ANNEX 1 - WOOD & BIOMASS ENERGY IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION
ANNEX 2 - TABLE: CORRELATION BETWEEN FAO-PUBLISHED DATA FOR TOTAL FUELWOOD PRODUCTION AND POPULATION IN RWEDP MEMBER COUNTRIES 1964-1994
ANNEX 3 - REFERENCES
A1.1. Introduction
A1.2. Analysis of Available Data Base Systems and Definitions Used with Regard to Woodfuels and Other Biomass Energy Sources
A1.3. "Best" Estimate for Wood/biomass Energy Use
A1.4. Outlook for the Near Future
A1.5. Conclusions
Overview of available data and database systems on wood and biomass energy and "best" estimate of the future demand in the Asia-Pacific region
This paper provides an initial and preliminary overview of available data on energy use including wood and biomass energy within the Asia-Pacific region. Using the information contained in the various sources discussed in the paper (databases, etc.), attempts have been made to present a "best" estimate for the use of wood and biomass energy use at present as well as for the near future within the Asia-Pacific Region. This has been done by selecting those sources of information which are expected to "best" represent the actual situation.
The main objectives of the report are a) to present an overview of available information on wood/biomass energy and b) to serve as a basis for making predictions on the consumption of wood/biomass energy in the near future such as for instance is required for the Asia-Pacific Forestry Outlook Study which is being prepared by FAO. The latter is expected to provide some insights into fuelwood use in relation to forests and forest products up to the year 2010. The following steps have been taken to fulfil the main objectives as stated:
· Provision of an overview of database systems on energy use and definitions used by these database systems;· Comparing the advantages and disadvantages of the main database systems;
· Drawing conclusions with regard to the reliability of data and database systems on wood/biomass energy use.
· Selecting those sources which are expected to "best" represent the actual situation;
· Present a very preliminary estimate on wood and biomass energy use in the near future.
A1.2.1. FAO Forest Products Yearbook
A1.2.2. United Nations
A1.2.3. IEA Energy Statistics
A1.2.4. Other Sources Including EDP-Asia
Unlike for instance in other regions such as Europe where the UN-ECE, EUROSTAT and OECD/IEA are jointly active in data collection and analysis 6, the situation in the Asia-Pacific region with regard to data on energy use is more fragmented. This is particularly true for biomass energy. Within the Asia-Pacific Region, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) based in Manila, the Philippines, the Asia Pacific Energy Research Center (APERC) based in Tokyo, Japan and the ASEAN-EC Energy Management and Training Center (AEEMTRC) based in Jakarta, Indonesia are some of the regional organizations involved with energy related data, etc. Moreover, international organizations such as the United Nations, FAO and IEA of the OECD also collect data on energy use, etc. A brief description of the various database system follows:
6 These organizations jointly collect information by using a set of four questionnaires which are sent to key organizations in the respective countries in the region. Information on woodfuels and biomass is collected using the "Annual Questionnaire on Solid Fuels, Wastes and Manufactured Gases".
ADB The Asian Development Bank collects and analyses data on energy use for their developing member countries (40 in the Asia and Pacific region). At present this is limited to the conventional energy sources and conversion processes e.g. oil, gas, coal and electricity. Biomass energy is not covered.
APERC Likewise, the Asia Pacific Energy Research Center based in Tokyo, Japan collects and analyses energy related data for their member countries e.g. the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) countries which are roughly those countries which border the Pacific Ocean (Asia, North and South America and Oceania). Unfortunately, their database does not yet include biomass energy data although there are signs that these will be included in the near future. At present (first half of 1997) a limited amount of data for only 2-3 countries have been published (Personal communication, 1997a; HTTP://www.ieej.or.jp).
AEEMTRC The ASEAN-EC Energy Management and Training Center collects and analyses data on energy use including biomass energy for 7 ASEAN countries. However, the data on biomass energy published during previous years (ASEAN Energy Review 1993 and 1994) appear to be based on secondary data from several years back and can be considered unreliable (Personal communications, 1997c).
UN The United Nations collects and analyses both conventional and traditional energy sector for their member countries which include almost all countries in the Asia and Pacific region. See A1.2.2.
FAO The Food and Agriculture Organization collects data on fuelwood and charcoal only within the framework of their database system on forest products. The database system includes data on all their member countries including almost all countries in the Asia and Pacific region. See A1.2.1.
IEA The International Energy Agency (IEA) of OECD collects and publishes data on energy use both for conventional as well as traditional sources of energy (3 countries in Asia and the Pacific). Some of the non-OECD countries are covered as well but this is limited to conventional sources of energy. Since 1993 traditional sources of energy have been covered as well but only for those countries where data are available (6 countries in Asia and the Pacific). See A 1.2.3.
WRI The World Resources Institute publishes data on energy use (conventional as well as traditional sources of energy). See A 1.2.4.
EIA The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) collects and publishes data on energy use through the Energy Information Administration (EIA) for almost all countries in the world. Unfortunately, this is generally limited to conventional sources of energy with the exception of the USA for which renewable sources of energy, including wood and biomass, are also presented. See A 1.2.4.
Besides these institutions and organizations there are also a few other sources of information on energy use within the region. These database systems are mainly based upon original country data such as those published by energy, forestry and/or statistical organizations of the countries concerned. Use has been made of these sources in those cases where information was available to the Association for Energy Development Planning -Asia (Personal communication, 1997b) 7.
7 These are referred to as the database of EDP-Asia. The latter, which is a not-for-profit organization of independent consultants, collects and stores information on both conventional and traditional sources of energy consumed by countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Unfortunately, those data are not published but their sources can be accessed upon request.
As indicated earlier, this paper will also be used as a background paper by the Regional Wood Energy Development programme of FAO for the Asia-Pacific Forestry Outlook Study. The latter aims to provide an overview of forestry related topics in the Asia-Pacific region including the state and importance of the forests, forest industries, etc. both at present as well as providing an outlook for the near future. For that reason a decision was made to cover the 30 countries which also appear in the "Selected Indicators of Food and Agriculture Development in the Asia-Pacific Region" published on an annual basis by FAO-RAP (for example: FAO, 1995a). However, the information presented in the paper can also be used for other purposes e.g. other than those directly related to forests.
The 30 countries have been divided into four main groups i.e. The 16 RWEDP member countries, (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Maldives, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam), Other Asia (Iran, Korea PDR, Korea Rep. and Mongolia), the Pacific (Cook Islands, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu) and finally those countries which are OECD/IEA members (Australia, Japan and New Zealand).
Given the context of this paper i.e. wood and biomass energy, only those database systems have been included which cover these countries and which include these sources of energy. These basically concern the FAO database (fuelwood and charcoal only), the UN (conventional and traditional sources of energy) and the IEA (conventional and traditional sources of energy) and the EDP-Asia database (conventional and traditional sources of energy). The following briefly describes these four database systems, the definitions used by the various organizations for the traditional sources of energy and their merits and demerits as perceived by the author.
As indicated above, the FAO Forestry database contains data on fuelwood and charcoal only. The information is published annually in the Forest Products Yearbook and is available through the Internet as well (FAO, 1993a, 1995c, 1996a; HTTP://apps.fao.org/). The data on fuelwood and charcoal are part of an extensive overview of production figures on various types of forest products.
Method of Data Collection
Data are collected by means of annual questionnaires sent to country contact points (normally the Forest Ministry/Department/Agency) in those countries which are members of the UN family. This information is shared by FAO and the UN. Apparently Europe (EUROSTAT) also uses the same information. The sharing of information is carried out to ensure that compatible databases are created and money saved by combining forces. In this way too, country contact points are only asked once to provide the information.
As part of total removals from the forests, data on fuelwood (including wood used for charcoal) are requested. This is disaggregated into coniferous and non-coniferous wood. Moreover, information on charcoal production as well as trade in both charcoal and fuelwood is requested.
Neither in the questionnaire nor in the yearbook, is an explicit definition given for "fuelwood". The FAO Internet site 8 where statistical data can be accessed, defines fuelwood as (HTTP://apps.fao.org/):
"Wood in the rough (from trunks, and branches of trees) to be used as fuel for purposes such as cooking, heating or power production. The commodities included are fuelwood, coniferous and non-coniferous wood and the roundwood equivalent of charcoal".8 Internet address: HTTP://APPS.FAO.ORG
The Forest Products Yearbook which is published annually gives a much less qualified definition for fuelwood. However, as fuelwood is considered as being part of "roundwood", the definition of fuelwood can be further defined using the definition of roundwood as well (in addition to the definition as given on the Internet) as:
"It comprises all wood obtained from removals i.e. the quantities removed from forests and from trees outside the forests including wood recovered from natural, felling and logging losses. The statistics include recorded volumes as well as estimated unrecorded volumes."
