Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
British Guiana
British Honduras
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
French Guiana
Guatemala
Haiti
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Puerto Rico
Surinam
Trinidad
Uruguay
Venezuela
In endeavoring to present a background of information for the International Forestry and Forest Products Conference for Latin America, it was thought useful to include a short summary of comparable data for each of the Latin-American countries. These summaries make no claim to be completely authoritative, since data were included only as available. They do present a condensed picture of conditions.
Argentina has a total area of 280 million hectares and a population of over 15 million. The forested area, lying in general along the borders on the Chilean frontier and the regions bordering Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, as well as in the far south, covers some 51 million hectares or 18 percent of the total land area. An estimate of the volume of timber in the nine territories indicates that there are a thousand million m3 but the amount in the provinces has not been estimated. Forest land ownership varies by territories and provinces, but in general the government owns about one-third. Timber-cutting rights on government land are sold to private operators on bid.
Forest exploitation has not yet attained its full development It is estimated, however, that one-third of the quebracho in the northern part of the country has already been cut. Exploitation in the Misiones in northeastern Argentina, the northwestern Andes and southern Patagonia has been on a very small scale although there are plans for increasing the cut in these areas.
A rough estimate of forest-growth places the increment at 2 percent. Damage from forest fires has been extensive. A more accurate picture of the area, volume, growth, and condition of the forest will be obtained from an aerial survey which is now in progress and which should be completed within the next five or six years.
The Delta of the Río Parana and Río Uruguay contains some 40,000 hectares of willow and poplar plantations, and plans call for planting the remainder - over 400,000 hectares. There are also large-scale plans for windbreak, shelter-belt, and sand control in the dry areas of central Argentina.
Precise figures are not available as to domestic consumption of wood products, but it is known that demand is very great. Argentina has been importing 70 percent of the Parana pine produced in Brazil.
Although exact number and capacity of the sawmills in Argentina are not established, there are some 12 to 14 plywood mills and 21 pulp and paper mills. Railroad ties and mine timbers are hand-produced on a small scale. There are several tannin extract plants depending upon quebracho from northern Argentina.
Forestry work is now carried on by the government in both the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Lands. Under legislation now pending, both agencies are to be combined. This legislation also provides authorization and increased financial support for research and extension work. Considerable work has already been done in wood technology and dendrology, and the results have been published by the University of Buenos Aires and the Department of Forestry.
The University of Buenos Aires has offered courses in dendrology and wood technology to its agricultural students. Recently the technical staff of the government Department of Forestry has begun to give courses in all phases of forestry to some 20 to 40 students of "Silviculture and Horticulture." Agriculture, but not forestry, is taught at three other universities.
As regards forest management, it may be said that plantations are well handled through thinnings and improvement cuttings. However, old growth timber is not managed systematically on either public or private land. The Department of Forestry, however, is extending planned management work on public land, and pending legislation authorizes stricter control of exploitation on these lands.
A forest road in South Argentina. The trees are Librocedrus and Nothofagus spp.
Bolivia's area of 190 million hectares contains a population of 3.8 million. Eastern Bolivia, the principal forest area, is drained by the Amazon in the North and the Paraguay River in the South. The southeastern plains form part of the Gran Chaco. The highlands are made up of the western cordillera, the Altiplano, intermontane basins, and the eastern cordillera. One-third of the country is mountainous; two-thirds are lowland. Expansion of transportation facilities is hampered by rugged topography and scattered communities.
Fifty-two million hectares are estimated to be forested land, which is largely privately owned. Although no survey figures are available as yet, an estimate of the forest volume has been placed at over 990 million m3.
It is clear that the demand for railroad ties, bridge timbers, and construction lumber for railroads and highways from Brazil and Argentina, and for projects of-the Corporación de Fomento of Bolivia is much higher than local production. Housing construction in the cities requires wood for flooring and interior finish.
The wood-using industry is at the beginning of its development. There are several small private mills operating below capacity and a plywood plant whose principal product is citrus crate veneer. The Corporación de Fomento of Bolivia is now installing a number of sawmills with a daily capacity of 20 to 80 m3 each.
There is, at present, no Forest Service. The Ministry of Agriculture, however, runs several forest nurseries which grow trees for farm windbreaks and for ornamental purposes.
The Corporación de Fomento of Bolivia has arranged for the testing of several timber species at São Paulo, Brazil.
Brazil, with a total area of over 850 million hectares has a population of over 46 million, 75 percent of which is concentrated within 160 km. of the coast. Forty-seven percent of the total area is covered with forests. In the Amazon Basin 362 million hectares are covered with tropical hardwoods. The Parana pine forest covers 8.8 million hectares. In addition, the rain forests on the Atlantic slopes in eastern Brazil are also an important source of timber. Forest products include logs, lumber, carnauba wax, palm oils, nuts, maté, and rubber.
