"The work of the consultant is a link between the financiers and the executioners of aquaculture projects and is reviewed. Some of the problems faced by both financiers and executioners, such as insurance of the projects and credits, etc. are analyzed." [Abstract]

"A brief account is given of the current situation regarding the culture of Eucheuma in Bali, Indonesia. Production figures and marketing data are included and some problems facing culture systems are outlined briefly." [Abstract]

"This is a summary of the author’s speech at the National Seminar on Current and Emerging Trends in Aquaculture and its Impact on Rural Development, Berhampur, February 14-16, 1995. It highlights various diseconomics of aquaculture." [from Abstract]

The utilization of the potential area for shrimp culture in the traditional system was very meagre - just 1.8% of the total estimated available area of 1.45 million ha. The traditional paddy and fish culture and paddy-cum-fish culture systems and the return on investment are explained. Basic studies were made to find out the seasonal seed availability in different regions. As vast potential area are available, shrimp culture will minimize the present 75% idle capacity of the Indian seafood processing industry which is overdependent on shrimp as its major product for export. Furthermore, adding more areas to culture has a direct impact on the socio-economic status of the rural population.

311. Krishna, G.G., Razvi, S.S.H., Tiwari, B.N., Reddy, P.R. and Harnadh, P. 1989. Extensive and semi-intensive culture of milkfish Chanos chanos (Forskal). In: Srivastava, U.S. (ed.). Proceedings of the National Symposium on Utilization of Living Resources of the Indian Seas. December 19-21, 1987, Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay. pp. 235-240. [Brackishwater Fish Farm, CIFE, ICAR, Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh, India]

"Experiments have been conducted in 1987 on two farming systems for milkfish (Chanos chanos) under extensive and semi-intensive management. The common factors such as plankton biomass, physico-chemical parameters that may influence production for each system are also discussed. It is observed that the milkfish culture practised under extensive management resulted in 1.6 to 1.9 t/ha, whereas semi-intensive management yielded 3.8 to 4.0 t/ha. The economics of the experiment indicates that rural masses who cannot afford to take up prawn culture can very well go for milkfish culture." [from Abstract]

"The nature and extent of the spread of brackishwater aquaculture in the Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh, India is examined. The economics and financial viability of the farms in this area under different systems of operation are studied. The analysis is indicative of the necessity to apportion the investment outlays with a reasonable degree of sensitivity for sustained operations. Inputs like seed, feed and management entail heavy outlays under semi-intensive culture systems, leading to less than proportionate increase in output and profits over successive periods of investment. The analysis is also indicative that the improved extensive system of operation is probably the ideal system for sustainable aquaculture." [Abstract]

"The American Consulate General in Madras, India has prepared a 22-page report on India’s fishing industry in 1991. The report contains an industry overview and sections on fisheries catch, exports, fleet, international agreements and fisheries investment. The report describes the performance of the India fishing industry during 1990-1991 and its prospects for 1992. Catch held steady for the third consecutive year at 2.2 million t. Exports increased a record 25.8% by quantity to 139 419 t and 41% in value to $US 314 million. Fishery exports are expected to rise further in value to $US 529 million in 1991-1992. The Government of India is actively promoting aquaculture in light of declining catch and concern about marine shrimp resource overexploitation. The Government has liberalized regulations to encourage joint ventures in the marine fisheries sector and tap the largely unexplored 4.5 million t of potential marine fish resources. Sponsored by the National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland." [from Abstract]

"The role of insurance against input cost in freshwater aquaculture and brackishwater shrimp culture is discussed." [Abstract]

"This manual deals with the methods of freshwater fish culture in undrainable ponds as practised in India. The manual is primarily meant for extension workers and aquaculture training institutions. It outlines the basic principles of fish culture and the characteristics of undrainable ponds. The systems of composite carp culture and composite carp culture livestock farming have been described. Methods of improvement of existing ponds and construction of new ponds have been included. The suitable species for culture, procurement of their seed, stocking ratios of various species under composite culture, etc., have been discussed. Pond management, both pre-stocking and post-stocking, including fish health management and management of common hazards have been dealt with. It also contains information on the marketing and economics of fish culture in undrainable ponds." [from Abstract]

A brief status report of mussel culture in Calicut is presented. Information on socio-economic conditions of the mussel farmers is given and the progress and restraints of the CMFRI’s aquaculture development programme in the area are evaluated.

"A brief review is made of the current practice of shrimp farming examining criteria of selection and production systems. The following systems are considered: (i) traditional or extensive shrimp farming; (ii) semi-intensive systems; and (iii) intensive systems. Major technical considerations to take into account for culture system selection include seed supply, feed availability, marketable size, technical manpower experience and site. The three main economic factors also affect the selection: capital input, availability and cost of land, and production target. Details are given of the principal cost and benefits to be derived from each culture system; the economics of shrimp farming are shown, including estimates of the key projection and internal rate of return calculation." [Abstract]

"Information is presented regarding the biology and culture of Lates calcarifer, in order to serve as a practical guide for extension workers and farmers. Hatchery design, seed production and hatchery techniques, culture of seabass and financial aspects of the seabass culture industry are described." [Abstract]

The study is intended to assess the adequacy of fry and fingerling supply in meeting the needs of the aquaculture industry. The results of the study indicate that the thinness of the market for fry and fingerling is a major factor that will influence the development of the industry. Unless the grow-out farmers expand their operations or new areas are opened up for fish and prawn culture, further investments in fry and fingerling operations will result in reduced returns or losses. Being the single largest component of operating cost for fry and fingerling production, the importance of labour in the industry is emphasized.

"This paper examines compliance among trawler fishermen with the zoning regulation in Peninsular Malaysia. A theoretical model that extends the traditional deterrence model is developed to explain compliance behaviour. Probit and logit econometric models are used to estimate the violation decision of 318 Peninsular Malaysian fishermen. The Tobit model is used to estimate the extent of violations. The key result that emerges is that moral, legitimacy factors, and social influences are significant determinants of compliance behaviour. This support the argument that the pure deterrence model of compliance which focuses primarily on the probability of detection and conviction and the penalty as the key determinants of compliance, provide only a partial explanation of compliance behaviour. From a policy perspective, moral, legitimacy, and social influence variables can complement the efficiency goal in any enforcement programme by encouraging voluntary compliance and, thus, reducing the need for large expenditures on enforcement inputs to secure compliance." [Abstract]

"The structure, costs and margins of the marketing system for common carp from floating net cages in the Saguling Reservoir are evaluated. Local traders, retailers and government officials all cooperated in the study. The system responded effectively to changing conditions and markets fish quite efficiently at a low cost and with small marketing margins at the local trader and the retail levels examined." [Abstract]

"One of the ways to increase income among fish farmers in Tasikmalaya District in the southern part of Java in Indonesia is the adoption of an integrated fish chicken farming system known locally as longyam. The management of longyam is generally based on tradition, past experience and comparison with neighbours. The study examines the efficiency of the present management system and compares it with an optimal system generated by linear programming. The optimal solutions can substantially increase total net revenue. To achieve this, extension efforts should be intensified to introduce new technology, and managerial practices improved to increase productivity. Although increased income can also be achieved by expanding the land area, this alternative is not possible due to serious limitations of land availability." [Abstract]

"Effects of poultry manure and gobar gas slurry on the growth, production, protein and lipid contents in catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labea rohita) and mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) have been studied. These manures, especially poultry, were capable of enhancing the growth, production, protein and lipid yields of the carp. The poultry manure possessed the productive potentiality and capability of increasing the income from a pond at cheaper rate." [Abstract]

"An experiment on integrated duck-cum-fish farming was conducted in 11 ponds of 0.1 ha each at the Fisheries Research Institute, Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Khaki Campbell layer ducks, Anas platyrhynchos, were housed directly over the pond water surface at 200, 400 and 500 ducks/ha. Each density had three replicate ponds and two ponds had no ducks. Fish fingerlings were stocked at a total density of 8 850/ha. The species composition was silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, 33.9%; catla, Catla catla, 12.4%; rohu, Labeo rohita, 18.1%; mrigala, Cirrhina mrigala, 28.8%; grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, 1.4%; and sor puti, Puntius gonionotu,s 5.4%. The fish were not given any supplemental feed, and the ponds were not fertilized except for the split duck feed and duck manure falling directly into the ponds. Ducks were fed twice daily with a feed formulated from locally available ingredients.

After one year the fish were harvested. The yield of fish increased with an increase in duck density. The highest annual net fish production of 4 250 kg/ha/yr was obtained from ponds with 500 ducks/ha, compared to 490 kg/ha/yr from the control ponds. Manure of each duck contributed a net fish yield of 6.9-7.5 kg/year. Average annual egg production was 237 eggs per female duck per year. Economic analysis of the technology showed a net profit of about 100% of the total costs, indicating the economic viability of the technology." [Abstract]

"A survey of grow-out tilapia cage farming in Laguna de Bay, Philippines, was conducted in two towns in Rizal Province. The resulting analyses indicate low financial performance and poor economic viability of grow-out tilapia cage farming in this part of the lake during the 1980-1982 seasons. Overcrowding of cages in limited areas, poaching and typhoon damage were the major reasons for poor performance." [Abstract]

"The results of two sets of milkfish (Chanos chanos) culture experiments conducted in the polyethylene film lined ponds at Calicut sea shore are given. Maximum instantaneous growth rate (1.8219-1.2155) was observed for fish which were stocked at a smaller size (16.3-53.6 mm) and minimum (0.5433-0.3727) for the fish which were stocked at a bigger size (104 and 107 mm). A maximum survival rate of 88.8% in 180 days was observed for the fish which were stocked at 16.3 mm size under 1/m ² stocking density; whereas for fish which were stocked at a higher stocking size of 130.5 mm it was 99.0% for 107 days under the same stocking rate. Highest production of 1 882 kg/ha/181 days under 2/m ² stocking density and 1751 kg/ha/180 days under 1/m² stocking density was obtained. The economics of the culture operation were studied and optimum stocking size, stocking density, pond size and culture period are suggested. Earlier reports on the culture of milkfish are compared with the present results." [Abstract]

"Details are given of experiments conducted at Calicut to culture milkfish (Chanos chanos) in ponds dug out in sandy beaches and lined with polyethylene film. Methods involved in the preparation of the ponds, seed collection, feed, growth and survival of the fish are described. The production rates of the fish in the ponds and the economics of the culture operation are analyzed. Recommendations for maximum growth and survival for milkfish in such ponds are included." [Abstract]

"This paper examines the entire milkfish system in Taiwan (P.C.), including fry gathering and marketing, baitfish production, market-size rearing, and marketing. A constant elasticity of substitution (CES) production function is used to estimate input- output relationships for baitfish and market size production systems, with all inputs classified into labour and capital. An important finding is that the elasticity of substitution between labour and capital exceeds unity indicating rather easy substitutability between the two inputs. Rates of return to marketing intermediaries were found to be high for both fry and market size milkfish." [Abstract]

"Economic aspects of the Taiwanese milkfish resource system and its major subsystems of fry procurement, baitfish rearing, market-size rearing and marketing are presented. Fry gathering takes place primarily in the southern and eastern coasts of the island with transfer through middlemen to a small number of dealers in Tainan City. Gatherers receive 80% of the price paid by fishpond operators.

Baitfish farms rear milkfish fingerlings for the use of tuna longliners based in Tungkang and Kaohsiung. The benefit cost ratio, factor productivity and rate of baitfish farm income were found to be high, but with demand for baitfish levelling off, there is only limited potential for expansion of this sector of the system. In contrast, farms that rear milkfish for the consumer market were found to be much less profitable and efficient. In fact, the benefit cost ratio was lower than the opportunity cost of capital.

A constant elasticity of substitution production function was employed for both baitfish and market size milkfish rearing farm data and showed significant labour-saving and capital intensification on the former. On the latter, the substitutability of capital for labour was easier on farms smaller than 3 ha than on large farms.

Producers of market size milkfish receive, on average, 74% of the retail price. Marketing margins and costs have, however, increased significantly since 1974. Only 15% of the total harvest is marketed through cooperatives, most producers apparently preferring to sell through wholesalers who offer more flexible credit, payment and transport facilities.

The relative importance of milkfish in Taiwanese aquaculture is declining in the face of higher profitability of other species, particularly shrimps, crabs and tilapia. If milkfish is to remain a prominent aquaculture product of Taiwan, it is concluded that milkfish production per unit area must be increased beyond its current 2 100 kg/ha/yr, perhaps through the use of deepwater systems." [Abstract]

"Milkfish (Chanos chanos) is one of the most important brackishwater fish species cultured in Southeast Asia. Total annual production from the Philippines, Taiwan, and Indonesia exceeds 300 ppp tonnes. To replace the wild caught fry from the hatchery has been one of the major research topics during the past two decades. Through international cooperation, milkfish fry production technology has been established in both intensive and extensive systems. An intensive system requires higher capital investment and more labour and utility costs, but provides consistent and higher unit production (10 fry water volume). An extensive system, on the other hand, requires less energy input and labour, but provides less control of the system. In Taiwan, eight hatcheries produced more than 116 million fry in 1991. In this report, we present a state of the art milkfish fry production system and compare the production cost of milkfish fry using a hatchery economic model." [Abstract]

"The coastal zone of the Republic of Korea has been intensively used for various purposes, including fishery, mariculture, marine transportation, reclamation, industrial activities, tourism and waste disposal. The lack of coordination among several governmental bodies responsible for regulating various coastal activities, has resulted in serious conflicts between different coastal uses. In addition, under the development- oriented national policy, the issues of environment conservation have received a low priority in the process of decision making. In the mid-1980s, with increasing recognition of the importance of coastal resources and growing public concerns about environmental degradation, the Korean Government embarked on efforts to formulate a comprehensive management programme for the Korean coastal zone." [Abstract]

"The yellowtail culture in Korea started in early 1980 and recently culture of fish, seabass, rock fish, red seabream, puffer fish and other fishes have been developed. However, like any other industry (without exception), Korean fish culture began with the ‘trial and error’ method during its development. Korean finfish culture is faced with various problems such as fishing ground, information on marketing, capital, and techniques." [from Abstract]

"The fact that all six ASEAN members are coastal nations with some 25 million Asians relying on fisheries, aquaculture and allied industries underscores the value of coastal resources in national economic development. Historically, and until the present day, Southeast Asian seas have been passageways for the transfer of commodities, peoples, cultures and technologies. Drawing from the Thai experience, and citing the advances made in integrated coastal resources management (CRM) through the ASEAN-US Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP), this keynote address exhorts ASEAN leaders to follow well-structured, specific policies for the sustainable utilization of coastal resources and the development of coastal areas." [from Abstract]

"Rice-fish farming is expanding rapidly in Thailand, particularly in the northeast, where local ecological, economic and social circumstances have become highly conducive to its spread. A number of government and non-governmental agencies are becoming increasingly involved in promoting rice-fish through different approaches. The example elaborated here is from the Northeast Fishery Project of the Thai Department of Fisheries. This project stresses the farmer’s perspective. The approach involves two way communication between the Department and farmer target groups. Within the ‘Fish in the Ricefield’ Programme, the main extension mechanism is training and demonstration complemented by follow up." [Abstract]

"There are two distinct systems being tested in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. One system uses raceways in the hatchery phase while the other system uses floating tanks. Both systems utilize floating platforms with plastic trays for the nursery phase. Clams are then grown out on shallow fringe reefs. The estimated cost of producing eight-month old T. gigas of about 2.5 cm for the raceway hatchery system is $US 0.41/clam while the cost for the floating tank hatchery system is

$US 0.23/clam. The cost of raising the clams to about three years old is estimated to be $US 5.08/clam for a combined raceway hatchery system and floating platform nursery and $US 4.83/clam for a combined floating tank hatchery system and floating platform nursery. Total costs amount to $US 9.44/clam if the clams are then grown out for another two years on shallow fringe reefs for the system using raceways in the hatchery phase and $US 9.13/clam for the other system using floating tanks." [from Abstract]

"Fisheries production in China has increased tremendously from 1 million t in 1951 to over 12 million t in 1990. Increases in aquaculture production and the implementation of the production contract responsibility system in 1978 have been identified as two key factors contributing to this rapid growth. In 1990, freshwater aquaculture accounted for about 36% of total fisheries production. The fastest growing component of freshwater aquaculture production is pond fish culture. This paper traces the development of freshwater pond fish culture since economic reform. Economic, social and technological factors affecting national and regional development trends are examined. Discussions are based largely on recent field visits by the authors to fish farms in various parts of China, and several case studies." [Abstract]

"A review is presented of the various marine resources and their potential, concerning fishing, aquaculture, transportation, pollution, hydrocarbons and solid minerals, renewable energy and ocean thermal energy conversion. Administrative problems confronting their rational management in Sri Lanka are examined, considering coastal area management and development, management issues, and alternatives." [Abstract]

"There are 305 islands off the shore of Shandong, China. The areas of most of them are less than 0.1 km², and the heights are lower than 20 m. The islands can be divided into base rock islands (including islands, a chain of islands and land-tied islands) and alluvial islands (including barrier islands and shell barrier islands) on the basis of the lithology. According to their different characteristics, these islands can be used as a base for the cultivation of marine delicacies and as a scenic spot or summer resort." [Abstract]

"Since 1991, China’s fisheries production has continued to exceed 10 million t/yr. It has increased tremendously from a mere 1 million t in 1951 to over 15 million t in 1992. Rapid aquaculture development has been identified as the key factor contributing to the remarkable growth of the Chinese fishery. Freshwater aquaculture accounts for about 36% of total fisheries production. Its growth can be attributed to scientific advances, adoption of new technologies, and expanded use of existing bodies of water and aquatic resources, all set in the context of economic reform and an open door foreign policy. The novel techniques of Chinese pond fish farming have made China the world leader in freshwater aquaculture. The production from freshwater fish culture had increased from 0.81 million t in 1979 to 5.3 million t in 1992. Chinese farmers with little land have recognized aquaculture as an effective avenue to wealth. This is particularly true in rural areas where aquaculture plays an active role in the continuing transformation towards a market economy. Aquaculture now takes its place as a significant segment of the ‘vegetable blanket’, covering 1.2 billion Chinese, as it contributes more and more to increasing living standards. Aquaculture products also comprise a growing portion of the international market, in which China is becoming more competitive. In China, with its rich resources in water, fish and labour, aquaculture is a central life force with its own vigorous social economic ecological vitality. It is a thriving industry." [from Abstract]

"The output of the kelp (Laminaria japonica) cultivated on the ropes of raft along with the current increased by 33% in 1990 and 35.6% in 1991 because of tying floats to the kelp seedling ropes. Either the fresh or the dried kelp is thicker than those cultivated without tying the floats to the seedling ropes. The first class of the kelp for sale is more increased." [from Abstract]

"Based on extensive research on the propagation of squids (Sepiella), several egg attaching devices are compared and relative problems such as the setting of the propagation area, the necessary conditions for propagation and economic benefits are discussed." [Abstract]

"This paper outlines the brief history of the study of Hippocampus, its ecological habits and characteristics and the experience of trial culture. The importance and indispensability of feeding with fresh and living planktonic copepod at its fry stage is emphasized, as such feed is both nutritious and suitable in size for the consumption of Hippocampus and good for the promotion of growth development and for the enhancement of disease resistance and survival rate. In order to promote the development of Hippocampus culture, the author suggests the founding of the Hippocampus fingerlings supply ground and its cultural technological consultative services in cooperation with the coastal shrimp breeding farms. It is expected that once the productive artificial propagation of Hippocampus succeeds and is popularized comprehensively, its economic and social benefits would be considerable." [from Abstract]

"An analysis of aquaculture marketing is important because it is often considered to be the main constraint to further development of aquaculture. This paper reviews and discusses the various constraints associated with aquaculture marketing systems and market outlets for aquaculture products. Alternatives for aquaculture marketing systems are also discussed in this paper. The successful aquaculture industry will depend on the formulation of alternatives to improve the economic viability of farming operations." [Abstract]

"In this paper, the productivity, product cost, and the potential for increased productivity through resources adjustment under existing technology are examined for 100 freshwater shrimp farms that operate in southern Taiwan. The economic analysis is based on data collected in a random sample over a one-year period.