Charcoal is defined on the FAO-Internet site as:
"Wood carbonized by partial combustion or application of heat from an external source. It is used as a fuel or for other uses".
However, the Forest Products Yearbook defines charcoal as:
"Wood in the rough (from trunks and branches of trees) to be used as fuel for purposes such as cooking, heating or power production. Wood for charcoal, pit kilns and portable ovens is included".
Data on "Fuelwood + Charcoal" are also given with the note that the data include the roundwood equivalent of charcoal, using a factor of 6.0 to convert from weight (Metric Tons) to solid volume units (cubic meter).
It appears that these definitions for fuelwood implicitly exclude woody residues from industrial processing (saw dust, off-cuts, etc.) as well as recovered/recycled products such as wood obtained from the demolition of buildings, packing crates, pallets, etc.
Structure and Reliability of the Database
The Forest Products Yearbook as well as the FAO Internet site give an overview for the production and trade of all forest products including fuelwood and charcoal for all UN member countries. Unfortunately, with regard to the Asia-Pacific region all production figures for fuelwood and charcoal, with very few exceptions, are based on estimates by FAO. These estimates are in the first instance made by repeating the figures of the years in which data were given. If no data are available (which is the case for almost all Asia-Pacific countries), estimations are made on the basis of assumed average per capita consumption figures of fuelwood which are multiplied with the number of inhabitants of the country under consideration (FAO, 1997a). These average per capita consumption figures have in many cases not changed since 1961, the first year for which data are available.
The data given are highly aggregated and are limited to production and trade e.g. they do not include information on end-use such as for the domestic sector, industrial sector, etc. However, as estimates are based on per capita consumption figures, it may be assumed that only the domestic sector is included. This assumption is strengthened by the fact that industrial wood residues apparently are not included (saw mill, plywood, etc.) nor black liquor from pulp production based on wood as a raw material, etc.
No distinction is made with regard to the source of wood (forest or non-forest based or direct or indirect forest wood or inventoried or non-inventoried sources). The latter distinction, inventoried or non-inventoried, is based on the state of the forest having been assessed (normally in the form of area and standing stock - bole volume) while non-inventoried sources include all other types e.g. lops and tops from forest trees (these residues are normally not considered while measuring standing stock) as well as trees outside the forest. Production figures for fuelwood are given in cubic meters solid volume (cum) while those for charcoal are presented in metric tons.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the FAO Database on Woodfuels
The FAO database has the advantage that basically all countries which are members of the UN system are included (data are available for 27 out of the 30 countries covered - not covered are the Maldives, Cook Islands and Tonga). Data is given for both fuelwood and charcoal production, imports and exports and is published annually. Data for exports and imports are given both in weight/volume as well as value. Time series data over a period of more than 30 years are available both in printed and electronic form.
The drawback of the database is that only woodfuels are covered (no information on conventional sources of energy, no information on other renewable sources of energy). Most of the data are based on estimates for per capita energy consumption which estimates, in most cases, have not changed over the last 30 years. In addition, wood residues generated by wood based industries such as sawmilling, plywood production, etc. as well as recycled wood apparently are not included. The reliability of the data in terms of covering all wood and biomass energy use is therefore in doubt. Besides, the data are highly aggregated e.g. no distinction is made with regard to end-users nor is a distinction being made with regard to the source of the woodfuels.
The United Nations provides information on energy in the "Energy Statistics Yearbook" and in "Energy Balances and Electricity Profiles". The publication of energy data commenced with "World Energy Supplies in Selected Years 1929-1950" published in 1952. The present publications, published every two years, give information over the last four years and contain updated information published in previous issues (UN, 1990 a and b, 1992 a and b, 1994 a and b, 1995, 1996). The principle objective of the UN is to provide a global framework of comparable data on long-term trends in the supply of mainly commercial primary and secondary forms of energy. Definitions used by the UN for fuelwood and charcoal are basically the same as those used by FAO but appear to be less descriptive as shown in the following definitions:
"Fuelwood refers to all wood in the rough used for fuel purposes 9."9 Production data include the portion used for charcoal production using a factor of 6 to convert from weight basis to the volumetric equivalent of charcoal. Judging from the definition used. Fuelwood apparently does not include waste wood from wood processing industries, recovered and/or recycled wood, etc."Charcoal is a solid residue consisting mainly of carbon obtained by the destructive distillation of wood in the absence of air."
"Bagasse refers to the cellulosic residue left after sugar is extracted from sugar cane. It is often used as a fuel in the sugar industry."
"Animal wastes are defined as dung and other non-dried excreta of cattle, horses, pigs, poultry and the like and, in principle, humans, used as a fuel."
"Vegetal wastes are mainly crop residues (cereal straw from maize, wheat, paddy rice, etc.) and food processing wastes (rice hulls, coconut husks, ground nut shells, etc.) used for fuel. Bagasse is excluded."
"Other wastes refer all forms of energy not specifically defined above, such as municipal wastes and pulp and paper wastes."
Method of Data Collection
Data are compiled primarily from annual questionnaires distributed by the United Nations Statistical Division and supplemented by official national statistical publications. Where official data are not available or are inconsistent, estimates are made on other sources which include but are not limited to partial year information, use of annual trends, breakdown of aggregated data as well as analysing current energy activities. Other sources of information include data compiled by IEA-OECD, FAO, OPEC, EUROSTAT, WEC, International Sugar Organization, etc.
Structure and Reliability of the Database.
As mentioned earlier, UN has two types of published statistical outputs. The "energy balances" give data series for various countries using energy units 10 (UN, 1990b, 1992b, 1994b, 1995. Wood and charcoal are presumably included here in the aggregated item of "Primary biomass" and "Derived biomass". It does include data on production, transformation and sectoral consumption The "energy statistics" publication gives information mainly in the form of commodities. This gives a higher level of disaggregation and presents the data in their original units (e.g. ton, m3, liter's, etc.) However, no differentiation is made with regard to end-users.
10 Like the IEA, the UN also uses country specific calorific values for most of the conventional sources of energy. For biomass energy the following conversion factors are used as specified in the UN Energy Statistics Yearbook - fuelwood - 1 cu m equals 0.333 ton coal equivalent (tee), charcoal - 1 ton equals 0.986 tee and bagasse - 1 ton equals 0.264 tee. A ion coal equivalent is equal to 29.3076 GJ, while 1 tee is equal to 0.7 toe. 1 toe therefore equals 41.868 GJ. However, the UN Energy Balances and Electricity Profiles defines 1 toe as being equal to 42,6216 GJ. The difference is probably based on the fact that 1 toe originally was defined as the heating value of 1 ton of crude oil with a specific gravity of 0.86. This resulted in a value of 0.1018 TCal. for one toe. However, other organizations, notably EUROSTAT used a factor of 0.1 TCal (equal to 10,000 kCal per kg.) and in 1978 the UN Statistical Office decided to follow suit. However, the "old" conversion factor apparently is still used in the UN Energy Balances and Electricity Profiles for reasons unknown.
With regard to biomass energy, use is made of the data on fuelwood and charcoal as provided by FAO. An exception are the following countries in the Asia-Pacific region: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Japan, Nepal, Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka and Thailand where the information is provided through the questionnaires or through official publications. Besides fuelwood, bagasse is also covered where in most cases use is made of sugar production data provided by the International Sugar Organization based in London. Calculations for the amount of bagasse is based on a method developed by the Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC) which assumes that for each ton cane sugar produced about 3.26 metric tons of fuel bagasse are produced having a moisture content of 50 %.
The Energy Statistics Yearbook gives information on a selected series of statistics on fuelwood, charcoal and bagasse for almost all Asia-Pacific countries (UN, 1990a, 1992a, 1994a, 1996). It is not clear if this concerns production and/or consumption. The "Energy Balances and Electricity Profiles" provides information on the production, conversion, consumption as well as export/import of primary and derived biomass for the following Asia-Pacific countries: Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar (from 1991 onwards), Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines (discontinued after 1992), Sri Lanka, Thailand as well as Korea (Rep.), Fiji, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands (discontinued after 1992). With regard to end-use in the industrial sector, for most countries this appears to cover only bagasse.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the UN Database on Woodfuels
The UN database covers both conventional and traditional sources of energy. It has, like the FAO database, the advantage that time series are available for most countries. Such information is readily available in printed form and can upon request also be supplied on tape or diskette.
Unlike the FAO database system, a distinction has been made between end-use categories (e.g. industries, transport, domestic and other use, etc.). For the industrial sector the distinction is not very detailed in the sense that several ISIC codes for industries are grouped together. The information is published bi-annual but does not cover all countries.