Parana pine, Araucaria brasiliana, is the most important softwood timber species in. South America. The present rate of cut is about 1 million m3 per year. This is about one-third to one-half of present capacity of the 3,500 sawmills in the Parana pine region. Commercial stands average 79-86 m3 per hectare, but vary from 49 in the lighter stands to 198, and there have been reports of small dense areas as high as 734 m3 per hectare. Individual trees often yield three to five 5-meter logs with the lower two or three logs being practically clear. Cutting is limited to trees over 30 to 35 cm. in diameter. However, trees grow to 160 to 175 cm. diameter at breast height Studies of growth rates have yet to be made but mature trees now being cut range from 100 to 200 years old. Plantation-grown pines have reached 40 cm. in diameter in 25 years.
The sawmills in the Parana pine region are powered 75 percent by steam, 20 percent by electricity, and 5 percent by water. The Instituto Nacional do Pinho has been regulating production in order to keep it in line with available railroad transportation facilities. Production was briefly reduced to 17 percent of capacity but is now up to 50-70 percent of capacity. The Institute carries on reforestation work on cut-over land. It has several projects on which it provides houses, schools, and medical facilities for families of laborers who fence the areas against hogs, clear out brush, plant pine seeds, and protect the plantations from fire. It has authority to enforce regulations as to cutting and regeneration by private owners. There are two large American-type sawmills that use railroad-logging methods. Most Parana pine mills, however, use hand-logging methods. Their development will depend on the installation of modern equipment. Most primary transportation of logs from stump to mill is done by trucks and road construction is being gradually extended, making truck-hauling more economical.
In the Amazon Basin the actual volume of tropical hardwoods available for exploitation is not known. Logging operations have been carried on within short distances of the rivers for a number of years. There have been numerous botanical expeditions in the Basin but no forest surveys have been made. The forests can be roughly divided into deciduous types and broad-leaved evergreen rain forests. The deciduous forests are from open to moderately dense, usually single-storied-with thick underbrush, although in many places grass is abundant and layers of humus and litter are fairly deep. The valuable species are usually widely scattered, in many cases not over two per hectare. Abundant rainfall all the year round, sandy soils, and frequent floods characterize the rain forest area of the Basin. The forest itself is extremely dense with many areas of almost impenetrable undergrowth. The humus is very deep and there is usually no grass or vegetative cover under the trees, which vary from 60 to 300 cm. in diameter and reach heights up to 50 m. There are 19 sawmills in the Amazon Basin area, all steam-powered, which have cut principally mahogany, Spanish cedar, and a few other high-value specialty woods. Logging is almost entirely by hand and the squared and tapered logs are dragged to the streams. There they are made into rafts, supported by species that will float, for floating or towing to the sawmills, sometimes as far as 800 kilometers. Logs and flitches (thick planks for resawing) are, sometimes shipped to Belem, Rio de Janeiro, or to European and United States markets on ocean-going vessels, which navigate the Amazon as far up as Iquitos in Peru.
Forest land is largely the property of individual states of the United States of Brazil but private operators may obtain permission to cut public timber.. In some states, however, there is a considerable proportion of private ownership, as in the State of Parana, where it is estimated that 33 percent is privately owned. The state governments generally encourage concessions to private operators. For the time. being, no practical form of control by the government over cutting practices of public timber has been devised.
No recent figures are available as to domestic con" gumption. In 1921, it was estimated that 310,000 m3 of Parana pine were consumed domestically, and 110,000 m3 were exported. In 1945, exports of Parana pine totaled 410,000 m3. Fuelwood is an important item for domestic use, for railroads in the Parana region, and for steamboats on the Amazon. Amazon timber has also been important for use in flooring and furniture. In recent years the tremendous expansion in housing and commercial construction, especially in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, has provided a huge demand for lumber and plywood. As utilization of species other than mahogany and cedar is developed, there is little doubt that Brazil can supply not only its own needs but a large export market as well for many years to come.
In addition to the sawmills there are nearly 200 plywood plants with a capacity up to 100,000 m3. There are about 50 paper mills. Expansion of production from wood conversion plants will require greater development of transportation facilities.
The government forest administration consists of the Servicio Florestal (Forest Service) in the Ministry of Agriculture which administers the national forests and national parks. In accordance with the Forest Code of 1934, it studies questions of silviculture, wood technology, and forest production methods, and supervises the Botanical Gardens of Rio de Janeiro. Several states have their own forest services. The Instituto Nacional do Pinho (National Pine Institute) was set up to control production, allocate available transportation, carry on reforestation, and enforce proper cutting practices on private operations in the Parana pine region.