The analysis of production cost and returns indicated that larger farms were more profitable than smaller farms. This was found to be associated with lower production cost per hectare for larger farms. The Cobb-Douglas types of production functions was fitted to the survey data. Farm size, capital and management were significant factors affecting production of freshwater shrimp. The adoption of improved management practices brought a higher yield for farmers. The estimated production function provides estimates of marginal value products for farm size, labour, capital, and management practices. Using the estimates of the marginal-value products, comparisons were made with the marginal cost of various resources. The results indicate that there exists a potential for achieving high productivity of shrimp aquaculture through the adjustment of various resources and the adoption of improved management practices." [from Abstract]

"Aquaculture has a long history in Taiwan (P.C.). During its infancy, however, aquaculture was practised only as an adjunct of agriculture. Thus, it could not compete with other agriculture sectors then, either in production or value. This situation changed when the development of aquaculture took off during the 1960s. Aquaculture attracted a lot of people, particularly small agricultural farmers and entrepreneurs, providing them with a major income source.

In 1993, total seafood product export was 357 338 t, which was only about half of the crop product exports of 706 373 t. In value, however, seafood exports at $US 1 326 million were 60% more than that of crop exports, $US 809 million. During the economic transformation of Taiwan in the early 1970s, aquaculture played a very important role in stabilizing the rural economy, particularly coastal communities.

Due to the inadequate and insistent planning, management, and implementation or enforcement of aquacultural policies by the Government, the general public has cast some serious doubts about the role of aquaculture in Taiwan. Besides this government impediment, the aquaculture industry also suffers from environmental, technical and economic impediments.

This paper attempts to discuss ways to hurdle these impediments to the further development of aquaculture in Taiwan, toward becoming the aquaculture research and development centre of the world and toward establishing a sustainable industry in Taiwan." [from Abstract]

"The East or perhaps a better term, Asia, is both a major producer and consumer of aquacultural products. Yet, with a long history in the field of aquaculture, most countries have made little or no progress in the techniques and methods applied in this field. The Asian needs for aquaculture are also more basic in that aquaculture provides a cheap source of protein for the malnourished and undernourished populations. Development may be significantly affected by the wide income gap existing in these countries, by inequalities in educational quality and opportunity, and by social factors such as religion, taboos, or tradition. But on the whole, a better life for many of Asia’s people may possibly be found in the development of its aquaculture potential." [Abstract]

"Technology transfer in aquaculture development is discussed in detail, examining in particular the role played by a consulting engineer in aquaculture technology transfer in Asia, considering China, Indonesia and India. In a rural situation, the transfer of technology is often the most difficult and critical area; it depends upon the people who must be convinced of the benefits. When effectively implemented, technology transfer can minimize the gap between developed and developing countries. Both consultants and recipients must carefully and realistically evaluate the cultural conditions and social, educational and industrial standards of the recipient country before a meaningful/useful technology can be effectively and timely transferred." [Abstract]

"Abstracts of most of the papers presented at the meeting are cited individually." [Abstract]

This study assesses the present technology in milkfish farms, analyzes resource productivity for various types of management and estimates costs and returns in producing milkfish. It also identifies the various problems confronting the industry such as high cost of inputs, unavailability of technical support, lack of proper infrastructure, unfavourable price structure and unpredictability of weather.

This paper assesses the present technology and the level of productivity and profitability of the fishpen culture in Laguna de Bay, Philippines. Detailed discussions of the species being cultured, the cultural practices, the type of ownership and distribution, stocking rates, etc. were provided. The costs and returns of the industry adjusted to approximate 1980 prices is likewise presented.

"An assessment of the adoption, utilization, and economic performance of aquaculture technology is necessary and this paper attempts to identify the various technologies applied in fish farms and determines their productivity and profitability. Fish ponds in the Philippines are predominantly brackishwater ponds devoted to the culture of milkfish (Chanos chanos) - although milkfish are also cultured in fish pens in Laguna Lake, a different type of culture. This study focuses on the brackish water ponds." [from article]

This paper attempts to: (i) study the characteristics and social conditions of fry concessionaires and dealers; (ii) assess the practices and technology involved in fry marketing; (iii) analyze the seasonal patterns of purchase and sale of fry of various species; (iv) describe the distribution of fry in different locations of the country; (v) determine the costs and returns derived from fry concession/sale; and (vi) describe the relationships between concessionaires/dealers and fry gatherers.

"Five sites in Singapore were identified as possible areas for the establishment of artificial reefs: Terumbu Bemban, Terumbu Jarat, Terumbu Pandan, Terumbu Pempang Tengah and Pulau Semakau. The fish fauna at these sites was surveyed and a preliminary list of reef species observed at the sites is given. Only three species of indicator butterfly fishes (Chaetodontidae) were recorded during the surveys. Generally, there were few target species (families Caesionidae, Carangidae, Haemulidae, Lethrinidae, Lutjanidae and Serranidae). The most abundant fishes were the pomacentrids and the labrids. The fish fauna was abundant at 3 m deep and generally poor at 10 m deep." [from Abstract]

"Phangnga Bay in southern Thailand is one of the six pilot sites of the ASEAN-US Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP). General environmental and oceanographic parameters were monitored in Phangnga Bay, which covered mariculture sites, fishery potentials and mangal outfall areas. Outflowing water of net tidal transport dominated the surface water while the dense seawater flowed underneath. During the southwest monsoon with heavy rainfall, large variations in salinity (>5 ppt) extended more than 5 km offshore because of the outflow of very low saline water (<10 ppt) from mangal canals. The relatively calm seas during the northeast monsoon caused the build up of high hydrogen sulfide in the sediment while opposite patterns were observed during the southwest monsoon when seas were rough. The deterioration of economically important bivalve beds (Paphia sp.) was observed to be related to the concentrations of hydrogen sulfide. The degree of environmental variation and the extent of affected areas are prerequisite information that will provide a guideline for the appropriate management of marine resources in the bay." [Abstract]

Data on production and marketing of giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) were collected over a seven-month period through collaboration with a medium-sized commercial prawn farm in central Thailand. Juvenile prawn with an average weight of 4.2 g were stocked at a density of 6 prawns/m²in three 0.5 ha earthen ponds. Average growth rate determined during the first three months of the grow-out period was 0.4 g/prawn/day; prawns of marketable size were harvested selectively during the remaining four months of the rearing period, resulting in a total accumulated yield of 1.3 t/ha with an average prawn weight of 32 g and 60% survival. The economic yield of prawn culture was not only determined by the biomass, but also by the population structure of the various biological categories and the harvest season.

"Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia, has had an ongoing reseeding programme for giant clams in operation since 1984. Approximately 25 000 Tridacna derasa (a non-endemic species) have been placed on several islands within this state using approximately $US 500 000 to operate the programme. Large numbers of losses have occurred due to theft, neglect, lack of skills and storm damage; nevertheless, a small percentage of clams currently remain that have survived to maturity, reproduced in situ. These offspring have recruited and have been located on several reefs in very low numbers. This is the first documented case of a successful giant clam recruitment from a reseeding programme. It is questioned if the money, time and effort to operate this programme have been a success in terms of economics, stock enhancement and reef conservation, or if these resources could be used in other beneficial ways?" [Abstract]

"The development of small-scale hatcheries is placed in perspective with other commercial methods of fish seed production, private and public, in the northeast region of Thailand. Case studies of six small-scale hatcheries operated by farmers in this region are presented with details of the production, costs and returns of these farms in relation to their size, location, species of fish produced, amount of capital invested and marketing and sales strategies. Rates of return were found to be favourable, with the exception of a group-based hatchery. The relationship between the production of carp and tilapia fry, which is believed to be incompatible under present systems, is discussed. The wider implications of the role of small-scale hatcheries to provide fish seed for farmers in rural areas and the future of public-sector involvement are considered." [Abstract]

362. Liu, M.S. and Mancebo, V.J. 1983. Pond culture of Penaeus monodon in the Philippines: survival, growth and yield using commercially formulated feed. J. World Maricult. Soc. 14:75-85. [Enterprises Corp., Tainan, Taiwan (P.C.)]

"Pond culture of Penaeus monodon was undertaken in the Philippines, using artificially-formulated dry feed and hatchery-produced post-larval shrimp. The trial was conducted in two 0.25 ha managed production ponds with earthen bottoms and concrete dikes. Water depth was 1.1 m; brackishwater was used and the salinity ranged from 7 to 17 ppt. For the trial, from June 22 1982 to October 6 1982 (106 days), the ponds were stocked at 158 000 postlarvae/ha and produced, respectively, 4 008 kg/ha and 3 808 kg/ha of heads on shrimp averaging 31.5 g and 31.3 g in size. Survival in the respective ponds was 80% with food conversions of 1.69 and 1.78. The production costs per kilo of whole shrimp produced in each pond were, respectively, $US 4.40/kg and $US 4.63/kg." [Abstract]

"This paper explores the economic implications concerning future aquaculture development in Taiwan (P.C.). Also, historical development and internal structure of major species in terms of geographical distribution, operational structure and income cost structure are examined. It is suggested that structural adjustments concerning value added, operational, and pricing are necessary for the future of Taiwan aquaculture." [Abstract]

"The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) implemented the National Bangus Breeding Programme (NBBP) in 12 stations throughout the Philippines in 1981. The programme primarily draws on the milkfish breeding experience pioneered and co-implemented by the Aquaculture Department (AQ/D) of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre (SEAFDEC). The programmes aims to verify, on a national scale and in various ecological conditions, its research work on milkfish breeding. The end goal is to mass produce milkfish fry nationwide. In May 1986, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada provided a three-year external assistance grant to support at least four regional NBBP stations. The grant resulted in spontaneous stock spawning and limited fry production. The foreign assistance helped improve the broodstock facilities and the project operation and maintenance. However, after the grant expired, coupled with the government’s consecutive administrative revamps, the NBBP suffered critical implementation setbacks, particularly in technical and administrative support. Consequently, under the regional management supervision of the Department of Agriculture (DA), the programme has been lowly administered. In February 1991, in consonance with the economic policy, the DA finally decided to privatize the program. The privatization move was timely with the present clamour of the aquaculture sector to shift to finfish culture technology due to the pressing problems in the shrimp industry. The privatization move also hoped to curtail the growing scarcity of milkfish fry in the wild - wild milkfish fry are presumed to be exploited or smuggled out of the country. With this current development, the Government, through the DA, has set forth technical guidelines for privatization and prescribed criteria for selection and conditions to interested sectors." [from Abstract]

"Statistical tables are presented regarding aquaculture production in China, Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. The following data are given: the number of fish farmers households and areas under production, 1986; the fish landings by source of production from 1975 to 1986; the total production of finfish by species from 1980 to 1986; the total production of crustaceans by species from 1980 to 1986; the total production of molluscs by species from 1980 to 1986; the tootal production of seaweed by species from 1980 to 1986; and the total production of miscellaneous species from 1980 to 1986." [Abstract]

"Details are given of the fishery industry in China. Fishery resources in surrounding water are mainly demersal in the west and pelagic in the east. The role of the fishery industry in the country’s economy is examined briefly. Fishery production, aquaculture and means of production are described. Fish supply, marketing and prices are also considered; an analysis is made of some economics of the industry." [Abstract]

"Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Nimpith has been transferring need-based technologies in the field of pisciculture since a decade in 19 blocks of the Sundarbans. Extensive survey and study have been made to assess the motivational changes leading to adoption of the technology of composite fish culture and its subsequent modification. The present communication portrays the results of the investigation based on 20 case studies from five villages. These case studies reveal a six-fold increment in fish production by adopting scientific pisciculture. A production of 1 731.62 kg/ha over the existing average of 288.60 kg was recorded. The cost of fish production as observed from the case studies was Rs 4.44 and the sale value of fish was Rs 17.18." [Abstract]

"Bangladesh has a small coastal area of 25 000 km² with a huge population supporting a variety of land-use practices. With the advent of brackishwater shrimp farming the land-use pattern has begun to change gradually, coastal aquaculture indiscriminately replacing other land based practices. Major conflict issues have been discussed in the paper and the imposition of some sort of regulations was advocated as it was felt to be very important. Based on different seasonal salinity patterns and other factors in the coastal area of the country, the paper prescribes a set of different farming systems to be adopted in different zones. In order to minimize various social and environmental conflicts, some policy options are also suggested." [Abstract]

"The field investigation was carried out in the Haringhata block of Nadia District, West Bengal. Three villages and 50 farmers engaged in both the pond and field crop enterprises were selected at random. The data were collected through specially constructed schedules and statistical analyses were done. The average land and pond size of the farmers were 1.5 ha and 0.38 ha, respectively. The average cost and return per hectare from fish production were Rs 20 245.22 and

Rs 30,173.50 respectively and from field crop production were Rs 10 744.94 and Rs 12 195.60, respectively. The return from pond and field enterprises were positively and significantly correlated with the size of pond and operated agricultural land. The results of two large sample mean tests were found highly significant, which indicates that the pond crop cultivation is more profitable than that of field crop cultivation." [from Abstract]

370. Malaysia, Jabatan Perikanan. 1991. Report of the Seminar on the Development of Oyster Culture. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, February 16-28, 1991. Department of Fisheries, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

"The time to harvest and the methods of harvesting (seining, gillnetting and cast netting) of Chanos chanos are discussed. Post-harvest technology is considered, outlining the treatment of fish transported both on land vehicles and on water craft. After the fish has been packed in containers at the landing place, it is then ready for the market; methods of sale and outlet and the sale of fish are described." [Abstract]

"This paper is part of the findings of the field research on the social and economic life of the Sajo communities in Indonesia. The study was conducted from1991 up to November 1993. The Sajo fishermen specialized in capturing marine products such as sea cucumber (Teripang), mother pearl shell (kerang mutiara), and sharkfin (sirip Hiu). Although these marine products are produced by using very traditional fishing gear and by the poor fishermen they have penetrated into the international markets with main routes to Singapore, Hong Kong (China), Taiwan (P.C.) and mainland China. The trade network involves several ethnic groups under the guidance of Indonesian Chinese and its quality control is according to the requirement of international market demand. The kind of commodities, the routes overseas, the descriptions of who plays the role in the trade, and how the price is determined are among the variables described in this paper." [from Abstract]

"A survey is given on freshwater and marine aquaculture in the People’s Republic of China. Freshwater aquaculture is a secular activity that is well-developed; marine aquaculture is a relatively new one, without the economic support of experiences and research." [Abstract]

This paper analyzes data gathered from a socio-economic survey of the siganid culture industry in the Philippines. Management practices and technology processes, as well as the costs and returns in siganid production, are analyzed. The profitability of pure siganid culture is compared with polyculture with other species.

"Results of the experiments conducted on selective culture of prawn in pokkali fields during the period January 1, 1987 to February 9, 1989 are discussed. The production rate in selective culture varied from 305 kg/ha/68 days to 728 kg/ha/73 days, as compared to a production rate of 231 kg/ha/83 days to 419 kg/ha/151 days from traditional prawn filtration. The net profit in selective culture ranged from Rs 2 478/ha/61 days to Rs 6 757/ha/73 days, while that of the prawn filtration ranged from Rs. 2 310/ha/151 days to Rs 1,415/ha/83 days. The percentage contribution of Penaeus indicus in selective culture was 36.7 to 81.7, while it was 17.2 to 35.4 in prawn filtration. P. indicus has been found the most ideal species for culture in pokkali fields, while the performance of P. monodon was not satisfactory. Lateral hatchery of metapenaeids into selective culture fields has been found as a serious problem affecting the production and economics of prawn culture." [from Abstract]

"The role of exotic carps, common carp, silver carp and grass carp, in composite fish culture is assessed on the basis of experiments conducted at Hadapsar Fish Farm, Pune during 1975-78. Results of the experiments on composite fish culture conducted with the Indian carps and the exotic carps in three different combinations are discussed. The net fish production rates obtained were 3 788 kg/ha/96 ¾3/4 months with four species combination of Indian major carps and common carps;

7 285 kg/ha/12 ½1/2 months with the five-species combination, without grass carp; and 10 183 kg/ha/year in the six-species combination. Thus, the production rate increased with the species of exotic carps. The contribution of exotic carps to total production in these experiments ranged between 38.85 and 77.55%, in proportion with the stocking ratios. The exotic carps also helped in improving the economy of the culture operation. The net profit was more than double in the five-species combination, while it was more than four times in the six-species combination, as compared with that of the four-species combination." [from Abstract]

"Results of experiments conducted on the polyculture of brackishwater fishes at Vyttila Fish Farm of Kerala Agricultural University during the 1981-83 period are presented. Culture trials conducted with Chanos chanos, Mugil cephalus, Etroplus suratensis and Liza parsia showed net production in the range of 943 kg/ha/11 months to 2 189 kg/ha/13 months in annual crop, and 674 kg/ha/6 months to 1 321 kg/ha/7 months in short-term crop. The net profit varied from Rs 4 306/ha/11 months to Rs 20 724/ha/year of five combinations of four species tried; combinations of C. chanos and M. cephalus showed the highest production. C. chanos showed the best growth followed by M. cephalus. The results show that among the species tried only C. chanos and M. cephalus can make fish culture economic in brackishwater ponds in this area." [from Abstract]

"Successful aquaculture development depends not only on the economic evaluation of the cost parameters involved, but also a careful consideration of various bio-socio-economic factors is required. Financial viability has to be linked with location specific technology packaging within the framework of integrated rural development." [from Abstract]

"Shrimp production constitutes an important segment of the fishing in Thailand. Fish and shrimp product exports are now a major source of export earnings for the country. In 1992, shrimp was the second largest export commodity after rice and its export earned over $US 1.3 billion, accounting for 66% of total value of fishery exports. Over 90% of Thai shrimp exports were farm raised in 1992. The rapid growth in culture shrimp production in recent years has contributed to the fast expansion of exports. The objective of this paper is to analyze development in the Thai shrimp industry and to examine the factors contributing to its fast growth. Future prospects for the industry are also discussed. [from Introduction]

"A discussion is presented on the topic of integrated fish culture systems and their economic viability in different parts of Southeast Asia. Problems faced in trying to introduce this system in Thailand and West Java are discussed, examining the different requirements of each area and measures which must be taken to ensure viability of integrated farming systems and their acceptance by the local populations." [Abstract]

"This paper summarizes the findings of a longitudinal marketing processing study carried out in 1984-1985, as part of a bio-economic study of the green mussel culture industry in Thailand. The operations of mussel producers and processors in Samae Khao and Ban Laem were monitored for various periods from July 1984 to June 1985, in order to obtain information on the production of green mussels and mussel products as well as the economic and technical conditions of production and processing. There were some difficulties in collecting data over such an extended period of time with an interdisciplinary team.