A major disadvantage is that the information is generally highly aggregated. "Primary Biomass Energy" includes wood as well as bagasse and possible other sources of biomass as well while "Derived Biomass" includes charcoal and possibly other types (black liquor, ethanol, etc.). In many cases the data on wood and charcoal are based on data obtained from FAO (see the section on the FAO database for the pros and cons). No distinction is being made with regard to the source of biomass.
The data on wood and biomass based energy of the IEA ultimately have to fit into the structure of their energy balances. These energy balances are the main basis for modelling and forecasting work that is undertaken within IEA. For this purpose it is essential that data are available in the form of time-series, that a clear definition of the various types of wood is available (based on their inherent quality and type - solid - liquid - gas) and that information on sectoral consumption is according to the (ISIC based) system used also for all conventional fuels. Combustible renewables and wastes are sub-divided into four main categories e.g (IEA 1996c).:
"Solid biomass and animal products: Biomass is defined as any plant matter used directly as fuel or converted into other forms before combustion. Included are wood, vegetal waste (including wood waste and crops used for energy production), animal materials/wastes and sulphite lye, also known as "black liquor.""Gas/Liquids from biomass: Gases derived principally from anaerobic fermentation of biomass and solid wastes and combusted to produce heat and/or power. It includes landfill gas, biogas (gas from animal slurries) and sludge gas (sewage gas). Bio-additives such as ethanol are also included in this category."
"Municipal waste: Consists of products that are combusted directly to produce heat and/or power and comprises wastes produced by the residential, commercial and public service sectors that are collected by local authorities in a central location. Hospital waste is included in this category."
"Industrial waste: Consists of solid and liquid products (e.g. tyres) combusted directly, usually in specialized plants to produce heat and/or power."
Method of Data Collection
Information requirements on combustible renewables which includes wood and charcoal is included in the IEA questionnaire on Solid Fuels, Wastes and Manufactured Gases, which is a joint questionnaire together with UN-ECE and, since 1995, EUROSTAT (FAO, 1997a).
Before 1995, all biomass was included in the category "other solid waste", which also included peat, municipal solid waste and industrial waste. In the new questionnaire, production, transformation and final consumption data are asked for "solid biomass and animal products" while steps are being undertaken to include in the near future data on "Combustible Renewables and Wastes". The latter is planned to be disaggregated into "Solid Biomass and Animal products", "Gases from Biomass and Wastes", "Liquids from Biomass and Wastes", "Industrial Wastes", "Municipal Wastes", "Non-specified Combustible Renewables and Wastes" and "Charcoal" (Kousnetzoff/Denman - Personal Communication). Wood is expected to be divided into "Wood (gathered explicitly for fuel use)", "Wood waste (sawdust, shavings, chips, bark, etc.)". "Forest residues (logging residues, tops, etc.)" and "Other wood waste (recovered wood, etc.)". The last three types are included under the sub-heading "Vegetal Waste". Box A1 provides an overview of the planned disaggregation of the various wood and biomass energy sources.
Structure and Reliability of the Database.
For OECD countries, IEA has two types of published statistical outputs. The "energy balances" are the most aggregated as regards types of energy sources, but presents all data in energy units 11 so that the whole system of production, transformation and supply is in balance (IEA, 1996b). Wood is included here in the aggregated item of "combustible renewables and waste". Australia, Japan and New Zealand are included from the Asia-Pacific Region.
11 IEA converts energy sources by using the lower heating value of fuels. For the conventional sources of energy in many cases country specific values are used. For biomass no specific calorific values are given. In die "Energy Balances" amounts are expressed in Tons of Oil Equivalent using a factor of 41.868 GJ per toe.
The other publication is in the form of commodity balances e.g. "basic energy statistics". This gives a higher level of disaggregation and presents the data in their original units (e.g. ton, m3, litre's, etc.) (IEA, 1996a). It does include the production, transformation and sectoral consumption. The main item "combustible renewable and waste" is split up into "solid biomass and animal products", "gas/liquids from biomass", "municipal solid waste" and "industrial waste".
The item "solid biomass and animal products" is further disaggregated in the database itself into "wood", vegetal waste (including the share of "wood waste'"), "black liquors" and "other solid biomass". Only production figures are included.
|
Box A1 - Definition of Combustible Renewables and Wastes, as Proposed by IEA Information on wood and biomass fuels collected by the IEA. Products shown as bold are presented in IEA publications (except charcoal). Solid Biomass and Animal Products · Wood (gathered explicitly for fuel use) (from UN: Fuelwood refers to all wood in the rough used for fuel purposes. Production data include the portion used for charcoal production.) · Vegetal material and waste (from UN: mainly crop residues and food processing wastes used for fuel. Bagasse is excluded.) * Wood waste - Includes sawdust, chips, shavings, bark, etc. * Forest waste - Includes logging residues, tops, etc. * Other Wood Wastes * Sugarcane bagasse - (from UN: the cellulosic residue left after sugar is extracted from sugar cane.) * Rice/paddy husks * Coconut shells, fibre, pith * Maize cobs and stalks * Groundnut husks (includes peanuts) * Coffee husks * Wheat stalks and husks * Cotton stalks and waste (includes gin trash) * Mustard stalks and waste * Other straw * Olive pressing waste * Other vegetal material and waste · Black liquor · Animal products (from UN: Animal wastes refer to dung and other non-dried excreta of cattle, horses, pigs, poultry and the like, and, in principle humans. It can be dried and used directly as a fuel or converted to methane methods of fermentation or decomposition.) * Dung * Other animal products · Other solid biomass and animal products Gases from Biomass and Wastes · Landfill gas · Sludge and sewage gas · Other gases from biomass and wastes Liquids from Biomass and Wastes · Alcohols (ethanol, methanol, etc.) · Bio-additives (e.g., from oleaginous plants) · Other distilled liquids from biomass & wastes · Cane liquor · Molasses · Other non-distilled liquids from bio & wastes Industrial Waste Municipal Waste Non-specified (primary product) Charcoal (a secondary product) |
Questionnaires are sent to official national administrations which have some kind of government connection, because IEA members are obliged to answer the questionnaire. These institutes, however, are often not very familiar with wood or biomass in general so responses on these items are relatively poor (Personal communication, 1997c).
Since 1996 IEA has made considerable efforts to improve the quality of the biomass data by discussing them intensively with the various countries.
Information for non-OECD countries are provided by the countries themselves on a voluntary basis i.e. through publications from the countries concerned, visits, etc. Where available, the information is disaggregated with regard to end-use e.g. by industrial-, domestic- and other sectors. For 1993-1994 information on biomass energy was only available for the following Asia-Pacific countries: China, Indonesia, Korea (Rep.), Nepal, Philippines and Thailand (IEA, 1996c).
Advantages and Disadvantages of the IEA Database on Woodfuels
The IEA database has the advantage that both conventional as well as renewable sources of energy are included. Besides, the information on combustible renewables, which include fuelwood, is largely based on data provided by the countries themselves. It may therefore be assumed that the reliability of the data is generally quite good. The database gives disaggregated information on production, conversion as well as end-use. For the OECD countries data on secondary sources of woodfuel e.g. black liquor as well as other wastes including municipal waste, etc. are given. The data is made available on an annual basis in printed form and can also be obtained in electronic form.
The disadvantage of the database is that the information on combustible renewables is aggregated e.g. wood forms part of combustible renewables. Wood based fuels are disaggregated to a certain extent only for the three OECD countries in the Asia-Pacific region. The other disadvantage is that for the non-OECD countries information is at present only available for 1993 and 1994 i.e. no time series data are available. For the three OECD countries information over a longer period is generally available. Even though the data is aggregated, the information, depending on the country, may be available in a disaggregated form. Such information is normally not published but can be made available upon request (Denman, personal communication).
Besides the databases described, other sources of information are available. One is the World Resources Institute which publishes time series data for conventional as well as traditional sources of energy (WRI 1995, 1996a and b). As the data appear to be based on the UN/FAO database systems, the same advantages and disadvantages apply e.g. almost all countries covered, time series data available but information on fuelwood covered under traditional energy (no disaggregation). Unfortunately, WRI apparently has stopped including new data on traditional energy (as the data for 1991 were repeated in 1992 and 1993). Besides, no distinction is made with regard to end-use sectors. This source of information has therefore not been used.
Other sources are information provided by the countries themselves (statistical publications, etc.) or through other publications such as Asian Energy News published by CEERD-AIT (AIT, 1995), studies carried out by the World Bank (ESMAP program), etc. In most cases the data are disaggregated both in terms of source (fuelwood, charcoal, residues, etc.) and end-use sector. This is a clear advantage over the UN system databases such as the UN and FAO. However, in most cases no time series data are available with the exception of Nepal and Thailand which publish an annual energy balance which includes biomass energy in disaggregated form. The information is published by various national organizations in the countries concerned or by other (international) organizations directly involved with specific country studies. Getting access to such information is sometimes difficult due to their scattered nature and/or a lack of knowledge with regard to their existence. EDP-Asia, which is a not-for-profit organization based in the Netherlands and has at present offices in Thailand and Vietnam is making use of these sources of information described above. EDP-Asia has an interest in both conventional and traditional sources of energy.