The principal research work, aside from botanical exploration, has been carried on by the Institute of Technical Research at São Paulo, which has made strength tests of many species of timber. The University of São Paulo and the University of Rio de Janeiro have instituted courses in dendrology and wood technology. The latter institution has recently expanded its courses and has asked trained foresters from the Servicio Florestal to teach silviculture, management, reforestation, and studies in forest products.
British Guiana has an area of 21 million hectares with a population of 381,000. Forested land makes up 87 percent of the total surface area, equalling 18 million hectares. About 64,000 hectares are cultivated. Rivers are the main form of transportation, the principal ones being the Essequebo and the Demarara.
It has been estimated that 20 percent of the total forest area of British Guiana is immediately accessible for exploitation. In this area there are about 350 million m3 of wood of which 8 million ma are greenheart, Nectandra rodioei.
Land is held principally by the Crown, which grants concessions for cutting by private operators. There is some small private ownership.
Internal consumption, based on production from the Crown lands plus imports minus exports, is 20,000 m3 - 0.05 m3 per caput per year. During the war, consumption increased to 40 thousand m3 but there are still local shortages of all forest products as the needs for firewood, charcoal, and other minor forest products have increased with the population.
The 46 sawmills have capacities ranging from 408 to 5,900 m3 of lumber per year. Some 150 woodworking establishments produce furniture, and there are several boat-building yards.
A Forest Products Association includes all of the large sawmill owners and some of the small ones. It represents the interests of the lumber producers, especially with regard to prices and export policies. A Timber Workers Union, consisting largely of sawmill workers, has been successful in improving wages and working conditions.
Administrative authority over forest land is now divided among three departments. A reorganization, which is now being considered, would combine - all three into a single Forestry Department with increased authority and appropriations.
With regard to research, the principal woods have been tested at the Princes Risborough Station in England. Evaluation surveys of immediately exploitable areas are being completed and considerable information on forest resources and timber qualities has been published. Plans are under way to explore the interior forested regions. It is planned to help improve methods of operation and quality of products of small sawmills by expert advice.
British Honduras has an area of approximately 2.3 million hectares and a population of about 60,000. The country comprises a coastal plain in the North, a ridge of high ground reaching 1,143 meters in the center, and in the West and South a relatively small area of undulating country suitable for agricultural purposes. The plains are low-lying with poor drainage. Ninety-five percent of the country is forested but only portions are at present accessible.
The forested area amounts to 2.1 million hectares, of which 55 percent is Crown property and the rest is private property. The principal species found are mahogany, Swietenia sp.; cedar; rosewood; pine; and Santa Maria, Calalophyllum brasiliense.
Annual domestic consumption of wood and wood products amounts to 31,402 m3. Annual exports average 6,200 m3 for mahogany logs and 8,180 m3 for sawn mahogany. Cedar, rosewood, and Santa Maria wood are exported in insignificant quantities. Production of gums, resins, latex, and chicle amounts to approximately 500 tons.
Timber industries are widely scattered and for the most part are located in the pine forests of the coastal plain. The only large band-saw mill is located at Belize but there are six other small sawmills which use circular saws.
The Forest Service supervises extraction in all forests owned by the: Grown, as well as the production of chicle and the logging of mahogany on private estates.
The country consists of an extremely dry northern region where most of the mining activities are located; a temperate central fertile agricultural region, with important forest areas in the south central part; and a cold, wet southern portion which is principally forest.
Of Chile's total area of over 73 million hectares, 22 percent is forest land. The population is over 5 million. This means 3.2 hectares of forest land per caput and 1:1 hectares per caput of exploitable forest land, of which 80 percent is virgin, 9 percent is partially cut or second growth, and 11 percent has been deforested by fire or cutting. There are over 153,000 hectares of plantations, of which 90 percent consists of eucalyptus species and Monterrey pine, Pinus radiata. Twenty-five percent of the plantations are of merchantable size. The virgin forest is 93 percent temperate hardwoods and 7 percent conifers. Natural second growth is all hardwoods.
The estimated total volume of marketable timber is almost 2 billion m3; virgin timber is said to average 181 to 263 m3 per hectare except in the far south, where the average is 95 to 127 m3 per hectare.
Ownership of forest land is divided among private holdings, 54 percent; public, 43 percent; and indeterminate because of unclear titles, 3 percent.
Annual cutting in recent years has been at the rate of almost 5.6 million m3. Fuelwood has been the principal use. The annual loss from fire has been over three and one-half times the volume cut. Growth is estimated at 20 million m3 annually.
There are 600 to 700 sawmills, with an average daily capacity of 12.1 m3; 4 veneer and plywood mills; and several paper mills with a total capacity of 44,000 tons annually, of which 95 percent is produced by one company. The manufacture of box shooks by a number of small enterprises. and the production of hewn railroad ties, mine timbers, and poles are also very important industries. Most mills are small, but recently a few larger modern plants have been installed. The Corporación de Fomento has plans for new developments, and has already modernized a number of plants.