Larger mussels for human consumption are processed into dried butterfly form or are boiled and dried, the latter product largely produced by large scale operators and the former by families. The study showed operating losses to the processors of boiled dried mussel and positive returns to the smaller producers of butterfly forms; however, the returns to the latter group are low." [Abstract]

The document contains the following chapters: Natural resources - coral resources, forest resources, mineral resources; Economic sector - capture fisheries, coastal aquaculture; Pollution - marine pollutants, action plans and mitigating measures; Population and socio-economics; Institutional and legal framework - indigenous rudiments of coastal zone law; the present state of Philippine coastal zone law, disposition and management of fisheries/forests/minerals and lands, government coastal zone programmes and projects, local government, community development and social work programme, toward a community-based coastal resources management; and, Coastal resources management issues and plan formulation - coastal resources management issues, development of a coastal area management plan.

"The Government of Punjab has decided to encourage the setting up of fish farming in the private sector, and all possible facilities are being provided to reduce cost. These facilities include free soil tests, water analysis, feasibility reports, disease diagnosis, provision of canal water, supply of bulldozers on subsidized rates, land on lease and loans on easy terms and conditions. The Punjab fisheries department, by using modern technology, has produced 40 million high-quality fish eggs at six hatcheries in the province. This is being sold to fish farmers according to their requirements. Free advisory centres have also been set up at district level." [Abstract]

"Fingerlings of common carp, Thai silver carp, Nile tilapia, and mrigala were stocked in rainfed lowland rice fields in northeast Thailand in 1986 and 1987. In both years, farmers harvested on average 50 kg/ha of stocked fish species. Farm yields were correlated with stocking densities. Average recovery rates in both years were approximately 16%. The fingerling cost exceeded the market value of the farmed fish with 40% of the farmers. The average wild fish yield over the two years was 209 kg/ha, mostly snakehead (Channa atriata)and catfish (Clarias batrachus and

C. Macrocephalus) with some climbing perch (Anabas testestudineus). Wild fish yields in both years were correlated with water depths in the field. The market value of the wild fish equalled the market value of the rice crop." [from Abstract]

"In northeast Thailand, hapa culture of tilapia may provide interesting perspectives for rural development. In the present study, rice farmers raised tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in small hapas (water volume 8 m³) in village ponds. Tilapia stocked at an initial weight of 50 g attained a mean specific growth rate of 1.46% of the body weight per day. Market size was attained after an average rearing time of 85 days. The mean feed conversion ration was 1:4. The economic analysis was based on the observed plus-4 theoretical production scenarios. Investment costs were about 5% of total operating costs. Fingerling costs (about 25% of total cost) could be considerably reduced when fingerlings were collected from backyard ponds or from hapas. Feed costs amounted to 70% of total costs but could be reduced by optimizing the feeding regime and home mixing of fish feed. Shorter rearing periods gave higher daily gross margins, and were preferred by local rice farmers. A rearing period of 100 days may be a suitable compromise between the farmers’ preference for short production cycles, the harvest size of the fish and the profitability of the hapa culture. Large fingerlings, stocked at a density of 14 fish m³, may reach a suitable market size of 216 g in 100 days. If smaller fingerlings are stocked, two rearing cycles will be needed to reach market size. In this way, rice farmers may increase their household income by 290." [Abstract]

386. Middendorp, A.J. 1987. Small-scale cage culture of tilapia in communal ponds in northeast Thailand. In: Pullin, R.S.V., Bhukaswar, T., Tonguthai, K. and MacLean, J. (eds.). The Second International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 15. Bangkok, Thailand, Department of Fisheries, and Manila, Philippines, International Centre for Living Aquatic Resource Management. [Sisaket Agricultural College, Sisaket, Thailand]

"Communal ponds in the northeast of Thailand are constructed for water storage, and therefore are large and deep. Fish production in these ponds usually is low. With improved infrastructure and high market demand for live fresh water fish, the intensive cage culture of tilapia, O. niloticus, has become feasible. A research programme to develop a small-scale cage culture system suitable under local conditions, was started at Sisaket Agricultural College in 1986. Results indicate that a pair of cages (3.7 x 1.8 x 1.8m) made of blue nylon netting (6 ply per cm) may yield 50 kg of tilapia in about 100 days; using commercial catfish feed (30% protein). The benefit/cost ratio is higher than 67%, and the monthly Internal Rate of Return, based on three growing cycles per year, was calculated at about 16%." [Abstract]

"In an irrigated area of the Lam Pao region, northeast Thailand, a survey was undertaken to assess the potential of and constraints to fish culture in small farmholdings. Local agriculture traditions are favourable for integration of fish with rice, growing a long stalked variety of rice and making restricted use of pesticides. Yields of paddy averaged + -2.2 metric tons ha^-1. Concurrent fish farming yielded +-260 kg of fish ha^-1. With few extra operating costs, returns of traditional rice culture may be doubled through concurrent fish culture, without affecting the farmers’ way of living.

Pond fish culture generated much higher fish yields (+-2.2 metric tons ha^-1) and profits than rice and/or rice-cum-fish culture. However, high initial investment costs prevent small-scale farmers from taking part in this fish culture activity. Furthermore, as fish farming is economically more risky than rice cultivation, it does not fit well into the traditional attitude of small-scale farmers regarding risk acceptance. Therefore, pond fish culture should be recommended to commercial farmers rather than to subsistence farmers." [Abstract]

"The Republic of Korea harvested 3.2 million metric tons(t) of fish and shellfish in 1988, down 2.6% from its 1987 catch of 3.3 million t. from the country’s four fishery sectors (coastal, deepsea, aquaculture, and inland waters). South Korea’s 1988 fishery exports were valued at

$US 2 billion, nearly a 16% increase from 1987. Tuna was the most important export commodity in 1988, followed by ark shells, sand eels, groundfish fillets, and flounders. Japan, the largest market for Republic of Korea’s fishery products, imported 68 % of the total. The USA and Spain were next in importance, purchasing 17% and 3%, respectively. (Sponsored by National Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C., USA. Foreign Fisheries Analysis Branch.)." [from Abstract]

The primary aim of the study is to determine effects of the Laguna de Bay Fishpen Development Project on the participating subsistence fishermen’s livelihood and social conditions. Based on the respondents’ responses using a prepared questionnaire, the study indicated that fishermen beneficiaries resorted to other means of livelihood such as the setting up of fishtraps/fish corrals and gillnets around their pens to catch fish outside their module. While an increase in income levels per fisherman had been achieved, it is highly doubtful that loans can be repaid as production remains significantly lower and amortization plus interest payment have yet to be considered. The study recommended adoption of higher stocking densities/stock manipulation and the restructuring of loans to allow longer amortization period plus lower interest rates.

"Fish farming in China is characterized by integration. There are many systems of integration with fish culture to make a maximum utilization of wastes for the production of protein-rich food. ‘Bamboo Plot Fish Pond’ is another example of fish farming long practised. The farmers, in Pearl River Delta particularly, have gained age- old experiences and found that the economic returns are high and the inputs low. The bamboo shoots are sold to the market as food. Processing the bamboo shoots into canned food provides 25-30% by-products, which can be utilized as food or pond manure. The space between rows of the bamboo shoots can be used for cabbage production, which can satisfy the food needs of 85-90% of the fish at a production rate of 250 kg/mu." [Abstract]

391. Ministry of Agriculture, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia). 1986. Annual fisheries statistics 1984. Perangkaan Tahunan Perikanan Jabatan Perikanan Malays. Annu. Fish. Stat. Fish. Dep. Malays. 147 p.

"Following an introductory sector describing the status of the Malaysian fisheries of 1984, statistics are presented for the marine and aquaculture sectors. Import and export figures are also included." [Abstract]

"Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus), has been accepted by the people of Calcutta and its suburbs. When it was first introduced, people did not take to this fish. Gradually, due to its low price, tasty nature and the exorbitantly high price of other varieties of fish, tilapia became a popular fish. Tilapia has spread to other regions of West Bengal under different culture systems with mixed success. The culture process, growth, economics and social impact of culture of tilapia in the sewage fed bheries (Nalban and Goltala fish farms in the east of Calcutta city), low saline ponds (Alampore and Digha fish farms in the coastal region) and paddy-cum-fish culture fields (Balampore village near IIT Kharagpur) are discussed in this paper." [from Abstract]

"Details are given of a system for the production of Catla catla, Labeo rohita, and Cirrhinus mirgala in ponds, which are shown to be economically viable for use by rural fish farmers in India." [Abstract]

"The chapter aims to clarify the present situation of the prawn market in Japan. The point of critical importance in this regard is the analysis of demand and price for imported prawn. This chapter describes several important changes in the conditions involving the market for prawn in Japan in recent years. These changes include the expansion of the production of cultured prawn by other Southeast Asian countries and China, thereby replacing Taiwan (P.C.); the period of yen appreciation ending with yen depreciation; the limitation on demand, coupled with oversupply and overstocks; and the greater competition that prawn is facing with other fisheries products and meat. Considering the present situation, several measures to be taken by producers are offered, which include the reduction of production cost and the improvement of quality control." [Abstract]

"In this study the author presents the fishery activities in the People’s Republic of China: production of marine and freshwater fishery; marine and freshwater aquaculture; and processing and trade of aquatic products. The author explains that the want of appropriate technologies and funds impedes the process of modernization. However, the new economical politics introduced in China in 1979 have favourably influenced the aquatic production." [Abstract]

"This paper reviews publications on socioeconomics in fisheries and aquaculture in Asia and the Pacific. It also assesses the status of socio-economics research in Asia/Pacific. The research priorities are: (i) integrated coastal fisheries management; (ii) integrated aquaculture agriculture farming systems; (iii) policy analysis for fisheries, aquaculture and coastal zone management and development; and (iv) socio-economic tools and methods for analyzing capture fisheries, aquaculture and coastal management. There is a growing demand for more multidisciplinary and intersectoral studies on fisheries. This is an area where collaborative effort between biological and social scientists can be realized. Social scientist must start working together and within their discipline and with other non-social scientists in an effort to provide more lasting solutions to problems confronting the fisheries sector." [from Summary]

"Information on each species includes: (i) taxonomy (scientific, English and Philippine names) and diagnostic characters: (ii) ecology; (iii) distribution; (iv) fisheries data; (v) economics (potential, price)." [Abstract]

"Tambak production is relatively a new trend of business in Indonesia, since Indonesia has some experiences in the overexploitation of marine resources during 1970s. Many programmes are set to develop the tambak in Indonesia. Most of those programs are management systems. This study’s main objective is to recommend the alternative management schemes for tambak operation, basically for tambak operation in the north coast of Java and the west coast of South Sulawesi as the leading areas for tambak production in Indonesia, using 300 tambak operators as the samples. The results of this study indicate that the tambak management in the north coast of Java and the west coast of South Sulawesi vary from one region to another and from levels of management. This variation may have generated differences in cultured species performance, i.e., milkfish and shrimp. It seems that environmental variables such as temperature, salinity, soil texture and quality and water control structure are to be significant roles in determining the cultured species performance. This is obviously, in turn, influencing the production level in each tambak culture systems.

The other husbandry parameters that are also affecting the economic efficiency of tambak management are stocking density, and food and feeding practice. The study indicates that with increasing stocking density, the variable cost will also increase and in turn reduce the ratio of net profit to total costs.

In order to optimize tambak production and economic efficiency, it can be proposed that zonation of tambak areas according to ecological condition and supporting infrastructures in the sites should be done. It is especially important to tambak investors to determine the selected sites." [from Abstract]

The paper analyzes the marketing system for milkfish in Semarang Regency in Indonesia. Although the paper concluded that the marketing system is efficient, it identified certain factors which would affect this efficiency. One such factor is that the middlemen use credit to tie producers to sell their catch at prices lower than those prevailing in the market. Discussions on market structures and marketing costs are presented.

"Extensive mariculture methods in inter-reef areas and in areas of dead coral reefs were tested. Local fisherman constructed artificial tire reefs and fish aggregation devices (FADs). The process of building artificial shelter or substrate for fish, maintenance and harvest as part of the development work of a church agency is an example which could be used more extensively. Improved traditional coastal resource management for tropical mariculture in developing countries like Papua, New Guinea needs more knowledge and experience at grassroots level. The experience gained, both in marine and social knowledge, are presented as a result of trials." [Abstract]

"A discussion is presented on the feasibility of paddy-cum-fish culture, utilizing low-lying water-logged areas after renovation for integrated farming. Site selection, different types of paddy plots and their morphometric features, and paddy cultivation measures are detailed. Fish culture operations are also described and an examination is made of the economics of this integrated system." [Abstract]

"Shrimp production has been practiced in Indonesia for hundreds of years in brackishwater coastal ponds, locally known as tambak. Historically, shrimp has been raised along with milkfish (Chanos chanos, Forsk.) using minimal inputs. Recently, however, international demand for shrimp, government policies to expand foreign exchange earnings, and technological advances in the production system have transformed coastal aquaculture from a small-scale enterprise geared towards production of fish and shrimp for domestic markets to more capital-intensive shrimp mariculture systems oriented towards export markets. Small-scale farmers gradually are being displaced by urban entrepreneurs who purchase or lease ponds for intensive shrimp production, or by local elites who are expanding their control over productive lands, but who continue to use low-input shrimp cultivation technologies." [Abstract]

"Supported by the marine, estuarine, backwater and mangrove finfish and shellfish fishery resources, Porto Novo along the Coramandel Coast is an active fishing centre. The types of crafts and gears employed for the exploitation of the fishery resource and the approximate cost and total investment in the fishing industry of this region are discussed. Per capita income of an active fisherman was calculated for the period from March 1978 to February 1979. The impact of monsoon on the fishing activity of the area and the effect of the cyclone of November 1977 on the socio-economic life of fishermen is discussed. Suggestions for further development of the fishing industry through capture and culture fisheries and for the improvement of the socio-economic life of the fishermen of the area are presented." [from Abstract]

"A brief account is given of a brackishwater prawn culture project undertaken at Polekurru, India, to determine the economic possibilities of commercial prawn culture." [Abstract]

"The document contains the study report and proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Environmental Assessment and Management of Aquaculture Development. These sets of information comprised the input to the workshop; (i) the detailed country study reports of the National Environment Coordinators, which included case studies that illustrated the interactions between aquaculture and the environment; (ii) the regional analysis made by the Project Team composed of socio-economist, an environmental management specialist and a legal export; and (iii) technical reviews, presented by invited specialists, related to farm management, inland fisheries, public health aspects of aquaculture and conservation of biodiversity. Country reports and workshop presentations are included as annexes to the document." [Abstract]

This paper details the small-scale culture of the flat oyster (Ostrea folium) in Kedah, Malaysia. The culture method, culture cycles, marketing, economic analysis, and people’s participation are all areas described in this study.

"This paper describes small-scale oyster culture trials carried out in the states of Kedah and Perak on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Rafts and longlines were found to be economically viable and the technology was transferred to fishermen. Spat of the slipper oyster, Crassostrea iredalei, were transplanted from the east coast of peninsular Malaysia to the west coast sites." [from Abstract]

The paper examines the economics of the present uses of mangrove swamps in Malaysia. An investment analysis shows that shrimp and chipping activities were both superior to milkfish culture, though this may not be conclusive, as other forms of culture were not considered. Shrimp fishing appears to have greater contributions to income and foreign exchange generation though their relative employment contributions were the opposite. This analysis is limited by the assumption that production alternatives were mutually exclusive, but the authors attempted to overcome this by approximating a trade-off curve and utilizing the results of the investment analysis.

"Food shortages, generally caused by population explosion and failure of land- based agriculture to reach a sustainable level, have to be offset by supplementing with aquatic food products through the intensified capture and culture of fish. In India, the quantity of fish produced is distributed for export, domestic consumption and non-food uses. The present per capita fish consumption of 3.5 kg in India is one of the lowest and to take it up to the level of 5 kg per year, a quantity of 4.4 million t of fish would be required. A major portion of this has to come from intensive culture practices. Infrastructure for post-harvest and marketing operations in the domestic sector is a weak link. Value added processing and innovative marketing of products as ‘convenience foods’ has to be introduced. Protein recycling by converting the process waste into feed grade by products, the importance of developing trained manpower in core technologies, and the need for formulating quality standard for fish products meant for domestic consumption are discussed." [Abstract]

"The paper highlights the prospects for marine aquaculture and its present status in India. The potential of the available resources that can be exploited from various ecosystems are dealt with. A detailed description of the numerous backwaters, estuaries and mangrove swamps along the east and west coasts of India is given. Information covering the suitable areas for culture, development of coastal farms, pond management, production, economics of culture operations, problems of environmental variables and various developmental aspects of the culture of important fish, prawn and molluscan species along the coasts of India are discussed." [Abstract]

"A review is made of research and development work done on marine finfish culture in India. Information on the resource potential of the various ecosystems utilized, the different species of fishes cultured in mono- and polyculture systems, and the economics and low-cost technology developed for the culture of various species of marine finfishes in different systems are given. The aquaculture practices mainly deal with milkfish, grey mullet, Indian sandwhiting, rabbit fishes and groupers in various ecosystems. Details of suitable areas for culture and production, pond construction, constraints, management and development of coastal fish farms are presented. The ecological and socio-economical criteria for the selection of suitable aquaculture sites for management and development of marine finfish culture in India are discussed." [Abstract]

"An account is given of the discussions and conclusions of a workshop conducted to help in the understanding of the status and contribution of women to the Cambodian fisheries. The following areas were covered: women in aquaculture; women in capture fisheries; women in fish processing; women in fish marketing; and women in fisheries development, research and education." [Abstract]

"Deoiled silkworm pupa (pellet SP) and silkworm faecal matter (pellet PF) were used as the major protein sources in diet formulation in carp culture (Cyprinidae). These test diets were compared with that of the fish meal based standard diet (pellet FM). Excepting silver carp and mahseer, other fishes attained maximum weight with pellet FM. In silver carp, pellet PF and mahseer pellet SP induced the best growth. The relative conversion ratio was better with pellet SP (2.24), it being 2.29 and 2.38 for pellets PF and FM, respectively. The economics of production indicated the possibility of substituting fish meal with the two ingredients screened, even though their growth-inducing potential was comparatively less." [Abstract]

"An experiment of farming ducks and fishes together was conducted in two fish ponds. It resulted in proving an efficient means of waste disposal. The recycling of organic waste by this system of farming can help to solve the problem of fertilizer needs. The cost of culture operation has also been reduced considerably when compared with the monoculture system." [Abstract]

The transfer of technology scheme initiated in 1979 provided an opportunity to test the feasibility of introducing oyster culture technology development by the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute among a group of small-scale fishermen at Tuticorin.