The advantages of the EDP-Asia database is that their database is relatively easy to access, the data are to a greater or lesser extent (depending on the country) disaggregated by source as well as by end-user. As data are generally obtained direct from the countries or indirectly through specialized agencies such as the World Bank-ESMAP, Forest Master Plan studies, the accuracy of the data can be assumed to be reasonably good. However, the disadvantage is that in most cases no time series data are available and that conversion factors from original units to energy units are often not available. Another major disadvantage is that definitions for the different types of woodfuels and biomass energy are not available as in almost all cases these are not published by the countries concerned. This may be a reason why information for some countries from different sources shows differences. However, at the same time it should be noted that even when the same source is used, considerable differences can sometimes be observed in the data 12.
12 Examples of the latter are for instance Vietnam where the World Bank in two different publications arrives at two completely different values for biomass energy use - 1990 and 1992 data for agro-residues use differ by a factor of 10. After analyzing this it appears that the 1990 numbers are tar too low as the accompanying text indicates that agro-residues use should be far higher. Another case are statistics published by the Central Statistical Office in Indonesia on energy use. For the 1986-1990 period the amount of biomass shown is a factor of 10 lower than that in other tables in the same publication on fuelwood and charcoal use indicate.
Considering the results of the overview presented in the previous chapters it is clear that there are quite a few differences in the different database systems not only with regard to the amount and reliability of the data but also with regard to the definitions used for the different types of woodfuels and biomass energy used. In particular, further efforts are required to get a better overview of the sources of woodfuels (forest, non-forest, processing residues and recovered/recycled wood) in relation to overall wood energy consumption. The same is true for other types of biomass. With regard to definitions, concerted efforts are being made to come to some form of a unified approach for definitions to be used by all parties concerned. Final results of this undertaking may take some time to materialize 13. However, this is only the first step. The next step will be to ensure that data collected will be disaggregated according to the new definitions and probably more important to disaggregate the information according to source. Although IEA appears to be have set the first steps in this direction as is evident from the type of information they collect (see box A1), still further improvements are possible in particular with regard to "wood" for which no distinction is being made with regard to source e.g. forest and non-forest. Other organizations still have a long way to go in this direction.
13 FAO has initiated activities in this field. However, although everyone agrees that there is a need for standard definitions, not everyone seems to agree that there is a need for a "new" set of definitions as this most probably would entail a complete overhaul of existing database systems.
Table 1. No. of records available for 1980-1994 in the four database systems
|
|
Woodfuels |
Biomass |
|||||
|
FAO |
IEA |
EDP-Asia |
UN |
IEA |
EDP-Asia |
||
|
|
ASIA-RWEDP |
||||||
|
1 |
Bangladesh |
15 |
0 |
2 |
10 |
0 |
2 |
|
2 |
Bhutan |
15 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
|
3 |
Cambodia |
15 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
|
4 |
China |
15 |
0 |
4 |
6 |
2 |
5 |
|
5 |
India |
15 |
0 |
0 |
10 |
0 |
0 |
|
6 |
Indonesia |
15 |
0 |
9 |
10 |
2 |
9 |
|
7 |
Laos |
15 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
|
8 |
Malaysia |
15 |
0 |
0 |
10 |
0 |
0 |
|
9 |
Maldives |
0 |
0 |
2 |
0 |
0 |
2 |
|
10 |
Myanmar |
15 |
0 |
8 |
4 |
0 |
8 |
|
11 |
Nepal |
15 |
0 |
14 |
10 |
2 |
14 |
|
12 |
Pakistan |
15 |
0 |
1 |
10 |
0 |
2 |
|
13 |
Philippines |
15 |
0 |
0 |
8 |
2 |
1 |
|
14 |
Sri Lanka |
15 |
0 |
0 |
10 |
0 |
3 |
|
15 |
Thailand |
15 |
0 |
11 |
10 |
2 |
11 |
|
16 |
Viet Nam |
15 |
0 |
2 |
0 |
0 |
2 |
|
|
ASIA-OTHER |
||||||
|
17 |
Iran, Islamic Rep |
15 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
18 |
Korea DPR |
15 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
19 |
Korea Rep. |
15 |
0 |
0 |
10 |
2 |
2 |
|
20 |
Mongolia |
15 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
|
PACIFIC |
||||||
|
21 |
Cook Islands |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
22 |
Fiji |
15 |
0 |
1 |
10 |
0 |
1 |
|
23 |
Papua New Guinea |
15 |
0 |
1 |
10 |
0 |
2 |
|
24 |
Samoa |
15 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
|
25 |
Solomon Island |
15 |
0 |
1 |
8 |
0 |
1 |
|
26 |
Tonga |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
|
27 |
Vanuatu |
15 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
0 |
1 |
|
|
OECD Members |
||||||
|
28 |
Australia |
15 |
8 |
8 |
0 |
15 |
15 |
|
29 |
Japan |
15 |
2 |
0 |
0 |
3 |
3 |
|
30 |
New Zealand |
15 |
8 |
8 |
0 |
15 |
15 |
Table 1 gives an overview of the number of records for the 30 countries for the period 1981-1994 which are currently available in the four different systems discussed here. These records (expressed in Petajoules) are shown in appendix 1 which gives an overview of the data on woodfuel and biomass energy consumption in the 30 countries concerned.
The sheets 1-3 of appendix 1 provide information on woodfuel use, the sheets 4-6 show the information on biomass energy use. FAO has only data on woodfuels and is therefore not included in the sheets 4-6. Likewise, the UN database has data on biomass energy (woodfuel is included under the heading "biomass") and is therefore not included in the sheets 1-3 of appendix 1.
Appendix 2 sheet 1-6 show the woodfuel and/or biomass energy share in % of the total energy consumption for each of the main database systems (FAO, IEA and EDP-Asia for woodfuels and UN, IEA and EDP-Asia for biomass energy including woodfuels). For ease of comparison the last three years for which data are generally available (1992-1994) have been reproduced in Table 2.
Table 2. - Comparison of various data sources with regard to woodfuels and/or biomass
WOODFUEL AND BIOMASS/RENEWABLE ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN PJ
Source: FAOSTAT-PC EDP-Asia Database
Tables 1 and 2 as well as the appendices indicate that the FAO database with regard to woodfuels is by far the most complete while the IEA database is the least complete. The latter is not surprising as data for non-OECD countries have been published only since 1993 and information on combustible renewable sources of energy is available only for a few of these countries. IEA does not yet publish or does not yet have data on woodfuel use for these or for the other countries.
In between those two are the UN and the EDP-Asia database systems. Both are more or less comparable with regard to completeness. However, the EDP-Asia database contains both information on woodfuels and biomass energy and in that way can be considered as being more desirable than the UN database system 14. Both database systems have to a certain extent disaggregated data with regard to end-users 15.
14 It is expected that the UN database has more records than the 10 now indicated for most of the countries. However, these could not be accessed at present. The UN Energy Statistics Yearbook does give data on fuelwood, charcoal and bagasse. However, superficial calculations show some discrepancies (totals do not add up to the amount of biomass shown). Further work will be needed to reach the stage where the biomass can be sub-divided into fuelwood, charcoal and bagasse.15 Disaggregated data with regard to end-users are available for quite a few countries at EDP-Asia. However, these have not yet been entered into the database system due to a lack of time and manpower at EDP-Asia.
However, when the numbers in terms of energy consumption are considered, it appears that both the FAO and the UN database systems, with the exceptions of Indonesia, Korea Rep. and Papua New Guinea, show far smaller consumption data for wood and biomass energy than the IEA and EDP database systems. The latter two systems use data based on information supplied by the countries themselves while the FAO and UN database systems often use estimates. The FAO and UN database systems appear to be linked as UN makes in many cases use of FAO data for woodfuel use. To this they add bagasse (which is not included in the FAO database), assuming that all bagasse is used as a source of energy.
|
Box A2 - Database Systems on Energy Including Biomass in Europe versus Asia and the Pacific A cursory review of available database systems in Europe, as presented in the "Wood Energy Today for Tomorrow" study (commissioned by FAO but not yet published) in comparison to systems for Asia and the Pacific as described in this paper, indicate that the overall situation is not much different. This appears not only to be true with regard to the amount of data available, the level of disaggregation but also with regard to "reliability". A main difference, however, is that in comparison to Asia and the Pacific, in Europe the data collection efforts appear to be more institutionalized. The result is that in Asia and the Pacific it is more time consuming to collect, compile and analyze the information. For that reason, even though disaggregated information is available for most countries in the Asia and Pacific region, the information can not yet be presented in a manner suitable for decision makers both at the national as well as international level. |
The IEA and the EDP-Asia databases are also linked to a certain extent as EDP-Asia makes use of IEA data for those countries where they themselves do not have information (mainly the OECD countries). The slight differences between the IEA and the EDP-Asia database for the OECD countries are caused by the fact that the EDP-Asia database does not include black liquor in woodfuels while in the IEA database these are included.