Individually potted eucalyptus seedlings being grown under shade in Chile.
A 13-year-old stand of eucalyptus grown under the shelterwood system in Chile.
Government forestry activity is divided among several agencies. The Forest Department in the Ministry-of Land and Colonization has responsibility for the national forests and national parks, for some 43 nurseries which are supervised in part by trained agronomists, and for developing a research program. In the Ministry of Agriculture, the agricultural extension agents, under the supervision of a botanist are being trained to advise farmers on forestry problems. There are also trained foresters in the Corporación de Fomento of Chile who are responsible for the forest survey and management aspects of utilization plans. A National Forestry Council, made up of representatives of many different phases of industrial and government activity in forestry matters, serves in an advisory capacity in the development of a new forest policy. This Council is also addressing itself to the problem of extending forestry research and consultation services to private forest industries. Consideration is also being given to providing formal forestry education in order to increase the number of well-trained forestry technicians. The teaching of conservation in elementary schools is being developed, in order to stimulate a real appreciation of the value of forests, in the hope of reducing the very serious present forest fire problem. The Forest Law of 1931 provided the basis for the present forestry organization.
The total area of Colombia is 115 million hectares of which 30 million hectares are mountainous with altitudes varying between 400 and 6,000 meters. The rest of the country consists of plains, most of them in the eastern and southeastern regions. The forested area amounts to approximately 72 million hectares or 63 percent.
The forests located along the coastal strips are of the evergreen tropical type with trees of considerable size. In the arid plains of la Goagira, as well as in the central part of the country, there are dry forest types.
The problem of transportation is considerably simplified by the 23,400 kilometers of navigable rivers.
In 1945, 1,140 tons of construction wood were imported, whereas during the same period exports amounted to only 180 tons.
The Forest Service is a department-of the Ministry of National Economy. Current plans provide for a considerable increase of personnel in the years to come.
The first laws and the first forest decrees are dated 1874, and since that time a considerable amount of legislation has been promulgated. One of the most recent decrees calls for the creation of an Institute of Forestry, which will organize the reforestation of certain regions but whose primary function will be to effect a program of soil and water conservation and secure the utilization of such forest resources as have not been exploited.
The research laboratory of the Ministry of Mines, as well as the School of Mines at Medellin, makes analyses of the physical properties of wood; the Institute of Natural Sciences is beginning a systematic study of the flora of the country; and the Schools of Agriculture at Medellin and Cali are doing work on classification, conservation, reforestation, selection, and improvement of species. Finally, the Forestry Museum, which is a part of the Forest Department, is charged with the study of zones to be reforested, the collection of samples of Colombian woods, and the study of their properties.
Costa Rica has an area of almost 5 million hectares and a population of 760,000. The largest portion of the population lives in the central highlands and is growing rapidly.
Agriculture is the principal industry and most of the manufacturing activities consist of the processing of agricultural and forest products. There are over -100 sawmills, most of which are very small, with a daily capacity of less than 12 m3 each. About 20 percent of the area is agricultural and the remaining 80 percent is forest land. The three principal forest types are: evergreen rain forest - 61 percent; deciduous forest - 13 percent; and cloud forest - 4 percent.
There are a number of opportunities for increasing not only domestic consumption of locally produced forest products but exports as well. Most of the export of forest products has been specialty woods for dyes and for cabinet use. At present Costa Rica imports more forest products than it exports. The Inter-American Highway has opened up many of the inaccessible forest areas and it is expected that there will be a large increase in the utilization of timber from such areas.
Many of the numerous species of Costa-Rican woods have already been tested. The Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Science at Turrialba hopes to develop a forestry training and research program. It has plans for providing vocational agricultural training for students from all over Latin America and expects during 1948 to train a group of Venezuelan agricultural students.
The Republic of Cuba, which has a population of approximately 5 million, covers an area of 11.7 million hectares, including Pine Island and the lesser islands.
The forested areas are estimated to cover between 12 and 15 percent of the total land surface and include coniferous, deciduous, and mangrove forests. They occur for the most part on privately owned land (85 percent), especially on land belonging to the sugar industries; the remaining 15 percent belongs to the State. The lowland forests along the coast and on the small islands are accessible from the sea by the use of shallow draught vessels. Other productive forests are accessible by overland roads.
During the year 1946, domestic consumption, including firewood and charcoal, was estimated at 1,210,556 m3, local production amounting to 1,049,573 m3 and imports to 166,514 m3. Per caput consumption was therefore 0.2;1 ma. In addition, exports amounted to 5,531 m3.