"An economic analysis is made of the rack culture system for oysters in use at the Tuticorin Oyster Farm. Initial investments and operational costs are detailed and net incomes examined." [Abstract]

"Traditional aquaculture has been practiced to a limited extent in some areas of Micronesia, but has not been documented for Yap. The objectives of this report were to: (I) visit existing aquaculture sites on Yap proper which were identified in a survey conducted by the Marine Resources Management Division and the Division of Agriculture and Forestry (1986); (ii) determine the sizes of the ponds and current management practices; (iii) assess the feasibility of renovating or improving the ponds to enhance subsistence aquaculture; and (iv) provide recommendations for the development of artisanal fish culture on Yap proper. Analysis of the economic potential of commercial aquaculture was not included in the scope of work." [Abstract]

"Twenty years ago the world of aquaculture was opulated with biologists, like me, who were learning plumbing and engineering the hard way. A smaller wave of engineers struggling with biology followed. Since then, we have come a long way. Aquaculture which is now on the tip of the public tongue, is truly multidisciplinary in nature. However, aquaculture remains rather isolationsist. Many of us still regard it is unique, almost revolutionary, rather than just another means of producing food. One of my objectives here is to set aquaculture in its proper context, not only as a producer of food and revenue but as consumer competing for finite resources. Aquaculture has to partner its competitors in producing food from limited resources for a burgeoning population; it cannot continue to be considered as a separate entity. Integration is the key word." [from Abstract]

"The farming of Macrobrachium rosenbergii is widespread in Thailand. Total farmed production in 1979 was probably greater than in any other country, and an industry with a retail product value of nearly B 60 million ($US 3 million) has been created. Despite this, demand exceeds farmed supply and freshwater prawns are imported." [Abstract]

"An examination is made of the economic benefits of the use of feeds, considering the various factors which should be taken into account in their assessment. The use of commercially compounded feeds in the Asian aquaculture industry is discussed, highlighting some of the problems facing the aquaculture feed industry." [Abstract]

"Bivalve culture is an attractive development option in tropical waters because of no feed inputs and rapid growth, and over the past 30 years the only major developments have been mussel and oyster culture in Thailand and the Philippines. However, there is a long list of failures to establish similar industries. The thesis of this paper is that many failures result from insufficient attention to the social and cultural aspects of the target communities and a failure to consider options other than the small business model which requires major farmer involvement. In situations where natural production is high and there is a strong market for a moderately-priced product (e.g., Thailand), the small business model may work. However, if production is variable and the return is low (e.g., Philippines) the small business option is not attractive. However, in the latter case, small-scale (perhaps seasonal investments) using low-cost techniques can be attractive as in the Philippines. The truly small-scale option requires a very different approach from the small business option as technology, financing, extension, marketing, development period, and project evaluation will be different." [Abstract]

"Bivalve molluscs are attractive as candidates for culture in small-scale systems in developing countries. They feed low in the food chain, thus consuming material not directly available to human as food and result in a product which is both high-quality protein and has a reasonably good market. In spite of these attractive features the major increases in production on a global scale have been in developed or recently developed countries. The paper reviews the status of the mollusc culture with discussion of the potential for further development and some of the anticipated problems." [Part of Introduction]

"The aim of the present study was to improve the outputs and cost effectiveness of Macrobrachium rosenbergii larviculture at two small-scale hatcheries in South Viet Nam, one located at the coast (Vinh Chau) the other inland (Can Tho). Improved management and feeding strategies, using Artemia biomass available from local salt ponds were tested." [Abstract]

This socio-economic study attempts to assess current technology in fish-pen culture, its level of productivity and profitability, and the social conditions of fish-pen operators and caretakers. The study considers the fish-pens in Laguna Lake as intensive and highly productive. It discusses the different cultural practices in fish-pen aquaculture, including stocking and cropping patterns of milkfish and other species, capital investments and costs and returns, marketing practices and prices, labour utilization and credit practices.

"Ever since the shrimp farming industry took off in Bangladesh and West Bengal, shrimp fry collection has developed into a major income-generating activity for thousands of people living in the coastal belts of these areas. This paper describes trials of nursery rearing of the tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) in floating cages, in Ramnagar, Medinipur District, West Bengal, India. The purpose of the trials was to introduce a technology by which the fry catchers could augment their income by nursing the shrimp fry to a larger size, with higher market value, and thus be in a better bargaining position vis-a-vis the trader. The trials were undertaken by a group of shrimp fry catchers in Ramnagar from 1990 to 1992, with support from the Bay of Bengal Programme." [Abstract]

"Asian shrimp farmers harvested a record 257,000 metric tons (mt) in 1986, over 20% of Asia’s shrimp production for that year. Growth in Asian-farmed production has been phenomenal in recent years the actual 1986 harvest was nearly 1.3 times the 196 000 mt projected for the year 1990 by the National Marine Fisheries Service in 1985. Asian and Pacific Rim nations account for over 80% of the total world farmed shrimp production. Of these, China, Taiwan, Indonesia, the Philippines, and India were the top Asian producers of farmed shrimp in 1986. These countries, and Thailand, also have the greatest potential for expanding cultured shrimp production by 1990." [Abstract]

"Juvenile Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) of mean body weight 67 g were stocked in ponds of surface area 160 m² alone, with snakehead (Channa striata), or with snakehead and pig, in an integrated culture system. Three replicates of each treatment were used. Stocking density for tilapia was 90 fish/pond for all treatments and that of snakehead was 10 fish/pond. Three pigs were raised in the pen housed over each pond for the integrated system. After seven months, tilapia grown in the integrated system had a significantly higher mean body weight than those in the other treatment. On an economical basis, tilapia raised in the integrated system gave a substantially lower return than those in polyculture and monoculture systems." [from Abstract]

429. Nitithamyong, C., Chiayvareesajja, J., Chiayvareesajja, S., Wongwit, C. and Tansakul, R. 1991. Production of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in different culture and harvesting systems. In: Silva, S.S. de (ed.). Fish nutrition research in Asia. Proceedings of the Fourth Asian Fish Nutrition Workshop. No. 5. pp. 169-174. [Dep. Aquat. Sci., Prince of Songkhla Univ., Hat Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand]

"Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were reared in two systems, viz. monoculture and integration of tilapia and pig. Following a three-month culture period, tilapia of marketable size were harvested monthly (multiple harvest) from one of the monoculture systems and from the integrated system until the end of the experiment. Total production of Nile tilapia from the monoculture and integrated systems with the multiple harvesting technique were 53.1 kg/unit and 100.0 kg/unit, respectively. Tilapia production from the monoculture system with a single harvest was 43.9 kg/unit. On an economical basis, the integrated system with a multiple harvest of tilapia gave a significantly lower return than monoculture of tilapia." [Abstract]

"This research is aimed to find the efficiency level of some production factors and their effect on the production of two types of shrimp culture system, namely: semi-intensive and intensive systems. Primary data were collected in August-October 1989 I Jepara district, using the survey method. The samples were grouped proportionally into two levels of activity, namely semi-intensive and intensive systems. The number of samples was 50% of population. To examine the relation between the production and the production factors, the analysis of Cobb-Douglas production function was used, whereas F test was applied to test the existence of the entire regression function and t test was used to examine the partial regression coefficient. Technically the use of production factors of food, pesticide and labour force is more efficient in the intensive systems than the semi-intensive system. Economically, the use of food, pesticide and labour force is more efficient in the intensive system than the semi-intensive system. The production factors such as fertilizers and stocking rates, are not efficient in intensive systems both technically and economically." [from Abstract]

"The findings are presented of a study conducted regarding the establishment of a fish farming demonstration centre in Nepal. Factors influencing the success of a fish farming project are examined, with respect to the centre at Galeswor. The following are considered: the physical environment; institutional factors; social aspects; space; technology; production; and marketing. Calculations are made of the revenue and the capital investment required." [Abstract]

"The economics of cage culture in three lakes of Mindanao, namely: Lakes Buluan, Sebu and Lanao, are compared.

Average production cost per farm was highest in Lake Buluan (p 2 487 125 for a farm of 1 100 floating cages operated by the Southern Philippines Development Authority), followed by Lake Lanao (p 7 898 for an average farm size of four cages). Lake Sebu incurred the least production cost (p 7 395 for an average farm size of six cages). All produce of the tilapia cage operators in Lake Buluan was sold. The cage operators in Lakes Sebu and Lanao sold 92.6% and 83.2% of their total produce, respectively, with the remainder either used at home or for other purposes. The rates of profit of cage operators in Lakes Buluan, Sebu and Lanao varied, with the operator in Buluan realizing the highest (p 2 739 per cage per cropping), followed by the operators in Lake Lanao (p 1 611) and Lake Sebu (p 896). (p 11.00 = $US 1.00 during the survey). The four major problems identified by cage operators in the three lakes were: overcrowding, lack of capital, poaching and lack of technical know how in tilapia cage culture." [Abstract]

"The marketing system for tilapia in selected areas of Mindanao, Philippines, was examined. Marketing channels for tilapia were found to vary from no intermediary to at most three intermediaries before the produce reached the consumers. Over one third of the total produce was sold through the longest route, i.e., through the wholesaler/retailer and finally the consumers. Marketing margins for retailers were relatively high, ranging from p 0.53/kg to p 3.11/kg. In most cases, the wholesalers and wholesalers/retailers were receiving comparatively high margins. This is indicative of the relative profitability of tilapia marketing in the selected areas. (p 11.00 = $US 1.00 in 1983).

Marketing problems that beset a few producers included, among others, the high costs of transportation, the low price and no storage facilities. The majority, however, had no marketing problems. Meanwhile, the most prominent problems identified by a few traders were lack of capital, no storage facilities, high transport costs and sometimes lack of transportation facilities." [Abstract]

"This study explores the existing coastal aquaculture practices and generates information suggesting that such systems are viable and can provide a new component in the Government’s overall strategy for small-scale fisheries development." [from article]

"The potential for aquaculture development in Malaysia has been well- recognized by policy-makers. The sector was transformed from a small-scale activity to one involving large corporations, with increasing diversity of species cultured. This paper provides the status of aquaculture development and a framework of analysis of the Malaysian aquaculture industry for the period 1971-1990." [Abstract]

The study analyzes the basis by which fish farmers make decisions regarding the introduction of new technology in their farms. The paper concludes that fish farmers are rational economic units who are responsive to changing economic conditions, such as changes in profitability. The decision-making also embraced physical considerations.

"The culture of seaweeds, a big industry in the Philippines, contributed to the generation of employment and foreign exchange. Eucheuma is the primary cultured species. This paper presents a micro-economic analysis of seaweed farming from data collected in 1985. Seaweed farming technology was evaluated from a translog cost function estimate. One finding of the study was limited economies of scale in seaweed farming in the Philippines." [Abstract]

The link between environmental trends and economic policies is examined. The assessment of the past and present economic policies affecting the use of coastal resources in the Philippines showed that these policies have accelerated the rate of degradation of coastal resources. The current situation demands not only the reorientation of economic policies, but also other related actions to attain sustainable development of coastal resources.

This paper provides a comprehensive study of the socio-economic characteristics of the fry gatherers, concessionaires/dealers, fishpond and fishpen farmers, and oyster/mussel farmers. An assessment of the cultural practices and management of fishpond/fishpen and oyster farmers was made including the analysis of the patterns of collection, purchase and sale of fry. The paper also provides methods for determining costs and returns from fry gathering and marketing, fish farming and oyster/mussel farming. The relationship between concessionaires/dealers and fry gatherers is described along with the measurement of labour requirements.

Because of the new ocean regime of extended fisheries jurisdiction, governments of developing countries in Asia, and elsewhere, face a unique opportunity for upgrading their depressed coastal fisheries to take advantage of their enlarged resource base. This volume is a partial response to the resulting need for a better understanding of the constraints and opportunities facing small-scale fisheries. It contains 23 papers on small-scale capture and culture fisheries from five Asian countries - Bangladesh, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand - based on original field research sponsored by the International Development Research Centre. Among the subjects covered are socio-economic conditions, productivity and economic efficiency, cost structure and profitability, marketing, social and institutional constraints, and government programmes. The authors conclude that the scope for further fisheries development is strictly limited by the size of the resource. [Abstract]

"A recall survey of 41 catfish farms in the Central Plain of Thailand during 1979 was undertaken to ascertain why production has been falling since 1974, despite high and rising market prices for catfish. The survey results showed that many catfish farmers have switched to the culture of other species or to the cultivation of rice and other crops; some even left the area to take other occupations. The main reasons given in the interviews were high fish mortality due to disease and escalating feed (trashfish) prices. Yet, some of the farms that stayed in business made considerable profit, due to the superior managerial ability of the owners, access to low-cost credit and diversification of farming to spread risk.

A Cobb-Douglas production function was employed to explain variation in output observed from farm to farm. Some 80% of the variation in output could be explained by the following explanatory variables (inputs): stocking rate; feeding rates of trashfish and broken rice; fuel for pumping water; medication of fish; size of farm; and experience of the operator. Profits could be increased by reducing the average catfish stocking rates and quantity of trashfish used as feed, and by increasing the use of broken rice and fuel for the purpose of changing pond water." [from Abstract]

"This paper is an attempt to study the economics of shrimp farming hatchery production and shrimp feed mills and the scope they offer for entrepreneurs for investment." [Abstract]

"Ban Don Bay (Thailand) is a biologically productive area undergoing rapid development of various human activities. It is estimated that during the past 10 years more than 60% of the total mangrove forests along the coast of the bay have been converted for other land uses: 5 331 and 2 723 ha have been converted to shrimp farms and agricultural lands, respectively, leaving only 4 160 ha of mangrove forests. The continuous exploitation of mangrove forests at Ban Don Bay has caused various problems that need immediate attention by concerned agencies if future beneficial uses are to be sustained. About 160 questionnaires were given out in three communities. The survey showed that the respondents’ knowledge and attitude toward mangrove forest conservation and management were far from satisfactory. Mangrove forests have been cleared in Types 1 and 2 communities for aquaculture and fisheries-related uses. In Type 3 communities, charcoal production and firewood activities were the main causes of the destruction of mangrove forests while waiting for government approval to clear them for shrimp farms. Some respondents also cut mangrove trees for house construction. It was recommended that public and private sectors work together to maintain and manage the remaining mangroves and to increase the forested area through replanting. A management plan also needs public awareness, public participation, public relations and support programmes." [Abstract]

445. Panvisavas, S., Sukumalchart, P., Saenghern, S. and Wongprasert, W. 1991. Local characteristic patterns of coastal natural resources utilization: a case study of Pak Kra Dae, Ban Don Bay. In: Chou, Loke Ming, Chua, Thia Eng, Khoo, Hong Woo, Lim, Poh Eng, Paw, J.N., Silvestre, G.T., Valencia, M.J., White, A.T. and Wong, Poh Kam (eds.). Towards an integrated management of tropical coastal resources. Proceedings of the ASEAN-US Technical Workshop on Integrated Tropical Coastal Zone Management, Temasek Hall, National University Of Singapore, 28-31 October 1988. Manila, Philippines, International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management. No. 22 p. 437. [Dep. Social Sci., Mahidol Univ. at Salaya, 25/25 Puthamoltol 4, Salaya Nakornpathom 73170, Thailand]

"This study documents the local patterns of coastal resource use in the fishing community of Pak Kra Dae, Ban Don Bay, Thailand. An anthropological approach, composed of several interview techniques, was used to gather qualitative data from 127 households. Most Pak Kra Dae villagers had at least four years of mandatory education and about 8% had six years. The main occupations are crab fishing, oyster culture and push netting. Secondary jobs include small business, wage employment, shrimp culture, trawling, labour in a rubber plantation or dried shrimp factory, poultry raising, government employment and machinery operation. Mangroves are traditionally used as a fishing ground, source of firewood, charcoal, and in construction materials. Currently, the remaining mangroves are preserved as windbreakers although the areal coverage is declining. The villagers’ level of awareness of seawater quality is high. They complained of the pollution of the water coming from the factories and shrimp farms; they also thought that water could not circulate well enough to carry away the pollutants. Thus, they have moved their oyster beds farther offshore. Inshore fishing also decreased, so deepsea fishing has become more common. The major issues on resource use, as seen by the villagers, are the depleting mangrove forests, worsening water quality and declining inshore fisheries." [Abstract]

"Red tide problems in Korea are now having a serious economic impact on the mariculture industry because red tide occurrences have been mainly concentrated in areas where intensive shellfish growing areas and finfish farms are located. Since 1981, more frequent and long lasting red tides have occurred regularly every year in Chinhae Bay and spread widely to other different regions along the entire coast of the nation with variation in densities, periods and causative red tide organisms from region to region. Some 34 species (22 flagellates, 11 diatoms and 1 ciliate) were identified as causative organisms of red tides in Korean coastal waters. Some nine species of toxic phytoplankton which caused shellfish poisoning and fish kill were listed. It is remarkable that since 1989, heavy red tides caused by Cochlodinium polykrikoides and Gymnodinium mikimotoi have occurred in cage fish farms and caused massive losses of cultured fishes. Therefore, preventive measures against red tide outbreaks and fisheries damage due to red tides were described." [Abstract]

"Recently, the fish mariculture in Korea has been confronted with some difficulties such as a sudden rise of wages and the cost of feeds, and the sharp drop in the price of the fish occurred by the imported live fish. Especially, the red seabream imported from Japan weakened greatly the Korean fish mariculture. As a conclusion, the outlook of Korean fish mariculture is not so bright." [Abstract]

"Korean fisheries production is discussed, considering the marine, inland and aquaculture sectors of the industry. Means of production, supply and demand, marketing and prices are considered and a brief examination made of some fishery economics. Government policies and future prospects are outlined." [Abstract]

"In Goa, aquaculture has been practised from time immemorial. The methods of fish culture used are traditional and involve composite culture of wild stocks. Despite ignorance of modern methods of aquaculture, the fish farmers of Goa know many relevant facts mainly from experience. Brackishwater ponds are used to serve several purposes. Some of the ponds are used for fish culture exclusively; but some are used for salt pan-cum-fish culture, while others are used for paddy cum prawn culture. Relevant information on the indigenous methods of cultivating common species, their annual yield and economics of aquaculture are discussed with reference to the future prospects of fish farming in Goa." [from Abstract]

"Increase in aquacultural activities in India has led to enhanced demand for quality fish seed. Of late, many fish seed hatcheries have come up with credit support from financing institutions. Monitory studies of a few randomly selected fish seed hatcheries were carried out in different states and some of the issued that come in the way of speedy development of this sector were identified. The suggestions made in the paper, if implemented, can make fish seed hatchery projects financially viable and could be taken up on a large scale by farmers." [Abstract]

"Eleven freshwater fisheries stations and two brackishwater fisheries stations have been established to carry inland fisheries work throughout the country. They are involved in fish breeding, rearing, stocking of fingerlings in water bodies, extension activities in their respective areas, as well as technology development and applied research. Ornamental fish culture was promoted since 1989 because of its dollar earning potential. Development of coastal aquaculture was mainly done by private sector enterprises. Although there were two state maintained brackishwater stations, significant contribution to shrimp culture was made by private companies that developed their own culture practices or borrowed technologies from other countries. Shrimp export is a significant foreign exchange earner which has the potential to develop into a major export industry. Four decades after its introduction, aquaculture is at a crossroads. The reason is the most sensitive of all: religion. With the withdrawal of state patronage, the scientific management of reservoirs and other water bodies has ended as has the production and stocking of fingerlings. The cumulative effect is witnessing the beginning of a decline in aquaculture." [Part of Introduction]

"The importance of organic manures (Pigeon dropping, goat dung and raw cow dung used in the ratio of 2:2:6 and at 10.000 kg/ha/yr) to correct the nutrient deficiencies in pond and utilization of supplementary feed (mustard oil cake, fish meal and rice bran, 57:13:30 and at 4.500 kg/ha) for the fish, Catla catla (Ham.), Labeo rohita (Ham.) and Cirrhinus mrigala (Ham.), have been reported in the present investigation to elucidate their potentialities in boosting up the productivity in rural areas and at a comparatively cheaper rate. The experiment was conducted in three ponds in the district of Bankura, West Bengal for a period of 11 months: control pond (without manure and feed); experimental pond sub(1) (with manure but without feed); and experimental pond sub(2) (with manure and feed). All the ponds were stocked with induced breed fry, collected from Ramsagar (Bankura). At 10 000 + 10%/ha (average weight and total length: Catla 2.5 g and 3.1 cm; Rohu, 1.5 g and 4.8 cm; Mrigal, 2.9 g and 6.1 cm respectively), the ratio being 4 Catla : 3 Rohu : 3 Mrigal." [Abstract]

"Integrated farming systems and their economics are discussed, examining paddy-cum-fish culture and integration of fish with livestock." [Abstract]

"The findings are presented of a study conducted to estimate the production of tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon), post-larvae and juveniles, in the coastal areas of Bangladesh and assess the present level of utilization of the catch in the shrimp culture industry. The total number of larvae and fry of other shrimp, finfish and other organisms caught as incidental by catch and destroyed by the shrimp fry collectors was also estimated. The number of shrimp fry collectors and their income were assessed and an examination made of the economics of shrimp fry collection." [Abstract]

"The publication provides a profile of literature and a collation of available data for the preparation of coastal resource management plans for Ban Don Bay and Phangnga Bay, Thailand. It contains the following chapters: (i) The Upper South: physical setting and land use; (ii) Natural resources and the environment; (iii) Fisheries and aquaculture: resource and economics; (iv) Tourism: resource and economics; (v) Other economic sectors; (vi) Population; (vii) Institutional and legal framework; and, (viii) Coastal resources management issues and plan formulation." [from Abstract]

"In New Caledonia, semi-intensive culture of Penaeus stylirostris is the traditional method to obtain commercial shrimp. Yields of 3-4 t/ha/year are usually reached. But profitability of shrimp farming is low at export because of the high costs of investments and labor. P. stylirostris were stocked at 17, 23, and 35/m² in 1,100 m ² earthen ponds. Growth rates were inversely related to stocking densities; the average weights were 28, 26, and 22 g, respectively after 210 days. Food conversion rate was 1, 6 for any density. All survival rates exceeded 70%. Growth was better for the higher nutrition rates at all densities. Three bigger ponds were managed using aerators (4 HP/ha). Shrimp were stocked at 24, 38, and 40/m², and at the harvest, the mean weight was 27.3, 24 and

22.5 g, respectively after 210 hours of rearing. Survival was > 70% in each case and food conversion < 2. Yields were 8.4, 11.3 and 10.7 t/ha/year. In these conditions, the cost of a kilo of prawns in the Caledonian context was estimated at $US 5. These data suggest that profitability of shrimp farming can be improved." [from Abstract]

A multidisciplinary team explored the question of fishing pond lease fees not only in terms of rent capture, but also with respect to foregone mangrove values. Using a resource accounting framework, file data were gathered to provide the basis for estimating the social costs and benefits from mangrove conversion to aquaculture. The study supports the proposal to revise lease fees on aquaculturists who use government owned, converted mangrove areas from p 50.00/ha/year to p 1 000/ha/year.

