reforestation Programmes”;
“Selection of Multipurpose Tree Species for Arid and Semi-Arid Zones”;
“Silviculture of Species: Cedrus spp.”;
“Silviculture of Species: Quercus suber”;
“Silviculture of Species: Pinus pinea”.
Among the achievements of the Silva Mediterranea research networks, the following can be highlighted:
Exploration of the natural ranges of distribution, and selection and documentation of seed stands of the following species: Abies cephalonica, A. nordmanniana, A. pinsapo, Cedrus atlantica, C. libani, Cupressus sempervirens, Pinus brutia, P. halepensis, P. nigra, P. pinaster, P. pinea. National research institutes in a total of ten countries in the Mediterranean cooperate in network activities, which have continued in this field since 1963. Remnant populations of the endangered species, Abies nebrodensis (Italy) and Cupressus dupreziana (Algeria), have also been explored, documented and publicized by the network, and reproductive materials have been collected from them for ex situ conservation measures aimed at complementing recommended in situ conservation strategies.
Establishment of species and provenance trials for Pinus brutia and Pinus halepensis in four countries in the Mediterranean Basin, and in Mediterranean climate zones in some countries outside of it (Australia; Chile; California, USA).
Introduction and field testing of 30 provenances of Eucalyptus camaldulensis, including 16 sites in 8 countries in the Mediterranean. These experiments, initiated in the late 1960s, were the first internationally coordinated provenance trials of this important species. The experiments evidenced drastic differences between provenances, and highlighted the fundamental importance of prior field testing and accurate provenance selection for plantation success. Results from them, further, strongly confirmed the importance of rainfall regime to species and provenance adaptation, as the best performing provenances in the region originated, without fail, in winter rainfall areas in their native Australia. This important, general principle was confirmed by the fact that the best-performing provenances in corresponding field trials established in a number of tropical countries, systematically originated in the summer rainfall areas of Australia (see e.g. Lacaze 1978).
Organization within the framework of Silva Mediterranea of two Seminars on Cedrus spp. (Turkey, October 1990 and Morocco, June 1993). The meetings helped take stock of available knowledge on species of this important genus, including results from a large-scale programme established between 1972 and 1978 on five sites in France, in which 68 provenances of Cedrus atlantica, C. libani, C. deodara and C. brevifolia were included. Following an inventory of cedar genetic resources and the identification of national seed stands, started in 1972 in Morocco, 1982 in Turkey and 1986 in Algeria, 46 provenances of Cedrus atlantica and Cedrus libani were distributed in 1992–93 to 10 countries in the Mediterranean for field testing within the framework of network activities.
Initiation of a programme aimed at the conservation and wise use of genetic resources of cork oak, Quercus suber. Appropriate strategies are presently being elaborated by the Silva Mediterranea network in collaboration with the European Forest Genetic Resources Network (EUFORGEN), which was established in follow-up to a resolution on the conservation of forest genetic resources passed at the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, held in Strasbourg (France) in December 1990 (Anon 1990).
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In order to reverse the current trends of decline of forests and woodlands in the Mediterranean, including degradation of ecosystems and loss of genetic resources housed in them, there is a need greatly to increase awareness at all levels of the present, alarming state of these resources and of their unique social, economic, environmental, aesthetic and cultural values. Strengthening national institutions and facilitating interchange and transfer of information, know-how, technologies and genetic materials between them, is an urgent priority in this respect.
The Silva Mediterranea research networks have played an important role in fostering forestry research in the Mediterranean and have helped catalyze collaborative programmes in a number of fields. The association with IUFRO has been decisive in the success of activities undertaken. This mutually beneficial collaboration should continue, while action should also be closely coordinated with that of other international actors to ensure complementarity.
Work on genetic resources of Mediterranean forest tree species has continued over a number of years and, in many aspects, it has been of a pioneering nature. Some important results have been achieved which provide a sound basis for continued action towards the conservation and sustainable use of the main species concerned. Additional and strengthened efforts are, however, needed to generate further information on the distribution, distribution patterns, reproduction, genetics and silvics of priority species in order better to define and implement appropriate strategies for safeguarding these valuable resources. Special emphasis should be placed on strengthening cooperation between scientists from the countries north and south of the Mediterranean Basin, and on the exchange of know-how and experiences in the application of new technological tools to traditional conservation and tree breeding strategies. As an example, cooperative research in the use of genetic markers in investigating diversity and variation patterns in cedar species has already been started within the framework of Silva Mediterranea; this work could be most usefully extended also to Mediterranean oaks.
To succeed, conservation must be considered an integral part of development, not a constraint to it. Implementation of national and regional strategies which harmonize the conservation of genetic resources with their sustainable use, is a key to conservation of Mediterranean ecosystems and the genetic resources they contain, in the short as well as in the long term.
REFERENCES
Anon. (1990). Report on the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe. Strasbourg, France 17–19 December 1990. 258 pp. (Available from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, France).
FAO (1990). Report on the 7th Session of the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources (including forest genetic resources priorities). FAO, Rome. 79 pp.
FAO (1992). Report on the 15th Session of the Committee on Mediterranean Forestry Questions, “Silva Mediterranea”. FAO, Rome. 37 pp.
FAO (1993a). Mediterranean Forest Action Programme. FAO, Rome. 77 pp.
FAO (1993b). Forest Resources Assessment 1990. Non-Tropical Developing Countries. FAO, Rome 59 pp.
FAO (1994). Forest Resources Assessment 1990 Project: Forest Resources of the Mediterranean Region. FAO, Rome (in press).
Grenon, M. and Batisse, M. (1989). Futures for the Mediterranean Basin: The Blue Plan. UNEP, Nairobi & Oxford Univ. Press (UK). 279 pp. (Second Edition published in 1991).
Lacaze, J.F. (1978). Etude d'ladaptation ecologique des Eucalyptus; etude de provenances d'Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Projet FAO No6. Proc. FAO/IUFRO Third World Consultation on Forest Tree Breeding, Canberra Australia March 1977. Vol. I, Invited Paper FO-FTB-77-2/29, pp. 393–410. CSIRO, Canberra (Australia).
Marchand, H. (Ed). (1990). Les forêts méditerranéennes: enjeux et perspectives. In: Plan d'Action pour la Méditerraneée. Les Fascicules du Plan Bleu No 2. Centre d'Activités Régionales du Plan Bleu pour la Méditerranée, 49 Rue Héricart, Paris (France). 108pp.
Seigue, A. (1985). In: La forêt circum-méditerranéenne et ses problèmes. Agence de Cooperation Culturelle et Technique, Paris (France). 496 pp.
Souvannavong, O.; Malagnoux, M. & Palmberg-Lerche, C. (1994). International cooperation in the conservation of Mediterranean forest genetic resources. DIVERSITY (in press)
Forest Genetic Resources No. 22 FAO, Rome (1994)
Adopted from an article “International cooperation in the conservation of Mediterranean forest genetic resources” contributed in 1994 by the authors to DIVERSITY (in press)