Forestry forms a section of the Department of Forests, Mines, and Waterways of the Ministry of Agriculture. The Forestry School at Havana has been in existence for the past 15 years.
There are no exact data as to the number of workers engaged in forest work. It is estimated, however, that about 6,000 to 8,000 fellers and charcoal producers work annually in the forests. Sawmills, of which there are about 200, employ approximately 6,000 workers. Their development will depend upon the possibility of providing modern equipment.
The existing Forest Law sets forth very exactly the manner in which forests are to be managed, their importance, and the forest regulations to be applied. At present, silvicultural activities are limited to the cultivation and free distribution of plants from government nurseries. However, the establishment of experimental forests and research centers is included in the future plans of the Government.
The area of the Dominican Republic is 5 million hectares, of which 3.8 million hectares, or 76 percent, are covered with forests. The population is approximately 2,089,000. The agricultural census which the Government made in 1944 indicated the following volumes of standing timber: mahogany 3,600 m3; cape 5,500 m3; oak 4,300 m3; guayacan 1,000 m3; guaiacum 800; satinwood 1,100 m3; and cedar 300 m3.
The pine, Pinus occidentalis, deserves mention. The coniferous region is estimated to be 750,000 hectares and constitutes an important reservoir for local requirements and for exports. Exports for the year 1946 amounted to approximately 19,000 m3, whereas imports were negligible.
There are a number of portable sawmills, generally using circular saws, which are moved from place to place as extraction proceeds. Various government decrees regulate forest exploitation.
The Ministry of Agriculture plans to set up courses in silviculture, once an Agricultural Institute is established.
Ecuador has an area of 45.6 million hectares, of which approximately 23.5 million hectares, or 51.6 percent, are forested. The forest lands may be grouped according to natural regions:
(1) The forests of the Pacific coastal region and the western slopes of the Andes. Here the principal species are balsa, Ochroma lagopus; amarillo; lignum vitae; and mangrove. Also several palms are found, including the toquilla palm, the leaves of which furnish the fiber for Panama hats.(2) The forests of the central Andean region. This is the most densely populated region and contains principally semidesert species of shrubs and isolated trees. During the past 80 years, plantations of eucalypts, mostly Eucalyptus globulus, have been widely established.
(3) The forests of the Amazon region, east of the Andes, called the "Oriente." Because of the continuous rainfall, the area supports very dense rain forest. The best-known species found are gum copal, canelo, cinchona (the bark of which yields quinine), and several palms.
The relative inaccessibility of the natural forests raises difficult problems and management depends on the extent to which communications, particularly land routes, can be developed. The greater part of the forested area belongs to the State, although in the western region there are considerable privately owned tracts. There are prospects for a great development of timber industries as labor is plentiful. Exports, consisting mainly of balsa, amounted to approximately 70,000 tons in 1945, while in the same year 60,000 tons of softwood were imported.
The Agriculture School of the Central University at Quito gives courses in silviculture as part of the general curriculum. The research program of the Technical Bureau of the Department of Agriculture includes work on the reforestation of zones in the Sierras, the study of species most suitable for planting under local conditions, and the determination of the maximum altitude for successful planting of eucalyptus.
About 2 million hectares of the area of 13:1 Salvador; which is approximately 3 million hectares, are covered with forests. The population is about 2 million.
The principal topographical features of the country are level plains near the sea coast varying from 5 to 30 kilometers in width; a chain of volcanic mountains inland stretching from the volcano of San Miguel in the West to the border of Guatemala; and along the border of Honduras, a range of interior mountains and plateaus.
The principal forest species are mahogany, cedar, guaiacum, and rosewood. Oak and pine forests are found in the mountainous regions. There are six electric sawmills in the country, whose daily production amounts to approximately 32 m3. Annual forest outturn is approximately 90,000 m3 and imports are approximately 10,000 m3. The export trade is little developed.
Existing forest legislation is designed primarily to regulate the felling of timber and to assure reforestation and soil conservation. It is the function of the forest bureau dependent on the Ministry of Agriculture to ensure compliance with the law. The National Agricultural Science Center of Santa Tecla is now starting experiments to find species suitable for reforestation of steep slopes which are subject to erosion.
Guiana is administratively a Department of France, with an area of 9 million hectares and a population of about 40,000. Except for a coastal strip, it is almost entirely covered with forests, estimated at 7 million hectares, of which approximately 5 million hectares consist of dense mixed tropical forests.
The greater part of the forest area forms a domain belonging to the State. The growing stock varies widely in composition according to locality. Stands are estimated to include approximately one-third hard species, such as the wacapou, Vouacapoua americana, and balata, and two-thirds soft and semihard species, such as the simaruba and various mahoganies. It is difficult to make an appraisal of the quantity of timber available, but it is estimated that the 500,000 hectares of readily accessible forest could yield, if properly exploited, from 10 to 20 tons of commercial timber per hectare over a rotation of 50 years.