"This paper reviews the interactions between shrimp and the natural environment. It considers and gives details of the effects of shrimp culture on the environment and the effects of environmental change on shrimp culture. Examples are given where the environmental impacts on shrimp culture have caused serious economic losses to shrimp farmers. The paper concludes that economic sustainability is, and will continue to be, closely related to how the shrimp industry deals with environmental problems. Strategies are considered for improved environmental management of shrimp aquaculture, and priorities are highlighted for future research on the relations between shrimp culture and the environment." [Abstract]

"Over the last four years, resource agencies in the Kosrae State Government have been working closely with the University of Hawaii Pacific Island Network and the East West Centre to develop an integrated resource management plan that encourages carefully planned development in accordance with Kosrae’s cultural and social values. In March 1992, the Kosrae State Legislature and Governor signed into law KSL 5-56 establishing a Development Review Commission (DRC) charged with assuming the responsibilities of the Environmental Protection Board, preparing land-use plans, and creating a development review permit process that incorporates environmental impact assessment procedures. This legislation empowered the DRC to promulgate rules and regulations necessary to implement the Kosrae Island Resource Management Programme (KIRMP)." [Abstract]

This report describes the forum which sought to clarify the issues related to the co-management and/or community-based coastal resource management (CBCRM).

he findings are presented of a mission conducted to evaluate the long-term socio-economic impact of a cage culture project carried out in southern Thailand during 1979-1985, whose main activity involved grouper and seabass.

"Four types of integrated fish farming with poultry and livestock include: (i) Oreochromis niloticus (tilapia) and chicken integrated farm; (ii) tilapia, Pangasius pangasius (catfish) and chicken integrated farm; (iii) tilapia, catfish, Puntius gonionotus (taew) and chicken integrated farm; and (iv) tilapia, catfish and pig integrated farm. The average area of a pond was 15.12 rai/farm (1 ha = 6.25 rai). The average total revenue, cost and net profit were 2 584 249.91, 2 488 565.47 and 95 684.45 baht/farm, respectively ($CDN 1 =20 baht). The integrated farm of tilapia, catfish and chicken obtained the highest profit of 146 734.32 baht/farm ($CDN 7 337). The results of the regression analysis showed that the stocking density and pond areas were important independent variables in the fish production models, whereas the family wage and feed were not. One of the most important problems for the integrated fish farming in the central region appeared to be the slow growth rates and low price of the hybridization between Oreochromis niloticus and O. mossambicus." [from Abstract, translated from Thai]

464. Platon, R.R. 1978. Design, operation and economics of a small-scale hatchery for the larval rearing of sugpo, Penaeus monodon Fab. Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 1. Iloilo, Philippines, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre, Aquaculture Department.

"The economic importance of Penaeus monodon Fabricius (sugpo, prawn) cannot be overemphasized. This is evidenced by the interest shown by aquaculturists in Southeast Asia in the mass culture of this species. One of the major problems in the mass production of sugpo is how to obtain a constant supply of fry. Since ultimately it is the private sector which should produce the sugpo fry to fill the needs of the industry, the Barangay Hatchery Project under the Prawn Programme of the Aquaculture Department of SEAFDEC has scaled down the hatchery technology from large tanks to a level which can be adopted by the private sector (especially in the villages) with a minimum of financial and technical inputs.

This guide to small-scale hatchery operations is expected to generate more enthusiasm among fish farmers interested in venturing into sugpo culture." [Introduction]

"During the 1990s, the enthusiasm for shrimp aquaculture has been dampened considerably by the repeated failures in the industry here in the Philippines, as well as abroad. The culprit has often been identified as a form of disease; as if disease organisms suddenly appeared out of the blue killing millions of shrimps and wrecking havoc on the industry. While some form of diseases are involved, the story is more complex than for instance the mad cow disease in Great Britain (or closer to home) the foot-and-mouth disease affecting the swine industry.

What are these diseases, where did they come from and how did they spread? Is there any way to treat them or prevent them? On the other hand, are shrimp diseases really the cause of all the industry’s woes or are they merely a manifestation of what actually ails the industry? More importantly, is there still hope for the shrimp industry?" [Part of Introduction]

466. Pollnac, R.B. and Sihombing, S. 1996. Cages, controversies and conflict: carp culture in Lake Toba, Indonesia. In: Bailey, C., Jentoft, S. and Sinclair, P. (eds.). Aquacultural development: social dimensions of an emerging industry. Boulder Colorado, USA, Westview Press, Inc. p.249-262.

"This chapter reviews a successful cage culture project. Although the project introducing cage culture of carp (Cyprinus carpio) to Lake Toba was successful, its history, context, and potential problems provide a good example of the difficulties, as well as prospects, facing the growth of aquaculture throughout the world. Carp culture in ponds, irrigation ditches, raceways, and drainage canals has a long history of successful production in some areas of Indonesia (e.g., North Sumatra and Java, especially West Java). As pressure on existing resources increased, these established systems manifested predictable problems associated with growth, such as fish kills due to the effects of overcrowding (e.g., pollution, lack of oxygen, or diseases). In some cases, the large number of cages impeded water flows needed to irrigate paddy fields and blocked the flow of material during heavy rains, clogging drainage canals and causing flooding." [Abstract]

"The book evaluates mariculture, the rearing of marine plants and animals as a development strategy for developing countries. Aid agencies and developing country governments have endorsed mariculture, citing its potential to mitigate rural poverty by providing an extra source of income and/or animal protein for resource-poor farmers or fishers, as well as generating export revenue." [Part of Introduction]

"Most research in integrated fish farming has focused on biological concerns, and there is a need for a socio-economic study. This paper identifies several specific areas of needed socio-economic research on integrated fish farming, such as the socio-economic structure of farming, family income analysis, evaluation of joint cost and inputs substitution, economic efficiency study, land tenure old use rights, credit and marketing, and development policy analysis." [Abstract]

"The specific objectives of this research are: (i) review and documentation of CBCRM programmes and projects in the Philippines from 1984-1994; (ii) determination of the major interventions, institutions and processes in CBCRM; and (iii) identification of general lessons which facilitate successful CBCRM activities. A total of 43 programmes and projects with over 105 project units or sites were documented throughout the 12 regions of the Philippines during the 10-year study period. From only five project units in 1984, the number of CBCRM projects units grew during the period, with the greatest annual increases (51 to 58) registered during the period of 1990-1994." [from Executive Summary]

"The conduct of this review and evaluation study is to provide a critical assessment of the implementation, impact and performance of completed CBCRM projects to serve as a basis for improving planning and implementation of new CBCRM projects in the Philippines. The specific objectives of this study are: (i) to evaluate and assess the implementation, impacts and performance of selected CBCRM projects in the Philippines; and (ii) to identify general principles and propositions which facilitate successful implementation of CBCRM projects." [from Executive Summary]

"This paper discusses the switching to or integrating small-scale fishing with aquaculture. This strategy will be presented in the context of rural development programs which provide alternative income sources and food supplies to fishers and their families. The provision of alternative livelihood whether aquaculture, cottage industry or agriculture reduces fishing effort and provides long terms solution to raising the incomes of small-scale fishers." [from Introduction]

"The findings are presented of a study conducted to investigate the current economic situation outlook of small-scale coastal fisheries around Pak Phanang Bay, Thailand. The social and economic situations of shrimp farmers were examined to determine whether such activity could be a possible alternative for small-scale fishermen. Recommendations are made for a coastal resources management policy, in order to improve the state of fishery resources in the area by limiting fishing effort and also by providing protective measures to control fishing and shrimp farming in the coastal area." [Abstract]

"An account is given of a case of successful brackishwater prawn farming undertaken in the state of Karnataka. Seeds of white prawn (Penaeus indicus) collected from estuaries and backwaters were stocked in a brackishwater pond in December 1985; details are given of investments and returns and also of the three harvests in April 1986, November 1986 and 1987." [Abstract]

"The country of Nepal offers potential for aquaculture development. This paper identifies the technical, economic, and social constrains for aquaculture development." [Abstract]

The major carp fry (Cyprinidae) of 220 mg and giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium) juveniles of 460 mg each were stocked at 6 000 and 15 000/ha respectively in the sewage fed Thana municipal thanks. Having applied 10 750 m³ of sewage/ha/annum the total production of fish and prawn was achieved as 3 500 and 600 kg/ha/yr respectively costing approximately Rs 50 000. The conversion co-efficient was found to be 1:2 multiplied by 62 for sewage-fed culture. An extra remuneration of a sum of Rs 15 000 can be generated by replacing the supplementary feeds with sewage and thus also reducing the impacts of burgeoning hydrospheric pollution on the vulnerable aquatic ecosystems." [Abstract]

"An appraisal of fish seed clientele pattern in Bihar has been attempted by an extensive survey and some results are presented. During the post-monsoon of 1986 and 1987, the data of fish seed users/pond owners were collected under three zones, namely, North Bihar, the Gangetic belt and South Bihar. The salient points as absolute data are presented in the paper. The points worth interest concern the regional aquaculture practices, procurement of fish seed, stocking rationale, area stocked, economic factors, etc." [Abstract]

"Around 50% of mangrove loss in the Philippines can be traced to brackishwater pond construction. The decrease in mangroves from 450 000 ha in 1920 to 132 500 ha in 1990 has been accompanied by expansion of culture ponds to 223 000 ha in 1990. The history of fishpond development in the country includes a government sponsored fishpond boom in the 1950s and 1960s, the pro-conservation decade of the 1970s followed by a shrimp fever in the 1980s. Production from brackishwater ponds has increased from 15 900 mt worth p 7.6 million in 1938 to 267 000 mt valued at p 6.5 billion in 1990. On the other hand, the maximum valuation of over $US 11 000 ha/1 yr/ 1 for unmanaged and managed mangrove forests makes them economically on par with the most profitable pond farming systems. The loss of mangrove systems and their varied goods and services is the single most important consequence of brackishwater pond culture in the Philippines. Moreover, intensive shrimp farming is associated with other ecological and socio-economic effects such as pollution of coastal waters and decline in domestic food crops. New legislation and enforcement of existing laws, conservation of remaining mangroves, massive rehabilitation of denuded mangrove areas, and promotion of sustainable aquaculture and fisheries are recommended." [Abstract]

"The paper reviews and evaluate shrimp pond culture in the Philippines and its ecological and socio-economic effects. The intertwined histories of the country’s mangrove forest and culture ponds are treated in depth; brackishwater aquaculture and the different shrimp culture systems are described. Intensive farming is discussed in terms of feed and water requirements; chemical inputs and waste production and the attendant organic and nutrient overloading; longevity and toxicity of chemicals; development of antibiotic resistance; and the introduction of exotic species. Most of the discussion is based on the Philippine experience, but relevant case studies from other shrimp-growing countries, notably Thailand and Indonesia, and also from salmon cage culture in the temperate zone, are included." [from Abstract]

480. Primavera, J.H. and Agbayani R.F. 1995. Comparative strategies in community-based mangrove rehabilitation programmes in the Philippines. In: Liao, D.S. (ed.). International cooperation for fisheries and aquaculture development. Proceedings of the 7thth Biennial Conference, IIFET Taipei ‘94, July 18-21, 1994. Vol. 2. pp. 1-13. [Inst. of Fish. Econ., National Taiwan Ocean Univ., 2 Pei Ning Rd., Keelung, Taiwan (P.C.)]

"Philippine mangroves have decreased from around 500 000 ha at the turn of the century to 132 000 ha in 1990. Given the varied and important socio-economic and ecological functions of mangroves including harvest of forestry and fishery products, coastal protection, erosion control and pollution abatement, there is a need to rehabilitate degraded areas. Half of the mangrove areas lost in the last three decades can be traced to the construction of 141 000 ha of brackishwater ponds monocropped to milkfish or shrimp. Integrated aquasilviculture is an alternative, although experimental, technology that combines both the fisheries and forestry functions of the mangrove ecosystem. This paper describes four models of mangrove rehabilitation and conservation with varying degrees of community participation in the Philippines monoculture mangrove planting in Kalibo, Aklan; mixed species planting in Silay City, Negros Occidental; aquasilviculture in Puerto Galere, Mindoro Oriental (family) and in Hinobaan, Negros Occidental (association), and compares their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats." [Abstract]

The benefits of intensive farming of the giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) in the Philippines are discussed in relation to the environmental costs. Ecological effects include mangrove conversion into ponds; use of antibiotics and chemicals leading to drug resistance; dumping of pond effluents which affect neighbouring ecosystems; and pumping of groundwater that causes saltwater intrusion and vulnerability to floods. In addition, these effects lead to social costs in the form of reduction in domestic and agricultural water supplies; decreases in the production of foodfish and other food crops; further marginalization of coastal fishermen; displacement of labour; and credit monopoly by big businessmen. Comparative economic analyses of three prawn farming systems showed that, compared to extensive and intensive culture, semi-intensive farms give the best performance.

"The culture of prawns in paddy fields in Kerala is described, examining various factors which affect the economics of the system. Expenditure and income details are given for successful paddy fields during 1983, giving also sale proceeds from prawns and fish." [Abstract]

"Within the context of aquaculture extension services in the country, the subjects of aquaculture production, marketing of aquaculture products and the socio-economic benefits derived from aquaculture have been dealt with." [from Abstract]

"With a coastline extending over 720 km, Maharashtra has its share of mangrove wasteland in need of eco-rehabilitation. The paper reviews the significance and the relevance of undertaking such an effort through the agency of the state social forestry organization and the field approach adopted by it. Amongst other things, it highlights the salient issues faced in the field while executing the pilot-scale mangrove plantation effort and discusses the experience. It reiterates the significance of mangrove habitat in coastal ecology and urges continued efforts aimed at the extensive eco-rehabilitation of mangrove wasteland along coast through planting." [from Abstract]

"Mangrove vegetation along the coastal belt of Cauvery delta (Tamil Nadu, India) and its role in the ecosystem was studied. Among macrofauna, the molluscs, shellfishes and finfishes were recorded, and the possibility for aquaculture is discussed. The author recommends an ecological regionalism, suggesting that every place in the coastal delta should develop the renewable resources necessary for its varied demands." [Abstract]

"Explores the scope for setting up cottage-type shrimp seed production centres in India on the models that exist in Southeast Asia. Based on experimental work, they present the lucrative economics of establishing such centres." [from Abstract]

"The results of rearing experiments in India suggest that the spiny lobsters Panulirus homarus and P. ornatus may be economically cultured in large cement tanks of 5-10 mt capacity, using clams, mussels, oysters, crabs, trash fish etc. as feed." [Abstract]

"An account is given of the evolution of shrimp culture in the Satkhira region. The impact of increasing shrimp culture on the lives of the landless, small and marginal farmers and fishermen is assessed with particular emphasis on the impact on women." [Abstract]

"Rice-fish polyculture in bheries (enclosed paddyfields) has been a tradition in the West Bengal (India) delta. Fish are seeded naturally with the water let into the paddyfields. With the growing shrimp export market, shrimp culture in the bheries has proved economically attractive, and the supply of tiger shrimp fry to the bheries is, now, a burgeoning business in West Bengal.

The Bay of Bengal Programme (BOBP), at the request of the Government of West Bengal, studied the problems connected with the supply of tiger shrimp fry to the bheries. The problems were seen as a constraint to the development of the mainly export- oriented shrimp culture industry. BOBP looked into both the natural collection and hatchery reared supply of shrimp fry. It also helped the West Bengal Department of Fisheries to establish a small hatchery at Digba, and it worked with some of the fry catchers of Medinipur District through a local NGO.

The study of all these activities as well as the marketing process was seen as a step towards a better understanding of the existing tiger shrimp fry market and the fisherfolk involved in it. This, it was hoped, would lead to the elimination of some, if not all, of the problems associated with the business. The BOBP study was undertaken under the Small-scale Fisherfolk Communities Project (GCP/RAS/118/MUL)." [Abstract]

"Harvesting crabs from the bunds of rice fields is one of several food production systems practised by resource-poor people in rice-based farming systems in south India. Local people possess an in-depth knowledge of the crabs and their ecology. Crabs, in turn, contribute significantly to the protein intake of resource-poor households. This article discusses the impact of crab consumption on food expenditure, as well as analyzing certain socio-cultural factors which influence the catching and consumption of crabs. Factors threatening the existence of the rice-crab production system are also enumerated. Finally, policy guidelines to conserve the autochthonous rice crab production system are suggested." [from Abstract]

"A two-year economic case study is presented of a small Nepali farm 14 km east of Kathmandu. In the first year the farmer concentrated on cereal crops, while in the second year he added a piggery, combined duck raising with fish culture and used improved varieties of cereals. The first year’s income was Rs 9 058. The second year’s income was Rs 10 592 from crops and a total of Rs 15 660 from duck fish culture. Detailed economics are given for both years on a product by product basis." [Abstract]

"A study on the economic aspects of seed production of the giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, was conducted. The data were collected from two hatcheries around Kochi, Kerala, India. The technology adopted is feasible and cost efficient. The cost of production of 1000 seeds was found to be Rs 15.86, whereas the cost of production of 1 000 seeds from the wild is reported to be Rs 250.00 to Rs 300.00. This study reveals that the operation provides a profit at 90.33% on the capital investment. The managerial aspects of the hatchery are also discussed." [Abstract]

This report analyzes socio-economic aspects of freshwater catfish culture in the Philippines.