Considering all this, one can therefore argue that the data as shown in the IEA and EDP-Asia database should preferably be used for those activities for which "reliable 16" data are required such as for instance policy initiatives in the field of forestry and energy, global warming issues, energy forecasting, etc. Unfortunately both the IEA and the EDP-Asia database lack data for the "Asia Other" and "Pacific" countries.
16 It should be noted, that even though the IEA and EDP-Asia data appear to be more accurate, these data are also often based on some form of estimate, be it limited/periodical surveys, limited area samples, etc. and one can therefor also question their true accuracy.
In order to determine the "best" estimate for woodfuel use in the Asia-Pacific region it is for obvious reasons preferable to use only one database system. One reason to do so, and probably the most important, is the fact that data within a single database system can be assumed to have been treated in the same manner both in terms of definitions and in conversion factors from original units to energy units 17.
17 An exception to this is the EDP-Asia database which often makes use of data supplied by the countries themselves. These data are in most cases already converted from original units (tons, cubic meters, etc.) to energy units by the countries.
Unfortunately, given the large discrepancies between the "numbers" and the incompleteness of most databases, a single database system for the whole Asia-Pacific region is not feasible at the moment. The decision was made therefore to use a mixture of data from different database systems.
For 10 out of the 16 RWEDP countries the data contained in the EDP-Asia database were used while the IEA data were for the three OECD countries. These 13 countries are BGD, CMB, CPR, INS, MDV, BUR, NEP, PAK, THA, VIE and AUS, JPN and NZE (see the bibliography for the sources used). The reason for choosing the EDP-Asia and IEA database for these countries instead of the FAO/UN database systems is that for these countries data is available either in published form or directly made available by the government department dealing with energy or by the national statistical office. These are considered more reliable than the FAO data as the latter often makes use of estimates. This is evident from Figures A.1-A.4 which show that per capita fuelwood consumption in many countries has not changed over the last 15 years - a highly unlikely occurrence.
However, for those countries where the IEA and EDP-Asia database is far from complete (e.g. none or only one or two records) which is the case for countries covered under Asia-Other and the Pacific, the data contained in the FAO/UN database system have been used. For the same reason FAO/UN data have been used for the other RWEDP countries e.g. Bhutan, India, Lao PDR, Malaysia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka. The IEA database has been used for the OECD countries as EDP-Asia makes use of their data as they do not have information on those countries.
Table 3 provides an overview of these "best" estimates for the Asia-Pacific countries both for woodfuels as well as for biomass energy. Average annual changes have been calculated for the last 3-4 years for which data were available. Analysing the average annual increase over this period shows that increases have in general been moderate with a few exceptions, notably in Thailand as well as in Maldives, Fiji and Australia (biomass energy only).
Figures 1 to 4 showing the FAO data on per capita fuelwood consumption in Asia-Pacific
PER CAPITA FUELWOOD CONSUMPTION - RWEDP Countries (Fig. 1)
PER CAPITA FUELWOOD CONSUMPTION - Asia-Other Countries (Fig. 2)
PER CAPITA FUELWOOD CONSUMPTION - Pacific Countries (Fig. 3)
PER CAPITA FUELWOOD CONSUMPTION - OECD Countries (Fig. 4)
Table 3. - Best estimate with regard to woodfuel and biomass energy use in the Asia-Pacific region
Woodfuel And Biomass/Renewable Energy Consumption In PJ
The large increases in biomass energy consumption as shown in table 3 in the Maldives as well as in Fiji are probably caused by the fact that no real time series data are available (Maldives) and or in the way estimates were made (Fiji). The reason for the sharp increases for Thailand and Australia can probably be traced back to the fact that in both countries efforts are being made to promote the use of renewable energy including biomass. Another factor which may play a role in the sharp increase, particularly in biomass energy for these countries as well as for Fiji, is increased sugar production resulting in increases in bagasse use as a source of fuel. However, the same argument should then also be valid for other sugar producing countries. Unfortunately, sufficient information is not available to substantiate this assumption.
Comparing the increases in woodfuel/biomass use with those in the conventional sector (shown in table 4) it is clear that increases in the conventional energy sector are generally considerably greater than those in the wood/biomass energy sector
The demand for and supply of woodfuels and other sources of biomass energy are influenced by many factors, both at the macro level (at country and/or regional level) as well as the micro level (mainly at the end-use level which in many cases will be households). Most of these factors are to a greater or lesser extent inter-related such as for instance economic performance at the macro level may generally be expected to have some effect on income at the micro level, etc.
Some of the factors at the macro level are:
· Economic performance of the country or region concerned
· Population growth and spatial distribution (urban-rural)
· Spatial distribution of biomass energy sources and infrastructure
· Advances in technology and end-use devices
· Environmental aspects
The most important factors at the micro level are:
· Access to energy sources both with regard to ownership as well as availability (security of supply, scarcity, etc.)· Household income
· Location (urban-rural)
· Price of energy sources
· Price and availability of conversion devices like stoves
While all these factors play a role, it is not known to what extent each of the individual factors exerts an influence on energy use itself as well as on the choice of fuel. But it is well known that with improvements in the economy (expressed as increases in per capita GNP), changes in energy use will take place (often increases in energy use and a shift from traditional sources of energy to conventional sources of energy). This latter shift is shown in figure A. 5 which provides an overview of biomass energy use in relation to per capita GNP.
Table 4 - Increases In Primary Commercial Energy Consumption In % In The Asia-Pacific Region
Primary Commercial Energy - Average annual increase in % and for the period 1980-1989, 1990-1994 and 1980-1994Source: Calculated from IEA/WRI
Fig. 5 BIOMASS ENERGY USE AND GNP
It is clear from this figure that there exists a tendency for biomass energy use to decline as GNP increases exists but no direct relationship between incremental changes in the two variables can be deducted from the data. Households with increased family incomes often switch from biomass fuels to others (stepping up the fuel ladder) like electricity and gas. However, if these are not available or if the supply is not reliable, they may decide not to upgrade their fuel. Likewise, where woodfuel resources are scarce, people may downgrade to lower quality fuels. This illustrates that fuel switching is an extremely complex system and predictions for the future are difficult to make.
In order to explore the possibility of providing an alternative to the usual simple extrapolation of trends used for projections, two computer modelling exercises were conducted by RWEDP staff. One exercise was based on the data contained in a study carried out on behalf of FAO (Provisional Outlook for Global Forest Products Consumption, Production and Trade to 2010) which has a brief section on woodfuels. The other is based on the "best" estimates for woodfuel use presented in this paper. The results of both exercises are shown in table 5.
For the first exercise using the FAO data (shown in table III-2 page 109 of the FAO publication), the average annual growth rates were calculated for the period 1994-2000 and 2000-2010. Many factors such as economic growth rates, forest resources, population, etc. were taken into account. However, as was indicated earlier in this paper, the validity of the base year (woodfuel use in 1994) can be questioned as in many instances these data are based on estimates made before 1961 and per capita woodfuel use has been assumed to have remained constant since 1961).
The second exercise is based on the "best" estimates as arrived at in this paper. Growth rates for the period 1994-2000 were assumed to remain the same as were calculated for the period 1992-1994. For the period 2000-2010 the growth rates were reduced by assuming that the reduction in the growth rates as shown in exercise 1 would also be valid for the second exercise. The justification for this assumption of reduced growth in the consumption of fuelwood as a source of energy is that the basic underlying assumptions on economic growth rates, forest resources and population growth are sound.
Table 5 shows that the difference between the results of the exercise based on FAO data and the exercise based on "best" estimates is about 170 million cubic meter in 1994 (about 850 million cu m. versus 1,020 million cu m.). The difference would rise to about 260 million cu m. in the year 2010 (1,020 million cu m. versus 1,280 million cu m.). Such calculations are interesting as they show the differences which can occur using different assumptions. At the same time it should be noted that these projections are based on assumptions and one has therefore to be very careful in using such figures. This is also evident from a cursory comparison of the projected growth rates used in this paper with those available from two countries. The projected growth rate for fuelwood use for the Philippines for the period 1996-2010 is about 2.22% (DOE, 1996). This is more or less in line with those used for the RWEDP/EDP-Asia projection (2.43% for 1994-2000 and 2.22% for 2000-2010). However, the projection method used in Nepal (WECS, 1996a) shows a considerably lower growth rate (but still higher than the FAO projection) of 1.35% for the period 1995-2010 versus 2.77% and 2.14% respectively for the period 1994-2000 and 2000-2010 as used for the RWEDP/EDP-Asia projection.