About 100,000 m3 of roundwood, including firewood, are consumed locally every year. Local industries produce approximately 6,500 ma of sawn timber, representing a sawlog volume of 13,000 m3. Between 1,000 m3 and 2,500 m3 of wood, principally sawn timber, are exported annually.
Timber is either pitsawn by hand near creeks or navigable rivers or taken to the four mechanical sawmills located on the Maroni River.
The Forest Service is administered by the Ministry of Overseas Territories. Funds have just been granted for completing the inventory of forest resources and creating a forestry research center, but both these projects are only just beginning.
The main purpose of existing forest regulation is to control fellings and protect the forests against destructive exploitation. The French Forest Code will be applied as soon as it has been adapted to local conditions.
Of the total area of Guatemala (11 million hectares), 7.2 million hectares, representing 66 percent of the land of the country, are forested. The population is approximately 3,570,000.
Although forests are scattered throughout the entire territory, the Province of Peten alone contains half the total wooded area. Only one section of it is being worked, although it contains a considerable quantity of high-quality precious woods.
The Government owns approximately 70 percent of the forests and the remainder are under private ownership. Over the country as a whole, 1945 estimates show that 85 percent of the growing stock was hardwoods and 15 percent was softwoods. The principal species found are: mahogany, Swietenia sp.; guaiacum or lignum vitae; primavera, Tabebuia sp.; balsa, Ochroma sp.; pines, Pinus caribeae and Pinus montezumae; and small quantities of cypress and cedar wood.
The volume of growing stock varies from 90 m3 per hectare, at an altitude of between 760 and 910 meters, to 170 m3 per hectare at between 1,200 and 1,800 meters. In certain regions, the volume reaches 1,100 m3 per hectare.
There are approximately 100 sawmills, 20 of which are modern and well equipped. Although there are no precise statistics for production, 1939 output was estimated at 63,000 m3. In 1944 exports amounted to 1.9 million m3 of hardwoods and 590,000 m3 of softwoods, whereas imports were insignificant.
The Forest Service is a division of the Ministry of Agriculture. Its special function is to issue licenses for forest exploitation and to supervise the 22 nurseries, which furnish 18 million plants annually to the Government and to private owners.
Existing forest legislation sets forth conditions for the exploitation and the sale of forest products and also regulations for reforestation. The Government plans the creation of a forestry school and a research institute in the future.
Haiti, mostly mountainous, covers an area of 2.9 million hectares. Forests amount to approximately 1.7 million hectares, or 59 percent.
The forests may be classified in the following manner, taking into consideration climatic and edaphic conditions:
(1) Dry forest: rainfall from 500 to 700 mm. Species found: lignum vitae, white wood, and Bursera simaruba.(2) Semidry forest: rainfall from 750 to 1,000 mm. Species found: campeche, Haematoxylon campechianum; Guazuma ulmifolia; and mahogany.
(3) Semirain forest: rainfall from 1,000 to 1,500 mm. Species found: mahogany, oak, cedar, and Lysiloma latisliqua.
(4) Rain forest: rainfall exceeds 1,500 mm. Species found: pines and Colubrina ferruginosa.
(5) Mangrove forest.
The greater part of the forested area belongs to the State. Annual production of softwood lumber averages 10,000 m3. In 1945 output of finished mahogany articles, almost all intended for export, amounted to about 200 metric tons. Roundwood exports consist principally of lignum vitae and campeche, total production over the past five years amounting to 4,300 metric tons and 7,800 tons respectively. Over the same period timber imports totalled 2,250 m3.
The Forest Service is a department of the Ministry of Agriculture. A general survey of the forests, which has already extended over a period of three years, expected to be completed in the near future. A course in silviculture is given at the National Agricultural School.
Existing forest legislation is concerned chiefly with control of cutting, which requires prior authorization by a qualified official. Trade and transportation of timber may be carried out only by those with specie licenses.
Mexico's 200 million hectares support a population of about 23 million. The forest area is over 25 million hectares, which, with land not usable for agriculture or grazing, makes up approximately 20 percent of the total land area.
The forests of Mexico have been described botanically but a complete forest survey is still needed. The forest zones consist of: mangrove and palm swamps along the coast; the tropical forests of mahogany, ceiba, chicle, and cedrella, in the southern part of the country; the oak and pine forests in the mountainous areas; cactus and mesquite in the dry areas of the northern part; and the pine, cedar, cypress, and fir forests at the higher altitudes.