This paper provides a profile of the aquaculture industry in Cagayan Valley, which consists of fry gathering/marketing, bangus fish farming, and freshwater fish farming of tilapia, carp, catfish and oyster. The primary method used was interviewing. The paper describes the region in terms of geographical location, leading industries and infrastructure supports. Discussions on industry operations which include farm characteristics, cultural practices, stocking and cropping patterns, disposal and marketing practices, labour inputs, cost and returns and financing. Market structure was presented and forms of assistance in the industry were suggested.

"Data from a total of 128 fish farms, 60 in the public sector and 68 in the private sector have been analyzed to describe the structure of capital, as well as the operative costs for existing fish farming practices in the private and public sectors. The dominant cost factors are highlighted; gross returns and net returns are presented. Economic indices, for example, rates of return on operating costs and on capital, are indicated. The pattern of inland fish marketing is also described. The profitability of fish culture operations is compared with those in agriculture and horticulture." [Abstract]

"Carp seed production is a short-term economic activity with a high rate of profitability. Economics of model farm operation for spawn, fry rearing and fingerling production are presented. An integrated bankable project for these stages is prepared and analyzed. Marketing aspects of carp seed production are discussed. The employment potential of carp seed production is highlighted. Single variable models for prediction of carp spawn produced based on weight of female fish are presented and their limitation outlined. Multivariate models are suggested for higher R² to explain output variation. Some key issues relating to technical and economic aspects are discussed." [Abstract]

The Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture developed a package of a scientific carp farming system with three indigenous carps and three exotic carps utilizing all the available niches in the pond ecosystem. There is a view prevailing now among some fish farmers and administrators that profitability is greater in indigenous three-species culture than six-species culture. An attempt has been made to work out the loss and profit account of the two production alternatives. The comparisons of the cultural operations of three species of Indian major carps and six species of Indian and exotic carps have been done more or less on identical farm practices except for stocking material and feed component. The cost estimates and income are worked out at current levels. It has been identified in economic studies of carp culture that feed is the dominating explanatory variable. Viewing from this angle, a profit and loss account of six species production option showed a net gain in income of Rs 12 950/ha/a and Rs 7 025/ha/7 months (Rs 12 402/ha/a) through adoption of six-species culture at current price levels. The additional cost and loss is more than compensated by production of additional fish of exotic carps. Even the same trend was also observed in Gujartal fish farm results. [Abstract]

499. Rangka, N.A. and Ratnawati, E. 1992. Socio-economic description of oyster farmers in South Sulawesi, Indonesia.

"Some 40 out of the existing 52 brackishwater prawn farms in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh State were surveyed to study their costs and returns, resource-use efficiency, and marketing. On an average, the total cost of production per crop per hectare was Rs 87 389.86; it showed an inverse relationship to farm size. On an average, the yield obtained per crop per hectare was 1 161.2 kg and the gross and net incomes were Rs 133 538 and Rs 46 148.14, respectively; they were directly proportional to farm size. The average unit cost of production per kg of prawns worked out to Rs 75.25. The resource-use efficiency analysis (MVP/MFC ratios) indicates that there is further scope to increase the investment on all the significant inputs except feed, which is overutilized. The breakeven output on an average is found to be 226.38 kg/crop/ha. The price spread reveals that the producer’s share in the consumer’s price is only 57.5%. The study reveals that brackishwater prawn farming is highly capital-intensive rather than labour intensive, and that the large farms derived the scale economies." [Abstract]

"The 480 km long coastline of Orissa extending over a greater part of the Northwest Bay of Bengal is essentially a depositional environment endowed with six major estuaries, a rich mangrove belt, Asia’s largest brackishwater lagoon (Chilka Lake), extensive non-vegetated wetlands and beaches rich in heavy minerals. This area is prone to cyclones and floods. Their effects and the implications of expected sea-level rise on this coast are described. In the last two decades there has been increasing pressure on this coastal zone for the development of fishery, aquaculture, ports and harbours, defence facilities and urban settlements. Some of the developmental activities have given rise to environmental and socio-economic problems, which have become issues of public concern and protest. This paper presents case studies involving some critical resources and habitats which illustrate the range of human activities in the area and the threats and constraint affecting sustainable development of the coastal zone." [Abstract]

"During the last decade (1970-80) fisheries of India had grown in many spheres. The contribution of fisheries to GDP had increased by registering a growth of 0.38% during the period from 1971 to 1982-83. The number of fishery workers among the total working force had increased. During 1977-78, the fisheries had provided employment of 0.7% of all types in the total economically active population and 1.1% of the total workers of primary industry in the whole country. Supply of fish products for domestic consumption had increased registering a modest growth. However, the growth of exports of fishery products is enormous during the last decade. Capital surplus after meeting the expenditure by the boats which are working in the mechanized sector had gone up slightly. Surplus in aquaculture is however increasing, particularly with paddy-cum- prawn culture which is extensively undertaken in Kerala. Growth in research facilities and also personnel employed with regard to research in fisheries had gone up in relation to the ratio of research workers to the fishermen’s population." [Abstract]

"Black pearl farming in the Tuamotus has experienced dramatic growth in recent years. However, among the atoll communities, there have been deep divisions on the criteria to be applied for allocating lagoon concessions. Management efforts by the Tahitian administration have been frustrated because of their insufficient attentiveness to local concerns." [Abstract]

"Following a brief outline of the Sepik River system and its faunal evolution, an historical account is given of the introduction of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and the development of the artisanal fishery in the area. Biological and ecological data obtained during study of the species in the river system from 1981 to the present are summarized. Reasons for the success of O. mossambicus in the Sepik River are discussed, examining niche exploitation, reproductive strategies, breeding seasons, mortality, and the competition for food and space. Tilapia in the lower order streams, and areas of potential vulnerability of O. mossambicus in relation to further species introductions are also discussed." [Abstract]

Tilapia farming is a growing business in the country. Though the species is an introduced fish, it has gained high degree of acceptance to consumers as well as the producers. The study assessed and identified implementable strategies for successful, sound and economical aquaculture practices for dissemination and adoption by the targeted beneficiaries. The baseline data includes productivity of tilapia farming; resource characteristics; culture systems; farm size; farm ownership; source of fry; stocking density; sizes of stocked and harvested fish; and harvest and harvesting practices.

"Details are given of trials conducted in Sri Lanka regarding the pen culture of tiger prawns (Penaeus monodon) in Merawela village, Chilaw Lagoon. Pen construction, nursery rearing, grow-out operations and economic analyses are discussed. Findings do not indicate this system of prawn culture in coastal lagoons of Sri Lanka to be economically feasible." [Abstract]

"World production of seaweed equaled approximately 4 million mt in 1988, with production levels similar for the last five years. The Asia-Pacific produced 80% of this total and exported approximately the equivalent of $US 250 million in seaweeds and seaweed products. The seaweed industry is worth $US 1 billion. World seaweed demand has grown at approximately the equivalent of 10% annually. Some 90% of the seaweed colloid industry is concentrated in the developed West followed by Japan and the Republic of Korea. Demand for phycocolloids has grown between 10 and 30% per year. Some 400 000 mt (product weight) of edible seaweeds, including Porphyra, Laminaria, Hizikia and Undaria are mainly produced, consumed and traded among Japan, Korea and China. An emerging market exists in the USA." [from Abstract]

"The aim of this report is to provide a description of the responsibilities and work of the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries and to describe the current state of the industry it serves." [Abstract]

"Indonesia is expanding its agricultural land by converting swamp forests into rice fields in an effort to increase rice production and to make ‘waste lands’ productive. Rice as a food product is being compared with sago, which is grown in the same environment but with completely different ecological consequences. Ecological and ideological arguments are discussed in relation to the production of these foods." [Abstract]

"Botia splendida, a new species, recently discovered in the Se Kong watershed of the Mekong river basin in southern Laos, is the most similar and presumably most closely related to the widely distributed Southeast Asian mainland species Botia morleti Tirant, 1885. It differs from B. morleti mainly in having no dorsomedian dark stripe; a complete pale ring immediately anterior to the dark ring on the caudal peduncle; larger dark spots on the caudal fin; and in other details of colouration." [Abstract]

"Brackishwater shrimp aquaculture is identified as one of the means for improving economic conditions of rural poor in Orissa, India. Some of the poor people in Haripur Village near Gopalpur were provided with ponds of about 0.5 acre each under social welfare schemes for shrimp farming. Some 25 beneficiaries selected randomly from this village were interviewed through a pre-tested structured questionnaire to collect information on their socio-economic conditions such as family size, education, occupation, annual income, shrimp aquaculture practice etc. It was observed that the culture practice of shrimps was done in an extensive manner. The collected data are tabulated and discussed." [Abstract]

"This report describes the findings and recommendations of a techno-economic and social feasibility study of shrimp pen culture in the backwaters of Killai, Tamil Nadu. It is based on field surveys in the communities of the region in the latter half of 1983 and on three culture trials at Killai undertaken during an earlier 21-month technical programme conducted by BOBP and the Department of Fisheries, Government of Tamil Nadu." [from Abstract]

"The advantages and disadvantages of shrimp culture in Satkhira are considered." [Abstract]

"A case for comprehensive development of water resources through river valley projects in India has been made. Important and valuable benefits can be attained through integration of aquaculture with other interests of the multipurpose utilization. This can lead to substantial economic and nutritional benefits. To achieve this, it is necessary to include the fishery programme along with other main purposes at the early stage of project planning. In order to focus the attention of the aquacultural potential of a river valley project, this paper outlines the approach to multipurpose project planning in optimizing the benefits from water resources development through inclusion of aquaculture." [Abstract]

"This monograph represents an attempt to improve the scientific understanding of integrated systems by providing a detailed case study of the dike pond system of the Zhujiang Delta, particularly in terms of its historical development, agricultural and aquacultural elements, energy flow, labour requirements and household economics. The study was conducted in the Leliu Commune of Shunde County, a representative tract of the central area of the Zhujiang Delta. The socio-economic aspects of the research focus on the first production team of the Nanshui Brigade of Leliu Commune a typical microcosm of the dike pond complex." [from Introduction]

"There is little systematic information on the labour absorption capacity of integrated systems of agriculture and aquaculture. This hampers evaluation of their development potential, particularly in areas of severe population pressure. In the densely- populated Zhujiang (Pearl River) Delta of South China an old established dike pond system based on the integrated production of Chinese carps, sugar cane, mulberry leaf, silkworms, and several minor commodities, has been acclaimed as an important absorber of rural manpower. This paper describes a simplified field methodology that was applied in a representative tract of that dike pond system in Shunde County, to provide a rapid assessment of the labour demand and supply situation. It was found that 57% of the potential manpower available in the 20-39 year age group is absorbed by the system, and therefore that household economies are heavily dependent on income derived from jobs outside the system." [Abstract]

519. Rusydi and Lampe, H.C. 1990. Economics of floating net cage common carp culture in the Saguling Reservoir, West Java, Indonesia. In: Costa Pierce, B.A. and Soemarwoto, O. (eds.) Reservoir fisheries and aquaculture development for resettlement in Indonesia. No. 23 pp. 218-239. [Inst. Ecol., Padjadjaran Univ., JI Sekeloa Selatan 1, Bandung 40132, Indonesia]

"Some 350 floating net cage common carp (Cyprinus carpio) farms at the Saguling Reservoir were surveyed in early 1988 and their economic performance monitored over seven months. One third of the farms had one cage and the average cage ownership was three. Investment was about Rs 300 000 per cage. The study encompassed a period of drawdown to fill the new Cirata Reservoir. Subsequent water quality problems due to the drawdown taxed the technical and economic skill of farmers new to the business. Many stopped or reduced the scale of their operations during the difficult period to avoid losses and maintain profits. Cage culture of common carp was profitable and an average-size three-cage farm could support an Indonesian family of five well above the national poverty level." [Abstract]

Details are given of developments in the Philippines regarding the conversion of mangrove forests into brackishwater fishponds, considering in particular environmental implications. Social and human costs and ecological costs are examined. The effects of increased stocking densities and the use of chemicals and drugs on the pond ecosystems are discussed. Recommendations are given regarding measures to be taken for the conservation and management of the environment.

The study provides some insights on fish marketing in Indonesia. The unavailability of handling facilities such as ice plants in most fish ports is considered to be a major factor in preventing a better price for the catch. Likewise, the inadequacy of marketing infrastructures such as roads is making the transport of fish products to the market very difficult. Limited capital not only weakened the bargaining position of the fishermen in determining the price, but also provided the fish traders with a better chance to dictate the price. The paper suggests some approaches in addressing these issues.

"Data were collected from a sample of 30 spawn buyers by a socio-economic questionnaire during the spawn production season in 1987 at the Freshwater Station, Fisheries Research Institute, Mymensingh. After analysis, it was found that every buyer was fish culturist, either full-time or part-time. The average age of the buyers was 34 years old and the average family consisted of eight members. Their educational background revealed that about 57% were SSC holders or higher. More than 23% of them had been involved in fish culture for more than five years. The major culture-related problem reported was lack of technical knowledge followed by non-availability of insecticide, while the major social-related problem was reported to be pilferage." [Abstract]

"The comparative ratooning potential of four standard varieties of PNG was studied under lowland field conditions. The crop performance was measured for yield and yield components, of both the main and the ratoon crop. Senis was the highest yielding and the yield of the rest of the varieties was statistically at par with each other, in the main crop. Contrary to this Wantok and Tambu were the highest-yielding varities under the ratoon crop, while Niupela and Senis yielded significantly lower. The yield and its components of the varities behaved similarly. Wantok and Tambu seem to be good for ratooning." [Abstract]

"Economics of shrimp farming was studied based on local costs on fixed and variable expenditures and returns. On the basis of net returns, it can be said that the shrimp farming at Thopputhurai is highly profitable." [Abstract]

"The paper discusses the prospects of the two species in Vedaranyam, Tamil Nadu and works out the comparative cost of production as Rs 93/kg for Penaeus indicus Res.98/kg for P. monodon. Based on cost benefit ratio, the economic viability of culture is brought out." [Abstract]

"The world trade in shrimp culture is reviewed as it is the fastest moving commodity in the seafood industry. The need for India’s participation is emphasized, regarding the culture in potential areas such as the Sundarbans in West Bengal, Chilka Lake in Orissa, and Vembanad Lake in Kerala. Also described is the role of the Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) of India in promoting shrimp farming in India." [Abstract]

The polyculture of tiger shrimp with milkfish has been practiced in the Philippines, but little is known about the possible polyculture of the shrimp with tilapias in spite of increasing consumer acceptance for tilapias. Shrimp monoculture, two rates of nile tilapia monoculture, and two polyculture treatments were compared for economic feasibility. The stocking combination of 6 000/ha shrimp with 4 0000/ha tilapia generated the highest production and net income. Two crops per year provide a 70% return on investment and 1.2 years payback period.

In the Philippines, small-scale fishermen have traditionally relied on informal lenders in view of the limitations of self-finance and the lack of access to bank credit. An assessment of credit practices and its availability in five coastal towns in Panay was conducted in mid-1990. Some 96% of the repsondents considered fishing as their major source on income with an average earnings from fishing of p 1 982/month. Hook and line, gill net, jigger, and spear are the common fishing gears used. Credit obtained by 83% of the respondents was used for food and household expenses, and fishing operations. Credits ranging from p 20-20 000 was obtained from informal sources such as friends, small store owners, and traders. Informal credit sources were preferred over formal sources because of: accessibility; fast-credit extension; liberal terms; and being the only source of credit. Income from fishing is not enough to cover basic necessities hence the dependence on informal credit.

The use of live microalgae for food during early stages of the life cycle of the shrimp larvae is considered essential. The microalga Chaetoceros calcitrans was mass- produced at the SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department using the multi-step method. The alga was grown in batches using larger containers. A cell density of 2.65x10⁶ cells/ml was obtained from the final 40-day culture. The production cost using this method was p 715.50/t ($US 1.00 = p 25). The minimal costs involved in this method make it an affordable technique for the mass culture of micro-algae.

"A survey was conducted among 72 seaweed (Kappaphycus sp.) farmers in the Western Visayas region, Philippines, from March to July 1990, in order to assess their culture practices in terms of production and economic efficiency. Yields of 5.8 t/ha per crop (dry weight) and 7.6 t/ha per crop (dry weight) were obtained from bottom line and raft monoline methods, respectively. Investment requirement was p 27 361/ha for bottom line culture, and p 56 757/ha for raft monoline culture (US$1= p 25). The bottom line method was more profitable with net farm income of p 33 286/ha per crop compared with p 26 365/ha per crop for the raft monoline method. The bottom line method of culturing seaweed is more cost-efficient compared with the raft monoline method. Production cost averaged p 3.32/kg for the former method, and p 5.55/kg for the latter method. Return on investment was also higher at 243% for the bottom line method and 93% for raft monoline." [Abstract]

"Among the economically important bivalves, the slipper oyster (crassostrea iredalei) and green mussel (Perna viridis) are predominantly being farmed in the Philippines. Oyster and mussel farms in the Western Visayas region have increased because of the need for supplementary sources of income brought about by the dwindling catch of small-scale fishermen. Socio-demographic and costs and returns data were gathered from 175 oyster and mussel farmers using a combination of rapid rural appraisal techniques and a pre-tested questionnaire. Oyster and mussel farms, less than 1000m², were located among fish capture devices in rivers and bays. The oyster and mussel farmers belong to the marginalized sector of society with about 30% of total household income derived from oyster and mussel farming. Problems encountered by oyster and mussel farmers included poaching, mortality due to siltation or sedimentation and pond effluents; no spat; lack of financing; and lack of buyers. This study recommends that oyster and mussel farmers form cooperatives to effectively market their produce and avail of financing, and research on the non-occurrence of spat." [Abstract]

"This dissertation presents an integrated approach for development of prawn farming in India as a whole, and particularly in Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh State. It also discusses how employment could be generated from shrimp farming. As a result of extensive and semi-intensive farming, there is large potential for employment in shrimp farming in Nellore District, according to the author’s observations. 400 man days per hectare could be generated.

Dealing with environmental problems, the dissertation explains that shrimp farming has many negative aspects in this regard. The excessive use of feed is creating pollution not only in the farms, but also in their surroundings.

Besides dealing with many aspects of prawn farming, the dissertation also looks into the cost of production in large-, medium- and small-scale shrimp farming in Nellore District." [Abstract]

"The Tuticorin coastal waters (South India) are under the constant influence of organic matter - rich sewage and heated water from the nearby coal fired thermal power plant. The present investigation (April 1990 - March 1991) deals with the impacts of sewage and thermal pollution on the water quality, plankton and fishery potentials of the Tuticorin coast at two stations." [Abstract]

"Farmer’s participation in research on fish farming in the modified rice fields were conducted in two selected districts of coastal West Bengal. The yield and economics of rice-fish culture in the modified rice plots with different species combinations indicate its suitability in coastal areas. Income from fisheries component helped the farmers to tide over the loss from heavy damage of crops they suffered during the kharif season due to heavy rain." [Abstract]

"The effect of two densities of Macrobrachium rosenbergii on production, yield characteristics and economics under polyculture system were examined. Prawns were stocked at about 2 (L.D) and 5 (H.D) tails/m² with the average weight of 3-4 g. Fish were stocked in each pond as follows 225, 500, 350 and 1 250 tails/pond for common carp, giant gouramy, bighead and silver carp, respectively. The average production of fish in L.D and H.D amounted to 2 295 and 2 125 kg/ha respectively. Common carp had a highest growth, while silver carp and bighead were the lowest. There was an indication that the production in H.D was higher." [Abstract]

"Aquaculture as an economic means for low cost production of protein food is important. Culture of organisms in an aquatic system needs attention because of its capability of counteracting against unemployment, malnutrition, undernourishment and poverty in rural areas. Nutrition of prawns is a major impediment in culture operations, either due to non-availability of nutritious feeds or due to its high cost. With the increase in meat production and consumption in India, slaughter-house and poultry wastes -particularly cast-off chicken entrails, rich in protein - is recommended as a potential supplement in prawn feeds. The present study was aimed at evaluating chicken entrails as prawn feed in the fresh and compounded forms." [Abstract]

The Fisheries Department, Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources, Brunei Darussalam, continues to manage the resources while at the same time tries to increase the development of the capture fisheries. The main strategy has always been exploitation up to the maximum economic yield (MEY), which is taken at about 20% below MEY. In this regard, a lot of work still has to be done in order to reduce imports.