Nevertheless, the main message which can be derived from this discussion on supply-demand projections is that woodfuel use is here to stay and is growing even though its share in overall energy consumption will decline.
Table 5. Sample projections for woodfuel use for the period 1994-2010
Data in grey are based upon FAO data (production in the past); Pakistan - FAO growth rates used
Very superficial calculations, using business-as-usual projections made by UN-ESCAP for conventional energy use (Energy Supply and Demand Trends in Asia and the Pacific) show that in 1994 woodfuels accounted for about 8.2% to 9.8% of total energy consumption (total energy consumption here is taken to mean conventional fuels plus woodfuels and excludes other biomass energy). In the year 2010 the share of woodfuels will have dropped to about 4.6 to 5.7% depending on which scenario for woodfuel projection is used.
While searching for and analysing available data on wood/biomass energy it has become clear that a considerable amount of data is available from various sources. However, at the same time it was also found that quite a few of these sources of data are making use of data provided by other organizations. An example of this is the United Nations (UN) as well as the World Resources Institute (WRI) who both make use of data on fuelwood and charcoal provided by FAO. While FAO clearly indicates which data are based on estimates, the same is not true for both the UN and WRI. Likewise, IEA/OECD, although mentioning that their data sources for the Non-OECD countries may be suspect still publish it. Others, e.g. EDP-Asia, make use of such data and may even use it to build scenarios, etc.
One should therefore be very careful to check the "status" of the data provided by the various organizations maintaining and publishing a database on woodfuel/biomass energy use.
Another main conclusion is that definitions used by the various organizations are in many cases not comparable and again care should be taken to check what is meant when terms such as woodfuels, fuelwood, residues, etc. are used. There is a clear need to come to some form of a unified approach with regard to definitions and conversion factors used for wood and biomass energy by the various organizations involved in the collection and analysis of such data.
The manner is which estimates are made also leaves something to be desired. FAO, in those cases where the countries do not provide information on woodfuel use, makes use of estimates based, in most cases, on per capita consumption figures. These per capita consumption figures have often not been changed since the first estimate was made (often circa 1961) and this practice no doubt may lead to large discrepancies over time.
All databases, which present information on woodfuels, etc. do so without making any distinction with regard to the source (e.g. forest land, non-forest land, recycled wood, etc.). Besides, little information is provided with regard to end-use. The UN, IEA and EDP-Asia database provides some limited information on sectoral end-use. It would be relevant to make some kind of distinction between location of the source as well as the end-user e.g. by urban/rural as such information will be relevant for policy related matters.
All this indicates that there is a need to have more direct contacts between the different database owners with a view to improve the consistency and comparability of the different data sources in order that the users of these database systems are better served.
Woodfuels (FW + Charcoal as FW) Production In PJ = (TPES excl. Exp./Imp.)
Charcoal converted to Fuelwood in a ratio of 6 cu m. fuelwood per 1 ton charcoalSource: Calculated from FAOSTAT-PC
Primary Fuelwood Consumption In PJ
Wood does not include black liquorSource: FAOSTAT-PC IEA, etc.
TPES - Fuelwood And Charcoal (PJ)
For OECD Countries "Black Liquor" is not included in woodfuels, for other countries this can not be ascertainedNumbers in Italic are provisional/estimated/un-official
Data are non-standardized e.g. conversion factors from physical to energy units are those as used by the individual countries and/or original sources
Source: FAOSTAT-PC EDP-Asia Database
Total Primary Biomass Energy Requirements (TPES) IN PJ
Source: FAOSTAT-PC UN '88, '92, '94
Primary Combustible Renewable Energy Consumption In PJ
Source: FAOSTAT-PC IEA, etc.
Data from OECD countries are "Combustible renewable and wastes" e.g. include industrial and municipal wastes as well as gaseous and liquid biomass based fuelsNumbers in Italic are provisional/estimated/un-official
Data are non-standardized e.g. conversion factors from physical to energy units are those as used by the individual countries and/or original sources
Source: FAOSTAT-PC EDP-Asia Database
FAO - Share of woodfuels in % of total energy consumption
Data for commercial energy use are based on IEA data. Where not available, other data sources have been used (these country names are indicated in gray)Comparison between Total and Woodfuels (Biomass not available)
Share Of Biomass/Renewable Energy In Total Energy Consumption In %
Source: FAOSTAT-PC EDP-Asia Database
IEA - Share of woodfuels in % of total energy consumption
Data for commercial energy use are based on IEA data. Where not available, other data sources have been used (these country names are indicated in gray)Comparison between Total and Woodfuels
Share Of Biomass/Renewable Energy In Total Energy Consumption In %
Source: FAOSTAT-PC EDP-Asia Database
EDP-Asia - Share of woodfuels in % of total energy consumption
Data for commercial energy use are based on IEA data. Where not available, other data sources have been used (these country names are indicated in gray)Comparison between Total and Biomass energy
Share Of Biomass/Renewable Energy In Total Energy Consumption In %
Source: FAOSTAT-PC EDP-Asia Database
UN - Share of biomass in % of total energy consumption
Data for commercial energy use are based on IEA data. Where not available, other data sources have been used (these country names are indicated in gray)Comparison between Total and Biomass energy (no information on woodfuels)
Share Of Biomass/Renewable Energy In Total Energy Consumption In %
Source: FAOSTAT-PC EDP-Asia Database
IEA - Share of combustible renewable sources of energy in % of total energy consumption
Data for commercial energy use are based on IEA data. Where not available, other data sources have been used (these country names are indicated in gray)Comparison between Total and Combustible Renewable Energy
Share Of Biomass/Renewable Energy In Total Energy Consumption In %
Source: FAOSTAT-PC EDP-Asia Database
EDP-Asia - Share of biomass in % of total energy consumption
Data for commercial energy use are based on IEA data. Where not available, other data sources have been used (these country names are indicated in gray)Comparison between Total and Biomass energy
Share Of Biomass/Renewable Energy In Total Energy Consumption In %
Source: FAOSTAT-PC EDP-Asia Database
Fuelwood Production versus Population in RWEDP Countries
Fuelwood Production versus Population in RWEDP Countries (cont)
Source: FAO
The table shows the correlation between the fuelwood production and population as provided by FAO statistics. It shows that this correlation is 1 for all countries except China. The correlation between fuelwood production and population is calculated by using a formula to calculate the correlation over the whole range of years for which data are available.