Figures are not available on domestic consumption. Production of sawn timber is over 500,000 m3 annually; of hewn timber, over 400,000 m3; of logs, over 250,000 m3; and of fuelwood, over 1 million m3. A large amount of charcoal is also produced. These figures are probably somewhat less than actual production. With an estimated productive capacity of 3 m3 per hectare, which is almost ten times as much as the actual cut, Mexico should be able to increase forest production appreciably.
In 1940 the Mexican Forest Service was placed under the Secretary of Agriculture and was given jurisdiction over community forests, national forests, private forests, nurseries and reforestation, forest fire protection, game management, and law enforcement. At one time 1,500 nurseries were operated by schools to increase the children's interest in forestry. Over 25 national parks have been set aside and are visited by large numbers of tourists.
The current Forest Law provides for large forested areas to be set aside as protection forest in order to guard the watersheds against erosion and to ensure a water supply for irrigation. Some of these protection zones range in size from 20,000 to 200,000 hectares.
The Forest Law also provides for strict control of cutting practices but enforcement presents certain problems. At the present time operators must obtain permission from government authorities to cut for commercial purposes. Forest taxation is based on the yield of products rather than on the area of property held.
The partition of large land holdings and haciendas has resulted in the formation of many community forests. The number of forest co-operatives is growing and this should offer possibilities for more conservation. There has been considerable progress in organizing "Defense Co-operatives" among farmers to combat forest fires.
Training of technical foresters used to be handled in large part by a Forest School at Coyoacan. In recent years, however, Mexican students interested in forestry have had to obtain their professional training in other countries. There is a Ranger School at Tlalpan, near Mexico City, which trains men to serve as Forest Law Enforcement Officers.
Nicaragua's total area of 12 million hectares includes 8.9 million, or 69 percent, of forested land. Its population amounts to approximately 1.1 million. Although a great part of the accessible forests have been exploited, there still remain immense unexploited forest tracts, especially along the Atlantic Coast. Exploitation is centered on the Pacific Coast. The hauling of timber is generally done by cattle or mules over dirt roads. River floating is limited to the rainy season and is not commonly used.
Recent annual lumber production amounts to approximately 100,000 m3, of which about 30,000 are exported. Per caput consumption of lumber is approximately 0.06 m3. The principal species found in the forests are the pochote, Bombax sp., which is in common use, cedar, mahogany, guaiacum, oak, rosewood, and balsa, Ochroma lagopus. At present there are 56 sawmills in the country. Modern equipment will be needed for future development.
A new forest act provides for control of cutting and burning of woodland. It is hoped to offset thereby the effects of the habit of burning over the forest land for cultivation. The country's forest administration is part of the Ministry of Agriculture and Labor.
Of the 7.4 million hectares contained in the Republic of Panama, 5.2 million hectares, or 70 percent, are covered with forests. The population is approximately 688,000.
It is estimated that two-fifths of the forested land is privately owned, although there are no precise statistics on the subject. The forests consist of all the species commonly found in Central America. Annual production amounts to approximately 10,000 m3. Imports, particularly of coniferous woods, amount to 180,000 m3 annually. The creation of a forest service is planned, among other government projects.
The 39 million hectares of land in Paraguay support a population of over 1 million people, of which about two-thirds live within 200 kilometers of the capital city of Asunción. The country is divided by the Paraguay River into the Gran Chaco, a vast alluvial plain covered with grass, palms, open stands of scrub trees, cacti, and swamps, and eastern Paraguay, which is the principal industrialized and populated area where most of the commercial forests are located.
The Chaco's chief product is quebracho for tannin and railroad ties. Rough estimates have been ma-de indicating that at the present rate of exploitation the supply of quebracho from a zone of some 4 million hectares would last for, 100 years. Aside from this, little is known as yet about the forest possibilities of the Chaco.
Eastern Paraguay has an area of 16 million hectares, of which 7.8 million hectares (49 percent) are covered with deciduous hardwoods. The forest area consists of over 5 million hectares of virgin forest, the remainder being cut-over or exploited forest land. Farming is the source of livelihood for about two-two-thirds of the people, and forest products industries, which are second in importance to agriculture, furnish employment for more than 15 percent of the population. Forest products make up over 75 percent of the tonnage and 29 percent of the value of total exports.
About 92 percent of the forests are privately owned, 5 percent government-owned, and 3 percent in national colonies. Over 52 percent of the private ownership is in holdings of more than 25,000 hectares, 20 percent in holdings of 5,000 to 25,000 hectares, and 28 percent in holdings of less than 5,000 hectares.
The forest zones of eastern Paraguay have been divided on the basis of predominance of certain commercially important species:
Northeast - 2.2 million hectares with considerable virgin timber. Palo de rosa, Aspidosperma palorosa, makes up 23 percent of the stands which average 130 trees of all species per hectare with a volume of 130 to 325 m3 per hectare. Cedro, Cedrela fissilis; laurel; Ocotea sp.; and Nectandra sp.; are also important. This zone produces high-grade lumber and logs for export.