This study estimates the potential economic rent available to commercial fishermen and holders of leases on government-owned intertidal lands. These estimates serve as a basis for setting up new license fees for both commercial fishing vessels and fishpond leases. For commercial marine fisheries, the study considers the maximum economic rent as the profit earned when the level of fishing effort is just sufficient to achieve the MEY from the available resources. Hence, a system of license fees which would discourage the operation of less efficient fishing vessels should be set up to reduce the fishing effort. For fishponds on government lands, economic rent is estimated based on the opportunity cost of these lands in their best alternative use. In this case, the net annual value of wood product for each hectare of management naturally regenerated mangrove forest (which is at p 2 250/ha) is used.

"In 1984, Taiwan (P.C.) had 14 537 vessels in its registered fishing fleet, with total tonnage of 552 408 gross weight tons (GWT), and fish culture ponds totalling 66 820 ha. Fishery catches in 1984 were 1 002 599 metric tons (t), an increase of 7.7% over 1983. The catches were valued at $US 1.626 billion, accounting for 22.8% of agricultural production. In the first ten months of 1985, catches of Taiwan’s fishing industry totalled 834 742 t, or 81.2% of its 1985 target. Exports of fish products in 1984 were valued at $US 682.2 million, or 2.2% of Taiwan’s total exports. Tuna, eel, and shrimp are Taiwan’s major export products, accounting for 85% of Taiwan’s fishery exports in 1984." [Abstract]

"A brief discussion is presented on the problems caused by disease in the fish culture industry in Southeast Asia. The major diseases are considered under the following group divisions: protozoan diseases and microbial diseases. The most prevalent protozoan species involved are Ichthyophthirius, Cryptocaryon and Myxobolus; the majority of bacterial diseases are caused by the genera Pseudomonas, Aeromonas and Flexibacter. The economic impacts of fish diseases on the aquaculture industry in the region are examined." [from Abstract]

"The paper focuses on the role of these by-products on rural employment and their production process and cost structure." [Abstract]

"SAMAMA was organized as a response of the small fisherfolk of Mantungao, in the Philippines, to the pollution of the Guiguinto River caused by factories in the municipality. As a national organization of small fisherfolk, SAMAMA is organized into town, municipal and provincial departments. It envisages in the short term the passing of a pro-small fisherfolk legislation and a declaration of a closed season on Manila Bay as fruits of their ongoing struggle. A brief summary is given of the fisherfolk’s income and other sources of livelihood, considering also the various issues and problems confronting SAMAMA." [Abstract]

"Freshwater aquaculture is a relatively new system of food production in northeast Thailand, the poorest region of the country. Population growth, environmental degradation and more recently, fish disease, have cause a decline of fish stock and stimulated farmers’ interest in aquaculture. Moreover, government programme to increase water availability have subsidized pond construction and made ponds available to increasing numbers of farmers. However, due to lack of indigenous knowledge in fish culture, farmers do not posses basic fishfarming skills, which results in low fish production. Practical technologies using inputs available to farmers have been identified through a combination of field surveys and on campus research in the Asian Institute of Technology. Following field testing, the technologies have been extended to farmers on a trial basis. This paper describes the evolution of aquaculture in northeast Thailand by which small-scale farmers climb up the ladder of intensification. Investment in aquaculture research and development accelerates efficient evolution." [Abstract]

"The report describes the activities of the Coastal Area Development Project at Surodadi, Java, Indonesia since implementation in 1986. The activities are divided into three stages. The first stage covers the 1986-87 period and the establishment of the project site and first production tests. The second stage covers the January-July 1988 period, when the following aspects were investigated: demonstrated pond management; dissemination of improved cultivation methods; integration of core and fringe activities. In the third stage, covering the August-December 1988 period, activities were continued on the same lines. Results appear to be promising, and it is believed that despite all the difficulties and shortcomings encountered, project activities should be continued seeing that development in the area is possible." [Abstract]

"The findings are presented of a study carried out in Bumimulyo, Pati, Java, Indonesia to provide information regarding the local aquaculture production and conditions. The following aspects are covered: ecological conditions and changes in land use; socio-economic stratification of pond holders; tenancy conditions and regulations; conditions of brackishwater pond production; market conditions and marketing methods; people’s opinion about local public fisheries services; and, level of public knowledge about the CJEDP project." [Abstract]

"The findings are presented of a feasibility study conducted regarding the development of brackishwater shrimp aquaculture in Indonesia. The aquaculture conditions in four potential villages in the districts of Kendal and Demak were compared; the socio-economic conditions of the pond holders and the level of pond management and development perspective are discussed. The findings of the study show that the fish pond conditions in the Kendal villages were more advanced, with higher production inputs, outputs and pond productivity, indicating that the district Demak should become the area of development activities due to its greater needs." [Abstract]

"The feasibility of integrating fish with backyard and commercial pig operations is analyzed, based on fish yields from experimental pig-fish trials. The main thrust of the experiments was the development of appropriate technologies involving the utilization of pig manure in tilapia production. Although analysis of the experimental integrated project showed that it is operating at a loss, these results do not reflect the true economic potential of the system, because as an experimental project it was not designed to maximize profits. Using partial budgeting techniques, it is estimated that integrated fish production would increase the incomes of both backyard and commercial pig operations. However, the additional capital requirements reduce the rates of return on total investment. It appears that the larger operations will benefit more from integration than the smaller enterprises." [Abstract]

"Tilapia production in freshwater ponds of Central Luzon, Philippines, is described and the economics of monoculture and polyculture systems are discussed. The culture of tilapia is shown to be economically feasible in the area with polyculture systems being slightly more profitable than monoculture systems. Land rent and feed purchases constitute the major cash expense items.

The major problems encountered by tilapia producers include the difficulty of obtaining credit, lack of technical assistance, limited management expertise and high price of inputs. Availability of fry/fingerlings and market absorptive capacity for tilapia produced were reported only as minor problems." [Abstract]

"The need for development in the shrimp farming industry in India as a means of increasing production and export of shrimp in the country is discussed. Details are given of the steps to be taken, so that large available areas could be brought under aquaculture to augment shrimp production and step up export of shrimps." [Abstract]

"This paper reviews the trends and economics of hatchery and grow-out phases of shrimp farming in Asia. The economics of small-, medium- and large-scale hatcheries are evaluated based on a recent Philippine study. Cost and returns of shrimp grow outs in major Asian producing countries are analyzed based on a recent farm performance survey conducted by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and the Pacific (NACA). The cost and returns of extensive, semi-intensive and intensive farming systems are compared within the producing country, and the economic efficiency of each system is compared among the major producing countries. The comparative advantage of producing and marketing of shrimp among major producing countries in Asia is also evaluated. Limitations for future development and factors affecting the sustainable growth of the shrimp industry are also discussed." [from Abstract]

"From a protein nutrition point of view, it is cheaper to grow some aquatic rather than land animals in Taiwan. The rate of return on investment is higher in aquaculture than in ocean fishing and pig farming.

Aquaculture already occupies an important position in Taiwan’s food economy and is likely to further increase in magnitude, especially if its potential were enhanced by government- and industry-sponsored development programmes." [Abstract]

"The climate of Taiwan (P.C.) is ideal for eel farming. However, the eel industry in Taiwan did not really grow until the latter part of the 1960s mainly due to a lack of demand for eel. As a result of increased demand for eel from Japan during the past few years, both the area of eel farming and the prices of seed eel and eel have increased rapidly. The total area of eel farms in Taiwan grew from about 60 ha in 1966 to about 830 ha in January 1972. It is now estimated to be in excess of 1 000 ha. This rapid area expansion in Taiwan and the increasing demand for seed eel from Japan have resulted in a phenomenal rise in the price of seed eel, from $NT 60 per kilogram in 1966 to about $NT 60 000 in March 1973 - an increase of 1 000 times the original price in seven years. In the same period, the price of eel increased only about threefold.

The economic aspects will play an important role in the development of this industry in the future. Past research has been primarily concerned with the biological and technical aspects of eel farming. This study is a modest attempt to analyze its economic aspects and examine items, such as the cost revenue situation and the market potentials of eel farming. It is hoped that the results of this study will facilitate evaluation of the probable future of the industry.

This study is divided into three parts. The cost revenue analysis is presented in Section II. Section III discusses the price and demand for eel. A summary of the findings and conclusions is presented in Section IV." [Introduction]

"The cultivation of Gracilaria is described, costs and returns of the operation are analyzed, and the market demand is evaluated. Gracilaria culture is a labour intensive operation. However, annual productivity and profit are high. The increasing demand and rising price of raw Gracilaria, and agar derived from it, are likely to encourage Gracilaria cultivation not only in Taiwan, but also in other developing countries with sites suitable for its cultivation." [Abstract]

"Economic surveys of milkfish production in ponds in Taiwan and the Philippines for 1972 are compared and the economic changes that occurred in the milkfish industry during 1972-1975 in both countries are discussed. The relative costs of production in these countries are evaluated in terms of output per unit of input (land and labour), and by comparing differences in production and marketing per unit of output. The advantages and disadvantages of the different milkfish farming practices in these countries are also explained." [Abstract]

"A brief account is given of the fishery resources of Taiwan (P.C.). Fish production, aquaculture, means of production, fish supply, marketing and prices are discussed in detail. Some economic aspects of the fishery industry are considered." [Abstract]

"This study determined the profitability of the carp cage culture practiced by 188 operators in three lakes in Pokhara Valley: Begnas, Phewa, and Rupa. Stratified sampling, representing 50% of the population, was adopted using a pre-tested interview schedule. Background information, basic socio-demographic characteristics of operators, information on cage culture management practices, cost and return analysis, and problems faced by cage operators are presented.

On average, the cage volume used by each operator was 94.12m ³; total capital investment was 73.75 NRs/m³, total average annual production was 2.03 kg/m³, and net benefit was 31.22 NPR/m ³ ($US = NRs 18). All operators sold fresh fish at 26.95 NRs/kg. Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) were the main species wed in cage culture. The major problems identified by cage operators in the three lakes were: shortage of fry or fingerlings; limited market; high price of inputs; and lack of skilled labour." [Abstract]

"The results obtained in field experiments in West Bengal on integrated fish- livestock-crop farming are presented. The raising of small livestock (pigs, ducks and poultry) were blended with fish culture by having animal housing units installed on pond embankments or hung over the pond surface in such a way that the animal wastes and washings of the housing units fell directly into fish ponds, leading to enhanced primary production. Apart from primary production, the population of fish food organisms was also increased through the saprophytic food chain resulting in increased fish production. Fish production rates of 6 791.7 kg, 4 340.0 kg and 4 665.5 kg/ha/yr were obtained in fish-pig, fish-duck and fish-poultry farming, respectively. The fodder and horticultural crops grown on the terraced embankments of the ponds were used for feeding the pigs and fish, as well as for the consumption of farm families. The expenditure incurred on animal raising was largely offset through the sale proceeds of the animal meat and eggs. No fish feed or fertilizers were used." [from Abstract]

"Aquaculture techniques for increased production in fish-cum-livestock farming in India are described, considering fish-cum-pig, fish-cum-ducks and fish-cum-poultry systems. Pond management, husbandry practices, harvesting, and economics are examined for each of the systems." [Abstract]

"Women’s involvement in aquaculture is an emerging trend. This paper elaborates the reciprocal influence process in transfer of aquaculture technology to rural women and its impact on productive level, self-initiative among women and their income status. The selection of five villages and 40 participant womenfolk was based on a comprehensive resource inventory survey, the quality of work life and identification of the need for appropriate technology for improving the economic lot of women. The easily available small ponds (0.01 ha) were used for a succession of activities like fry and fingerling production and table-size fish culture, on a continuous basis, with group efforts. Fruit and vegetable crop production was introduced on pond embankments as a part of integrated land-use planning. Common carp breeding was introduced. Incentives by way of economic inputs like fish seed, feed, fertilizer, piscicide, and breeding kits were provided to ensure broad participation in adoption of innovations. The extension methodology oriented the focus on scientific and technological inputs like continuous training, demonstration, regular farm visits, performance evaluation and feedback, in addition to innovative work organization and a structured socio-technical system in which people and technology interacted." [Abstract]

"Investment in other countries is an important strategy for the shrimp industry in Taiwan (P.C.) to upgrade its intangible assets and to solve its difficulty in development. The activity involves environments that are totally different from the political cultural, social, legal and economic conditions in Taiwan. For better chance of success, the following are recommended: (i) combination of investment for domestic strategy for domestic shrimp culturing should be improved; (ii) investment must include horizontal and vertical integration; (iii) selection of location must be done by assigning proper weight to each index in accordance with the character and purpose of the investment; and (iv) talented people will be important in the operations. More aggressive actions should be taken in recruiting people and that proper authority and encouragement should be done." [Conclusion]

"The development of fish culture in Nepal is discussed with respect to institutional credit arrangements. A case study is given, describing the impact of aquaculture loans at the fish farm level." [Abstract]

"This study examined the effects of shading on physico-chemical environments and its resultant impact on the survival of fry and fingerlings, rate of fish production and economic profitability of small tree-lined ponds for two successive years. Four backyard ponds, two shaded with large trees receiving sunlight 5.3 h/d (0.02 and 0.03 ha) and two unshaded (sunlight 9.5 h/d; 0.02 and 0.03 ha) were studied during 1981 and 1982. Ponds were stocked with 20-33.3 lakhs spawn/ha for fry rearing, 70 000 fry/ha for fingerling rearing and 7 000-8 000 fingerlings/ha for table-size fish culture with Indian major carps. Water quality parameters and primary production were analyzed using standard methods. In shaded ponds, the survival rates of fry and fingerlings were 10.0-25.4% and 42.3-53.6% respectively, while in unshaded ponds, a better recovery was recorded (fry 37-38% and fingerlings 72.3-80.4%). Similarly the rate of fish production was 36-94% lower in shaded ponds in comparison to the unshaded ones." [Abstract]

The granting of territorial use rights in fisheries (TURFs) to fisherfolk associations, similar to that practised in Japan, is recommended as a management tool for small-scale fisheries in the Philippines. This study, carried out to determine the acceptability of the practice under the Philippine conditions, was conducted among 211 coastal dwellers of five municipalities in Panay Island, Central Philippines. Respondents of the survey generally perceived the practice of TURFs as acceptable, as it would lead to an improvement of their catch. Results suggest that the respondents’ present predicament of inadequacy of catch to support their livelihood is the starting point for the introduction of the rationale for community-based management of coastal resources.

"This article documents the indigenous knowledge in fishing possessed by the islanders of Malalison Island in central Philippines. The study was conducted in connection with Community Management of Fishery Resources Project of the Aquaculture Department of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre. The indigenous knowledge described includes triangulation, wind directions, and the gathering of shellfish and other invertebrates." [Abstract]

This paper provides baseline information on the involvement of women in small-scale coastal aquaculture, such as farming of slipper oyster and green mussel. Data were gathered during a socio-economic survey of oyster and mussel farming in Western Visayas, Phillippines. There were 175 respondents interviewed, of which 18.5% and 2.4% of oyster and mussel growers, respectively, were females. Fishing and related activities were the major source of livelihood for the majority of the respondents. Harvesting in mussel farming and both harvesting and marketing of oyster farming generated the widest participation among female-household members.

This paper discusses an aspect of a bigger study on the economic and social analysis of oyster and mussel farming in Western Visayas. Slipper oyster (Crassostrea iredalei) and green mussel (Perna viridis) are the predominantly cultured bivalves in Western Visayas. There are approximately 2 000 oyster and mussel farming households, the majority of which are partially dependent on oyster and mussel farming for their livelihood. Three types of conflict have been identified: (i) between oyster/mussel farmers and owners/operators of pumpboats; (ii) between oyster/mussel farmers and fishpond operators whose fishponds usually surround oyster/mussel farms; and (iii) among oyster farmers themselves who practise the bottom line method. Starting January 1, 1992, municipalities have the exclusive authority of granting fishery privileges to erect fish corrals, oyster, mussel or other aquatic beds in the municipal waters and impose rents, fees, or charges. The following actions have been recommended: (i) a review by the municipality of existing oyster/mussel farms; (ii) a dialogue among the users of a bay or estuary to formulate rules and regulations; and (iii) the setting up of farm-size limits.

"This paper summarizes the economic aspects of production models and discusses the economic feasibilities and some marketing requirements of a proposed fisheries aquaculture development at an ox-bow lake, isolated from the Perak River, at Teluk Intan, Perak, Malaysia. Measures of feasibility from a budgetary simulation model are expressed in terms of net present values of return (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and return on sale; their changes recalculated in relation to practical ranges of variations in sale prices and yields, and under conditions of normal and 20% increment in operational costs, are also expressed." [from Abstract]

"The environmental profile represents a first step in the formulation of an area management plan for the densely populated coastal zone of the island nation of Singapore, a key trading link within the Southeast Asian region and between the region and the rest of the world. The profile presents descriptive information on: Singapore’s population and development background; the natural characteristics (e.g., climate, landforms, flora and fauna) of the coastal land and offshore islands; the seabeds and waters surrounding Singapore; Singapore’s economic and non-economic resources; the use and development of coastal resources in terms of port and shipping services, manufacturing industries, power generation, fisheries and aquaculture, retail businesses, residential uses, recreation and tourism, and use of the offshore islands; the nature and extent of coastal pollution and attempts to control it; and the planning and institutional frameworks for coastal area management. It also includes references. [Also published as Association of Southeast Asian Nations Report. Technical Pub.Ser.3. Prepared in cooperation with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Sponsored by the US Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C.] " [Abstract]

"This publication serves the following purposes: to provide policymakers and researchers with a ready source of information, and source materials; to describe the coastal changes that have taken place and to suggest factors that have brought about such changes; to highlight the interrelations among aspects of coastal zone, including possible conflicts; to raise issues relating to coastal zone management; and to eventually help formulate a coastal area management plan for the country. Initially, the profile was produced as a background document for the first National Workshop of the Singapore component of the ASEAN-US/CRMP. The workshop was organized in late 1986 to provide a forum for discussions among representatives of various Singapore Government agencies and the country’s CRMP research team. A multidisciplinary approach has been adopted. The profile covers physical and biological characteristics of the coastal resources; social and economic aspects of the coastal residents and users; fisheries and aquaculture; past and present utilization of marine resources and their contributions to the economy; coastal land-use problems; and the role of various institutions (government and private) in the management and development of coastal resources." [Abstract]

"The marine living resources of India are vast and varied, and the possible yield from these resources has in recent years opened up new vistas for their exploitation. This paper presents information on the status and means of exploitation of these resources, the exports and per capita availability of marine products and their contribution to the national wealth." [Abstract]

"Two means of reducing feed costs in semi-intensive aquaculture systems in the tropics are considered: economically optimal dietary protein levels, and mixing feeding schedules." [Abstract]

"To establish the most economical dietary protein content for tilapia culture the authors assessed the relationship of growth, measured as percent average daily gain (% ADG), food conversion ratio (FCR) and protein efficiency ratio (PER) of young of four species of tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus, O. niloticus, O. aureus and Tilapia zillii, for which experimental growth data were available, in relation to body weight and dietary protein content (% protein). The relationship of % ADG to % protein in young tilapia weighing < 1 g or 1-5 g was found to be a second order polynomial quadratic function, whereas FCR and PER were linearly related to % protein. Data derived from the foregoing approaches showed that young tilapia weighing between 1 and 5 g require 28% of the diet as protein. This dietary protein content, however, is considerably less than the protein level which supports maximum growth, namely 34%." [Abstract]

Abstracts of the relevant papers presented at the workshop are cited individually.