Adams, M., 1995 "Technical Report: Forest Products, Harvesting and Utilization Component", paper presented to a Project Formulation Workshop on Sustainable Conservation, Management and Utilization of Tropical Rainforests in Asia, Bangkok, 6-8 February 1995, Adams, M., Thailand, 1995
ADB and FINNIDA, 1988 Master Plan for Forestry Sector Nepal: Main Report, Asian Development Bank and Finnish International Development Agency, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1988
AEEMTRC, 1994 ASEAN Energy Review, Vol. 3, 1994, ASEAN-EC Energy Management, Training and Research Center, Jakarta, Indonesia, 1994
AEEMTRC, 1994 a ASEAN Energy Review, Vol. 4, 1994, ASEAN-EC Energy Management, Training and Research Center, Jakarta, Indonesia, 1994
AIT, 1995 Asian Energy News, Vol. 5, No. 11, 1995, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, 1995
AIT and EEC, 1983 Evaluation and Selection of Ligno-cellulose Wastes Which Can Be Converted into Substitute Fuels, project report submitted to the European Economic Community, Asian Institute of Technology and European Energy Commission, Belgium, 1983
Barnard, G. and Kristoferson, L., 1985 Agricultural Residues as Fuel in the Third World, Bernard, G. and Kristoferson, L., Earthscan, London, England, 1985
Beijer Institute, 1985 Energy Information Programme, Beijer Institute, Earthscan, London, England, 1985
Bentley, W.R. and Gowen, M.M., 1994 Forest Resources and Wood-Based Biomass Energy as Rural Development Assets, Bentley, W.R. and Gowen, M.M., Winrock International, USA, 1994
Bensel, T.G. and Remedia, E.M., 1993 Patterns of Commercial Woodfuel Supply: Distribution and Use in the City and Province of Cebu, Philippines, Bensel, T.G. and Remedia, E.M., Field Document No. 42, Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 1993
Bhattacharya, S.C. and Shrestha, R.M., 1990 Biocoal Technology and Economics, Bhattacharya, S.C. and Shrestha, R.M., Renewable Energy Resources Information Center, Bangkok, Thailand, 1990
Biro Pusat Statistik, 1994 Neraca Energi Indonesia (Energy Balance) 1986-1990 and 1994, Biro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, Indonesia, 1994
CEB, 1995 Sri Lanka Energy Balance, Cylon Electricity Board, Sri Lanka, 1995
Commission of the European Communities, 1984 Fuelwood Strategies and Action Programs in Asia: Comparative Experience in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Nepal, Republic of Korea, Sri-Lanka and Thailand, Commission of the European Communities, Directorate General for Development and Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, 1984
DEDP, 1992 Thailand Energy Situation: 1991, Department of Energy Development and Promotion, Bangkok, Thailand, 1995
DEDP, 1993 Thailand Energy Situation: 1992, Department of Energy Development and Promotion, Bangkok, Thailand, 1995
DEDP, 1994 Thailand Energy Situation: 1993, Department of Energy Development and Promotion, Bangkok, Thailand, 1995
DEDP, 1995 Thailand Energy Situation: 1994, Department of Energy Development and Promotion, Bangkok, Thailand, 1995
DEDP, 1997 Thailand Energy Situation: 1995, Department of Energy Development and Promotion, Bangkok, Thailand, 1995
Dewees, P. A., 1989 "The Woodfuel Crisis Reconsidered: Observations on the Dynamics of Abundance and Scarcity", Dewees, P. A., in World Development, Vol. 17, No. 8, pp. 1159-1172, 1989
Dijkstra, D.P., 1995. Timber and Forest Discussion Papers; Information Systems in Forestry: A Brief Overview, Dijkstra, D.P., United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland/Rome, Italy, 1995
DOE, 1996 Philippine Energy Plan 1996-2025, Department of Energy, The Philippines, 1996
Eckholm, E., Foley, G. Barnard, G., Timberlake, L., 1984 Fuelwood: The Energy Crisis that Won't Go Away, Eckholm, E., Foley, G. Barnard, G. Timberlake, L., Earthscan, London, England, 1984
ERDG, 1976 Nepal: the Energy Sector, Energy Research and Development Group, Tribhuvan University and Institute of Science, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1976
ESCAP, 1991 Executive Seminar and Study Tour, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, 1991
ESCAP, 1997 "Energy Supply and Demand Trends in Asia and the Pacific", paper presented at the Ad-hoc Expert Group Meeting on Energy Infrastructure and Energy Pricing Policies 28-30 May 1997, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, 1997
ESCAP, 1997b "Energy Infrastructure Outlook and Issues", paper presented at ad-hoc expert group meeting on energy infrastructure and energy pricing policies. Based on United Nations Energy Statistics Yearbooks, World Tables of the World Bank and IEA World Energy Outlook, 1996
FAO, 1990 "Energy conservation in the mechanical forest industries", FAO Forestry paper No. 93, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1990
FAO, 1993 Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Tropical Countries, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1993
FAO, 1993a FAO Yearbook: Forest Products 1980-91, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1993
FAO, 1994 FAO Yearbook: Forest Products 1981-92, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1994
FAO, 1994 a FAO Agrostat-PC, database Software, FAO, Rome, Italy, 1994
FAO, 1995 a Selected Indicators of Food and Agriculture Development in Asia-Pacific Region, 1984-94, FAO-RAP publication no. 1995/22, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Bangkok, Thailand, 1995
FAO, 1995 b Production: 1994, Vol. 48, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
FAO, 1995 c FAO Yearbook: Forest Products 1982-83, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1995
FAO, 1996 a FAO Yearbook: Forest Products 1983-94, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1996
FAO, 1996 b Selected Indicators of Food and Agriculture Development in Asia-Pacific Region 1985-1995, FAO-RAP Publication 1996/32, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Bangkok, Thailand, 1996
FAO, 1997 a State of the World's Forests 1997, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1997
FAO, 1997 b Provisional Outlook for Global Forest Products Consumption, Production and Trade to 2010, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1997
FAO, 1997 c Wood Energy Today for Tomorrow: a Study for Europe/OECD; Part A: Analysis of the Role of Wood Energy in Europe/OECD; Part B: Background Overview of Available Data on Wood Energy in Europe/OECD, A Study Undertaken for the FAO, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, FAO, Rome, Italy, 1997
FRIM, 1992 "Utilization of Industrial Wood Residues", Paper presented at the workshop on 'Logging and Industrial Wood Residues Utilization' in Jakarta, Indonesia, 24 August 1992. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Jakarta, Indonesia, 1992
Government of Bangladesh, 1987 Bangladesh Energy Planning Project: Rural Energy and Biomass Supply: Final Report, Vol. I-VII, Asian Development Bank and United Nations Development Programme, Government of Bangladesh, Bangladesh, 1987
Government of Bangladesh, 1996 National Energy Policy, Government of Bangladesh, Dakha, Bangladesh, 1996
Government of Indonesia, 1990 Situation and Outlook of the Forestry Sector in Indonesia, Government of Indonesia, Ministry of Forestry and Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, 1990
Grover, P.D. and Mishra, S.K., 1996 Biomass Briquetting: Technology and Practices, Grover, P.D. and Mishra, S.K., Field Document No. 46. Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 1996
Grover, P.D. and Mishra, S.K (ed), 1996 Proceedings of the International Workshop on Biomass Briquetting, New Delhi, India, 3-6 April 1995, Grover, P.D. and Mishra, S.K. (ed), Indian Institute for Technology, New Delhi, India 1996
Habib, A., 1994 "Rural Energy and Environment Planning for Sustainable Rural Development in Bangladesh", paper Presented at the Regional Workshop on Integrated Rural Energy and Environment Planning for Sustainable Rural Development, Beijing, China 26-30 September 1994, Habib, A., Beijing, China, 1994
Hurst, C. and Barnett, A., 1990 The Energy Dimension: A Practical Guide to Energy in Rural Development Programmes, Hurst, C. and Barnett, A., Intermediate Technology Publication, Intermediate Technology, London, England, 1990
HTTP://apps.fao.org/FAO-internet site
HTTP://www.ieej.or.jp/Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre internet site
IEA, 1996 a Energy Statistics of OECD Countries 1993-1994, International Energy Agency, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, France, 1996
IEA, 1996 b Energy Balances of OECD Countries 1993-1994, International Energy Agency, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, France, 1996
IEA, 1996 c Energy Statistics and Balances of Non-OECD Countries 1993-1994, International Energy Agency, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, France, 1996
IPCC, 1997 Technical Paper 1, International Panel on Climate Change, Washington, 1997
Ishaque, M. and Chahal, D.S. 1991 "Crop Residues" Ishaque, M. and Chahal, D.S., in Food, Feed and Fuel from Biomass. pp. 15, 1991
Institute of Energy, 1995 Vietnam Energy Review, Institute of Energy, Hanoi, Vietnam, 1995
Jalaluddin, Harun, Abdul Rahman Md., Derus and Wong, W.C., 1984 Wood Residue and its Utilization in Peninsular Malaysia, Proceedings of the seminar on 'Management and Utilization of Industrial Wastes' Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, 13-14 Sept 1984, Jalaluddin, Harun, Abdul Rahman Md., Derus and Wong, W.C. Malaysia, 1984
Jensen, M., 1995 Woodfuel Productivity of Agroforestry Systems in Asia: A Review of Current Knowledge, Jensen, M., Field Document No. 45, Regional Wood Energy Development Programme, Bangkok, Thailand, 1995
Koopmans, A., 1995 "Residue to product ratio (RPR): Traditional Energy Use and Availability of Agricultural and Forest Residues", paper presented on the first international workshop on biomass briquetting 3-6 april 1995, New Delhi, India, april 1995, Koopmans, A., India, 1995
Kristoferson, L.A. and Bokalders V., 1991 Renewable Energy Technologies: Their Application in Developing Countries. Kristoferson, L.A. and Bokalders V., Intermediate Technology Publications, Intermediate Technology, London, England, 1991
LBL, 1996 China Energy Databook, Lawrence Bekeley Laboratory, Berkeley, USA, September 1996
Leach, G. and Mearns, R., 1988 Beyond the Woodfuel Crisis People, Land & Trees in Africa, Leach, G. and Mearns, R., Earthscan, London, England
Massaquoi, J.G.M., 1990 "Agricultural residues as Energy Source", Massaquoi, J.G.M., in: Energy for Rural Development, 1990
Mercer, D.E. and Soussan, J., 1991 Fuelwood: An Analysis of problems and solutions for less developed countries, World Bank Forest Policy Review Background Paper, M.R. and Karekezi, S., World Bank, Washington, USA, 1991
MIME, 1996 Cambodia's Energy Supply and Use 1995, Ministry of Industries, Mines and Energy, Phnom Phen, Cambodia, 1996
Ministry of Agriculture Buthan, 1991 Wood Energy Sectoral Analysis: Master plan for forestry development in Bhutan. Ministry of Agriculture Buthan, Field Document 32, Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 1991
Ministry of Agriculture, Environment and Fisheries, 1997 Main Issues of Explanatory Notes of LNV-Budget 1997 (in Dutch: Hoofdlijnen Memorie van Toelichting op LNV - Begroting 1997), The Hague, Netherlands, 1997
Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Forestry, 1995 Sri Lanka Forestry Sector Master Plan, Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Forestry, Sri Lanka, 1995
Ministry of Forestry Vietnam, 1992 Tropical Forestry Action Programme Vietnam: Fuelwood and Energy Sectoral Review, Ministry of Forestry Vietnam, Field Document No. 33, Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 1992
Ministry of Power and Energy, 1995 Sri Lanka Energy Balance. Ministry of Power and Energy, Sri Lanka, 1995
Munslow, B., Katerere, Y., Ferf, A. and O'Keefe, P., 1988 The Fuelwood Trap: a Study of the SADCC Region. Munslow, B., Katerere, Y., Ferf, A. and O'Keefe, P., Earthscan, London, England, 1988
PEC, 1992 Pacific Regional Energy Assessment No. 1, Pacific energy Commission, Fiji, 1992
Personal communications, 1996 Personal communications Koopmans, A. with Department of Energy, Yangon, Burma, 1996
Personal communications, 1997 a Personal communications Koopmans, A. with Exconde, I. and U. Promyothin, Asia Pacific Energy Research Center, 1997
Personal communications, 1997 b Personal communications Koopmans, A. with the Asociation of Energy Development Planning (EDP)-Asia Database
Personal communications, 1997 c Personal communications Koopmans, A. with Mr. Boldt. AEEMTRC, 1997
Ravindranath, N.H. and Hall, D.O., 1995 Biomass, Energy and Environment: A Developing Country Perspective from India, Ravindranath, N.H. and Hall, D.O., Oxford 'University Press, New York, USA, 1995
REDP, 1989 a Sectoral Energy Demand in Laos, Regional Energy Development Programme, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific and United Nations Development Programme, Bangkok, Thailand, 1989
REDP, 1989 b Sectoral Energy Demand in the Maldives, Regional Energy Development Programme and Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, 1989
RFD, 1993 Thai Forestry Sector Master Plan: Subsectoral Plan For Production and Utilization, Vol. 6, Royal Forest Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok, Thailand.
RWEDP, 1993 "Wood Energy Development: Planning, Policies and Strategies", Vol. 3, papers presented at the Expert Consultation on Data Assessment and Analysis for Wood Energy Planning, Field Document No. 37b, Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 1993
RWEDP, 1995 Wood Energy News, Vol. 10, No. 4, Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 1995
RWEDP, 1996 Wood Energy News, Vol. 10, No. 4, Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 1996
RWEDP, 1997 a Proceedings of the Workshop on Stoves for Use With Loose Residues 1995, Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand. To be published in 1997
RWEDP, 1997 b Proceedings of the Regional Expert Consultation on Selection Criteria and Priority Rating for Assistance to Traditional Biomass Energy Using Industries 1996, Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand. To be published in 1997
RWEDP, 1997 c Proceedings of the Regional Consultation on Introducing Modem Technologies and Systems for Efficient Use of Wood and Biomass for Major Types of Industries or Ecological/Economic Situations 1997, Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia, RWEDP, Bangkok, Thailand. To be published in 1997
Ryan, P. and Openshaw, K., 1991 Assessment of Biomass Energy Resources: A Discussion on its Needs and Methodology, Ryan, P. and Openshaw, K., World Bank, Washington, USA, 1991
SEI, 1995 LEAP Environmental Database (EDB), database compiled from various sources on environmental effects of various fuels used in the LEAP model, Stockholm Environmental Institute, Boston, 1995
Soussan, J., Mercer, D.E. and O'Keefe, P., 1992 "Fuelwood policies for the 1990s", Soussan, J., Mercer, D.E. and O'Keefe, P., in Energy Policy, February 1992, Elsevier Science, 1991
Strehler, A. and Stutzle, W., 1987 "Biomass Residues", Strehler, A. and Stutzle, W., in Biomass Regenerable Energy, 1987
UN, 1990 a Energy Statistics Yearbook 1988, United Nations, New York, USA, 1992
UN, 1990 b Energy Balance and Electricity Profiles 1988, United Nations, New York, USA, 1992
UN, 1992 a Energy Statistics Yearbook 1990, United Nations, New York, USA, 1992
UN, 1992 b Energy Balances and Electricity Profiles 1990, United Nations, New York, USA, 1992
UN, 1994 a Energy Statistics Yearbook 1992, United Nations, New York, USA, 1994
UN, 1994 b Energy Balances and Electricity Profiles 1992, United Nations, New York, USA, 1994
UN, 1995 Energy Balances and Electricity Profiles 1994, United Nations, New York, USA, 1995
UN, 1996 Energy Statistics Yearbook 1994, United Nations, New York, USA, 1996
UN, 1995 Framework for National Energy Planning, Republic of Maldives, United Nations Mission Report, United Nations, New York, USA, 1995
UN/ECE and FAO, 1996 European Timber Trends and Prospects: Into the 21st Century, Geneva Timber and Forest Study Papers, United Nations, Economic Commission for Europe and Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland, 1996
UNDP, 1997 1997 Human Development Report, United Nations Development Programme, New York, USA, 1997
USAID and Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka, 1991 Natural Forests of Sri Lanka: Conditions and Trends, US Agency for International Development and Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka, 1991
Vimal, O.P., 1979 "Residue Utilization, Management of Agricultural and Agroindustrial Residues of Selected Tropical Crops: Indian Experience", Vimal, O.P., in Proceedings of UNEP/ESCAP/FAO Workshop on Agricultural and Agroindustrial Residue Utilization in Asia and Pacific Region, 1979
Veer, C., 1989 Rural/wood Energy planning, Ideas, Issues and Tools, Background Notes for Discussion at Rural Energy Planning Seminar Dumaguete City, Veer, C., Bangkok, Thailand, 1989
Webb, B. 1979 "Technical Aspects of Agricultural and Agroindustrial Residues Utilization", Webb, B. in Proceedings of UNEP/ESCAP/FAO Workshop on Agricultural and Agroindustrial Residue Utilization in Asia and Pacific Region, 1979
WECS, 1996a Energy Synopsis Report, Water and Energy Commission, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1996
WECS, 1996 b WECS Buletin, Vol. 7 No. 1, 1996, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1996
WECS, 1996c Nepal Energy Vision 2020, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat, Nepal, 1996
WECS, 1997 WECS Buletin, Vol. 8 No. 1, 1997, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1997
World Bank, 1991 Myanmar Energy Sector Investment and Policy Review Study, World Bank, Washington, USA, 1991
World Bank, 1994 Vietnam Energy Sector Investment and Policy Review, Vol. II - Annexes, World Bank, New York, USA, 1994
World Bank/ESMAP, 1982 Issues and Options in the Energy Sector 1982, World Bank/Esmap, Washington, USA, 1982
World Bank/ESMAP, 1983 Issues and Options in the Energy Sector 1983, World Bank/Esmap. Washington, USA, 1983
World Bank/ESMAP, 1985 Issues and Options in the Energy Sector 1985, World Bank/Esmap, Washington, USA, 1985
World Bank/ESMAP, 1990 Indonesia Urban Household Energy Strategy Study, World Bank, Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme Washington, USA, 1990
World Bank/ESMAP, 1991 Phillipine Household Energy Strategy Study, World Bank, Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme Washington, USA, 1991
World Bank/ESMAP, 1994 Vietnam: Rural and Household Energy Issues and Options, World Bank, Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme Washington, USA, 1994
World Bank/ESMAP and UNDP, 1991 Pakistan Household Energy Strategy Study: Household Energy Demand Handbook for 1991, World Bank, Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme and United Nations Development Programme, Pakistan, 1991
World Bank/Esmap and UNDP, 1993 Pakistan household energy strategy study. World Bank, Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme and United Nations Development Programme, Pakistan, 1993
WWF, 1992 Forest in Trouble, World Wide Fund for Nature, Switzerland, 1992
WRI, 1995 World Resources: A guide to the Global Environments 95-96, World Resource Institute, Oxford University Press, New York, USA, 1995
WRI, 1996 a World Resources: A guide to the Global Environments 96-97, World Resource Institute, Oxford University Press, New York, USA, 1996
WRI, 1996 b World resources: Diskette, World Resource Institute, New York, 1996