"Prawn culture in Indonesia and the Philippines is discussed. Aquaculture technology, grow-out methods, hatchery technology and maturation and reproduction technology are considered. The following areas of prawn aquaculture are thought to offer a number of opportunities for commercial development: (i) upgrading tradition pond operators; (ii) development of new pond areas; (iii) hatchery operation; (iv) upgrading existing hatcheries; (v) handling, processing and marketing; (vi) feed milling; and (vii) vertically integrated prawn aquaculture. The basic requirements for development of a commercial prawn farming venture are listed as land water, infrastructure, capital and expertise. It is concluded that the investment cost of prawn aquaculture is substantial. However, continued improvements in technology and management are favourable indications for high returns in the future." [Abstract]

"Principles of sustainable development are inviting a change in the approach used for reservoir management. Instead of designing and planning new reservoirs, more emphasis will be placed on management of existing reservoirs. Reservoir storage reallocation and reassessment of reservoir operational rules are considered to be the two main problems to be addressed by reservoir research in the near future. Appropriate techniques for solving these two problems are necessary. An attempt at developing a sound methodology for a reservoir reassessment has been presented here. A simulation approach, based on the four probability criteria, has been used in this context for storage analysis. Reservoir management strategies have been re-assessed using an implicit stochastic optimization model. The methodology has been applied to Wonogiri Reservoir, located in Central Java, Indonesia. Analysis of the storage capacity indicated that the current capacity is larger than that required for the irrigation of an area of 25 319 ha, corresponding to the Wonogiri reservoir final development phase. Thus, the present size of the reservoir allows for additional multipurpose use of the reservoir storage. Optimization of the reservoir yield demonstrated that the reservoir can provide for municipal and industrial water supply and hydropower generation, in addition to the current use of reservoir storage for irrigation water supply." [Abstract]

"The publication presents an attempt to bring about a dialogue between the extension worker and the farmer on fish culture in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. It is written in a simple style and in a narrative form in order to make it interesting and light reading. Emphasis is given to the possible doubts and lack of interest in the farmer’s minds in adopting something new and different with the eventual aim to slowly educate the farmer with the essentials of the concept of pond fish culture." [Abstract]

"An overview is given of the current situation regarding aquaculture in Lao, considering pond fish culture, cage culture and rice-cum-fish culture in particular. Production and national targets, processing and marketing, institutional infrastructure, developmental strategy and policy considerations, and international assistance are discussed." [Abstract]

"The overall diet of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic population, particularly in the remote villages is unbalanced, rich in carbohydrate and poor in protein. The promotion of aquaculture was found to be the most pragmatic approach for producing quality fish in the rural areas to improve the diet and income of the village people. Following a brief account of the status of aquaculture in Laos, the development approach followed by the fish culture extension project, which started in April 1992, is outlined. The following farming systems were adapted and demonstrated by the project: polyculture and integrated culture systems; the rice-cum-fish culture system; and seed culture system. So far, 563 farmers, including 24 model farmers and 27 government officials have been trained on various aspects of fish culture and fish culture extension methodologies." [Abstract]

"Following a description of the fishery resources available in India, an account is given of the present status of the fishery industry, detailing marine fisheries exploitation, marine products exports, aquaculture, fish processing and shipbuilding. Government policy is outlined and the financing of the fishery industry examined. Sectors which show potential for international cooperation are discussed, considering in particular the exploitation of fishery resources, processing technology, marketing, shipbuilding and aquaculture." [Abstract]

"An account is given of duck husbandry and integrated fish culture operations. Economic analyses are made, showing investment levels and cost returns." [Abstract]

"India’s ocean policy, in the Indian Ocean, has been under strain both from within and outside the country. Notable progress has been made in implementing individual marine policy sectors, but important shortcomings in implementation and integrating remain. In existing Indian institutional structures and mechanisms, the implementation of certain essential functions of marine policy needs intensive model building. Interplay of factors like national necessity and international challenge, and their respective roles in bringing this change is remarkable. India’s imperatives as the first pioneer investor have to be analyzed in the light of its growing interest into the established and exciting areas of deep-sea mining, pelagic fisheries, sea farming, offshore engineering, underwater technology, and coastal zone management. There is a need to adopt an integrated marine policy, despite the difficulties inherent in its conception." [Abstract]

"Seabass (Lates calcarifer) has a great commercial value in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. In Thailand, seabass can be cultured in ponds or cages. The marketing and the economics of seabass production are discussed briefly." [Abstract]

"There is need to examine the cause for the low yield in fish production at farm level to provide a basis for better utilization of existing farm ponds of Karnataka and to enhance the fish production of the state. The study estimates the farm-level yield gap under different categories of fish farmers and documents the constraints/factors responsible for production gap/differential. Data collected by questionnaire were tabulated and analyzed by using simple tabular analysis. To study the yield gap level at different levels of pond size the cultivators were categorized into three groups small (<500 m², medium (501-1 000 m²) and large (>1 000 m². There is a yield gap under different categories of pond size and the yield differential between on-farm and demonstration worked out to 1 904 kg/ha/yr, indicating only 61% harvest at the farm level over its potential." [Abstract]

"The main objective of this paper is to provide an introduction to the methodology used in the case studies that follow. The paper focuses on the role of relative prices in farmers’ production behaviour and presents a model for explaining output variations among farmers. In the context of this production mode, the concepts of output elasticity, economies of scale, and technical and economic efficiency are explained using illustrative examples. The type of data used and the estimation techniques are briefly described and the distinction between average and frontier production functions is emphasized." [Abstact]

"Historically, milkfish (Chanos chanos Forsskal) has been the premier aquaculture product in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Taiwan. However, there are significant differences in the industry’s performance among and within these places, especially in terms of yield. These differences can be explained by different factor (land, labour, capital) endowments and by the fact that producers have generally been responsive to these conditions. In Taiwan and the Philippines, milkfish production is becoming less profitable over time. In both places, brackishwater pond producers of milkfish are caught in a cost-price squeeze as input costs have increased more rapidly than market prices. Indonesian producers also face market constraints because high regional transport costs often isolate them from major market centres. In response to declining profitability of milkfish, producers have been changing their production techniques and shifting to the culture of other species such as tilapia that currently have greater domestic or export market potential. Although total milkfish production continues to increase, in the Philippines and Indonesia at least, milkfish’s traditional share of total aquaculture production in all these places has declined quite dramatically over the last 10 years, and this trend is likely to continue. The declining profitability of milkfish production." [Abstract]

"The transition of a fishing community of Hingotanan, Philippines, from almost exclusive dependence on capture fishing to extensive involvement in seaweed (Eucheuma species) farming is described." [Abstract]

"The fry and fingerling industry of the milkfish (Chanos chanos Forskal) in the Philippines is alleged to suffer from certain imperfections. Primary among these are an annual shortage of catch necessary to meet the stocking requirements of the 176 000 ha of fishponds; high fry mortality rates during transport; failure of the pricing system to perform its spatial and form allocative functions; and the exploitation of fry gatherers and pond operators by middlemen and nursery pond operators, who form the core around which the whole fry and fingerling industry has developed. These alleged imperfections provide the rationale for various government policies affecting the fry and fingerling industry.

The study indicates a higher level of industry performance than hitherto supposed. In 1974, an estimated 1.35 billion fry were caught, adequate to meet annual stocking requirements. Allegations of fry shortage were based on simultaneous underestimation of catch and overestimation of stocking requirements, and were traced to temporary price increases resulting from expanded fishpen area, which subsequently declined. Fry shortage and transport mortality rates of 8.7% and 6.6%, respectively, compared with a mortality rate of 54% during rearing, indicated that major technical inefficiencies arise in fishponds rather than in the distribution system. Of every 100 fry caught, 38 are harvested at marketable size.

Monthly average fry prices amoung 17 major trading regions were significantly correlated, indicating a high level of information flow in the industry. An examination of the concession system which restricts first-sale opportunities of gatherers indicated that concessionaires are unable to capture their full monopsony advantage due to the ‘competitive fringe’ of smugglers. Rather than exploitation, the concession system is a form of indirect municipal tax on fry gatherers.

Since the fry industry is a 57 million peso per year industry upon which approximately 170 000 people directly and indirectly depend, it is suggested that the location of future milkfish hatcheries and the timing of production be planned such that they complement rather than displace the natural fry fishery and distribution system" [Abstract]

"This paper reviews available economic data and previous publications on the four major seaweed species cultivated in the South China Sea region. These are the red seaweeds Euchema, Gracilaria, and Porphyra and, to a much lesser extent, the green seaweed Caulerpa.

Available data indicate good profitability on small farms of one hectare or less in size. Particularly in the case of Eucheuma farming, the industry has successfully attracted families out of full-time fishing. Prices paid by oligopsonistic middlemen/processors have been highly volatile, however, partly in response to unpredictable supply from responsive farmers.

Available economic data on seaweed farming is very scanty and fails to address key issues with respect to yield and profit variability among farms. Because of these data inadequacies, the future of small farms in the seaweed industry of the South China Sea region remains a matter of conjecture." [Abstract]

This report contains papers analyzing the economic aspects of fisheries production and marketing in San Miquel Bay, and represents results of data collection and analyses from 1979 to 1981. [In: Garruccio, M.R. (comp.). Marketing in fisheries, a selective annotated bibliography. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 817, Revision 1.]

This paper discusses the milkfish fry system in the Philippines, which is national in scale with a predominant role played by concessionaires and dealers in Mindanao and by nursery pond operators in Bulacan and Rizal. The study also indicates that the limiting factors for potential market sources and outlets were mistrust due to the lack of an accurate counting mechanism, financial constraints on sellers due to cash advances from partnerships with buyers, and the existing permit and auxiliary invoice system of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) that prohibits inter-regional transport of fry.

"The economics of rice-fish culture and rice monoculture were investigated by field studies of six farms in the Lam Dom Noi irrigated area of Ubon, Thailand. On each farm, inputs to and production of rice fields stocked with fish and of unstocked fields were monitored by weekly visits to the participating farmers between June 1984 and June 1985. Profits/ha/man day/farm were compared for the 1984 rainy season, the 1985 dry season, and the full 12-month period. Fish species used were Cyprinus carpio, Oreochrornis niloticus (x mossarnbicus), and Punsius gonionotus, stocked at 2 500-5 000/ha. By the end of 1984, the value of production had not yet recovered the initial investments and operating costs of the rainy season. Fish harvests were not yet significant, but there was consistent evidence of higher rice yields from fields stocked with fish. During the following dry season, production of both table and seed fish became more significant. There was further evidence of the positive effect of fish culture on rice yields, especially when fish were stocked at high densities. The dry season profit/ha/man day compared favorably with that from rice monoculture. After one year, the value of rice-fish culture production had exceeded investments, but the year-end profit was still less than the one year profit from rice monoculture. Self- sufficiency in seed fish by farmers could probably reverse this situation. This study indicates that the practice has potentials for raising the standard of living of low-income rice farmers in northeast Thailand. Its applicability in rainfed situations is also considered." [Abstract]

This paper deals with the development of small-scale coastal, marine and culture fisheries. It is indicated that, even in the absence of conclusive evidence, those who reside in the northern coastal provinces of Thailand have on the average better living conditions than those in the south. Income differentials are attributable to geographic location, type of fishing gear, and the degree of competition in input and output markets. Recently, the introduction of aquaculture to small-scale fishermen in the south has been undertaken to address the overexploitation of fishing grounds and to provide alternative sources of income.

"Statistics are provided for the fisheries in the South China Sea region for the year 1989. The data are presented under the following major section headings: general geographic, demographic and economic statistics; annual series of fishery production; fishery production by sub-sector; marine fishery statistics; inland fisheries statistics; aquaculture statistics; price of fresh fish; disposition of catch; fish processing; and, export and import of fishery commodities (1989)." [Abstract]

"The bulletin presents statistics of the fisheries of the South China Sea region for the year 1988. Tables are provided regarding the following areas: general geographic, demographic and economic statistics; annual series of fishery production; fishery production by subsector; marine fishery statistics; inland fishery statistics; aquaculture statistics; price of fresh fish; disposition of catch; fish processing; and, export and import of fishery commodities." [Abstract]

"Statistics, prepared by SEAFDEC, are presented for the fisheries in the South China Sea area during the year 1985. The data are given under the following major section headings: (i) general geographic, demographic and economic statistics; (ii) annual series of fishery; (iii) fishery production by sub-sector; (iv) marine fishery statistics; (v) inland fishery statistics; (vi) aquaculture statistics; (vii) price of fresh fish; (viii) disposition of catch; (ix) fish processing; and (x) export and import in fishery commodities." [Abstract]

The book contains the proceedings of the Workshop of the Regional Workshop on Coastal Fisheries Management Based on Southeast Asian Experiences. The participating countries were Thailand, Philippines, Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Viet Nam, India, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Fiji Islands, and Sri Lanka.

"A simple method is presented for determining the optimum time to harvest fish and the effect of fertilization type on optimum harvest time for aquaculture. Optimum harvest time was similar for either maximizing fish yield or maximizing profit of fish harvested (price of fish times fish yield minus fish production cost), because the daily change in fish production cost was low for the low-input Nile tilapia production system in Thailand. At the harvest time of 150 days for an organic fertilization treatment, compared to an inorganic fertilization treatment fish yield increased from 1.505 t/ha to 2.295 t/ha, and profit of fish harvested increased from 15 657 baht/ha ($US 590/ha) to 25 127 baht/ha ($US 948/ha). For the organic treatment, optimum harvest time occurred at 191 days with a fish yield of 2 328 t/ha and a profit of 25 520 baht/ha ($US 963/ha), compared to the inorganic treatment where optimum harvest occurred at 105 days with a yield of 1 536 t/ha and a profit of 16 035 baht/ha ($US 605/ha)." [from Abstract]

"The coastal zone has been receiving special attention from people from time immemorial. The information related to coastal area, such as various natural features, living and non-living resources, the extent of utilization in different sectors etc. is considered to be the basis for effective management. This paper highlights the resources along the east coast of India. A statistical review of the fisheries and the mineral deposits is presented. Other resources of coastal regions like tidal energy, aquaculture, desalination of seawater, waste disposals etc. are briefly discussed. Finally, the role of the governing bodies in the effective management of coastal regions is also mentioned." [Abstract]

The findings are presented of a study to evaluate the utility of training in prawn farming for women in Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK). The socio-economic background, motivation pattern and the constraints involved in the utilization of knowledge are examined.

"Packaging of frozen shrimp for export has gained importance. Code slips used for this are made from paper of a thickness varying from 0.07 to 0.215 mm. Complaints from importers state that these code slips get mutilated while thawing blocks for reprocessing. A substitute material for code slips is badly needed, and a new product, viz., a polyester tracing sheet of 150-gauge thickness is recommended for this purpose. The new product was tested under certain conditions as per Indian Standard (IS:1060). This study gives comparative properties of paper code slips and polyester tracing sheet slips. Polyester tracing sheet was found to possess high bursting strength, tensible strength and nil cobb value. It is non-porous and does not lose its original property." [from Abstract]

"The State of Bihar ranks fourth in India in fish production and tenth as regards to potentiality. The Kosi belt comprises the districts of Purnea, Saharsa, Madhepura, Katihar, Khagaria and a portion of Begusarai of North Bihar. It alone produces about 50% of the total output of the State. The region has a sufficiently large number of ponds, streams, lakes, swamps, chaurs and tanks with large areas of wetlands, providing a vast suitable area for fish breeding and culture. These areas are the natural abode of air breathing fishes. In Kosi River basin large populations of live fishes are found in chaurs (wetlands). These fishes form commercially important food fishes of the eastern region of the country. The live fish trade system has been in North Bihar for time immemorial. The live fishes are transported to Assam, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Meghalya, Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland from this region. The bionomics of air breathing fishes including the habit and habitat, food habit, breeding season, breeding habit, fecundity and their food and economic values have been discussed. The prospective fishing centres, yearly landing, storage, transportation, marketing and the economics involved in the trade are also dealt with. Suggestions have also been made for the reforms in this trade to improve the socio-economic conditions of the fisherman of the State." [Abstract]

606. Steenfeldt, S. 1992. Feasibility of Chicoreus ramosus culture. In: Hylleberg, J., Ayyakkannu, K. and Somkiat Khokiattiwong (eds.). Proceedings of the Second Workshop of the Tropical Marine Mollusc Programme. Annamalai University, India, May 4-14, 1992. Thailand, Phuket Marine Biological Centre. No. 10 pp. 72-75. [Aarhus Univ., Aarhus, Denmark]

"The findings are presented of a study conducted to determine the feasibility of the culture of Chicoreus ramosus at the small-scale hatchery of the Phuket Marine Biology Centre in Thailand. Details are given of hatchery design, rearing capacity and production costs." [Abstract]

"In the drive to increase foreign exchange on the shrimp resource base, the development strategy has been to bring additional backwater area under the open semi-intensive culture system. Apparently, the nature of the shrimp resource complex is such that any increased harvesting/trapping of postlarvae and juveniles in the backwaters (nursery grounds) will adversely affect the recruitment levels in the fishing grounds. The case in question is the Cochin Backwater System, along the adjacent sea, in which overfishing has contributed to reduced catches. Further, loss of nursery grounds due to large-scale encloses for mariculture, will greatly reduce the natural ingress and survival of postlarvae in the backwaters. Hence, the government policy on the promotion of open semi-intensive culture system appears to be flawed." [Abstract]

This paper addresses the prospects of mariculture becoming the dominant from of development and human adaptation in coastal marine ecosystems, especially those containing coral reefs. Concern is expressed over how this development will occur without causing social and ecological disruptions. This analysis describes several social (including local knowledge) and ecological factors that should be considered in the design and implementation of mariculture projects, including potential adverse and positive outcomes of the transition to mariculture.

"The scope of increasing production through rice-fish integration, suitable for coastal districts of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra, is reviewed. The method of adopting the low-lying freshwater rice fields to raise two rice crops along with four- species fish culture, followed by a third non-cereal summer crop in a year, is discussed. A calendar of operation and economics of the system are presented." [Abstract]

The paper presents the results of a economic survey on Tambak culture in the north coast of Java, where 75% of the people are dependent on the culture as the primary source of income. It also indicates that most of the tambak holdings were small and the productivity was low. Low productivity was primarily due to the low-input of manpower, fertilizer, feeds and pesticides, and the low survival of stock.

Backwaters of Kerala, an important water resource, sprawling along the entire coastal length, can play a crucial role in the socio-economic development of the state, especially regarding potentials for the development of aquaculture, navigation, commercial fisheries, sport fisheries etc. Fishery resources of this system are of high magnitude and they support a rich capture fishery. Annual fish landing from Kerala backwaters is 14 000 to 17 000 t, including prawns, mullets, milkfish and pearl spot. Shortage of food grains, increase in population and acute unemployment are major problems facing the State. Only a drive for development of natural resources can assure an ample quantity of cheap protein food and generate employment opportunities. Protecting the aquatic environment from industrialization and modernization is a new problem. Emergence of new industries, expansion of navigational waterways, and destruction of forests are the problems of fisheries.

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