Northern - 1.4 million hectares. Trebol, Torresea cearensis, which is very valuable for furniture, and palo de rosa, curupay, Piptadenia spp., lapacho, Tabebuia sp., and cedro are the principal commercial species in this zone. The stands average 120 trees of all species per hectare with an average volume of 120 to 288 m3 per hectare.
Eastern - 2.9 million hectares with a large amount of virgin timber. Cedro; lapacho; petereby, Cordia spp.; and guatambu, Balfourodendron sp.; are important species. The stands average 125 trees of all species per hectare, with an average volume of 63 to 313 m3 per hectare.
Border (resembles Chaco region) - 0.4 million hectares. Quebracho, Schinopsis sp., is the most common species in stands which average 115 trees of all species per hectare, with an average volume of 29 to 172 m3 per hectare.
Southern - 1.7 million hectares. Fuelwood and fenceposts are the chief products of this zone. The stands average 115 trees of all species per hectare with an average volume of 69 to 265 m3 per hectare.
Central - 6.4 million hectares. This is mostly cut-over land but with considerable regeneration, averaging 120 trees of all species per hectare with a volume of 60 to 300 m3 per hectare.
As to volume of timber, it is estimated that of a total of 284 million m3 of standing timber, 246 million are marketable. During 1943/44 annual extraction of export and domestic saw timber was estimated to be 304,000 m3 of which 52,000 m3 were sawn lumber. Other forest products in the same year consisted of almost 17,000 m3 ties, posts, and palm poles; 506,000 m3 fuelwood, and almost 16,000 m3 charcoal.
There are estimated to be 50 small sawmills in eastern Paraguay and perhaps 15 in the Chaco region and in addition between 700 and 900 hand nit saws. All of the mills are steam-powered but none use a circular-head-saw. Daily production will rise as soon as new equipment can be installed. The Paraguayan - U.S.A. co-operative agricultural service (STICA) operates a modern circular semiportable mill with tractor power, to show how lumber production can be improved and increased. A plywood plant is producing rotary veneer for crates and boxes for the meat-packing industry. This plant has the most important dry kiln in Paraguay. The four tannin extraction plants are situated in the northern part of the country.
The domestic market, which is now limited to the Asunción area, could readily be expanded. Argentina is the principal export market.
It is estimated that about 55,000 men are employed directly in the wood-using industries; 1,900 for general labor; 28,000 in logging; 1,500 at sawmills; 4,500 in woodworking installations; 1,800 at pitsaws; and 18,000 in transportation. Training could increase the efficiency of labor with consequent improvement in incomes. Organization of labor unions is increasing.
Issue of cutting and transportation permits is vested in the Department of Lands and Colonization. As yet there is no agency directly responsible for forest exploitation or utilization. The program of STICA is beginning to create interest in tree planting, nurseries, and more careful methods of exploitation and utilization. Private plantations of eucalyptus, araucaria, casuarina, and poplar have been started on a small scale.
Peru has a total area of about 125 million hectares and a population of almost 7.8 million. The country consists of a narrow, dry, coastal plain with mountain valleys which permit some irrigation; a massive cordillera 320 to 400 kilometers wide containing the chief mineral deposits; and the forested Montana which covers over half the country and is made up of the eastern slopes and foothills of the Andes Mountains and the Amazon River lowlands. Total forest area is estimated at 70 million hectares.
The principal forested area is the Amazon Basin covering some 68 million hectares, a very small fraction of which is privately owned, or inhabited. The city of Iquitos is the important lumber and shipping center, with products moving down the Amazon through Brazil to the ocean, and thence through the Panama Canal to the West Coast of Peru. The volume of standing timber is still undetermined but is known to be very great.
Sawmills are very few in number. Lima and other cities depend on lumber yards which resaw imported lumber. There are a number of mahogany and cedar mills in the Iquitos-Pucallpa area in the Amazon Basin. The Corporación de Fomento of Peru is planning the expansion of wood-using industries in this area, as well as in the foothills.
The Forest Service under the Ministry of Agriculture is in the process of building up its staff to permit control of forest exploitation of public lands. The country's forest resources will require the services of a great number of technicians. Until now students interested in forestry have studied abroad. A vocational agricultural training school has been started at Iquitos to help solve the problem of providing food and skilled labor for the wood-using industries in the Amazon Basin.
Adequate forest legislation to guide the development of resources and of their utilization is now being considered. The major problems include the serious need for more railroad and highway construction to connect the West Coast cities with the Amazon Basin, more technicians, modern sawmill and dry kiln equipment, and surveys of the forest resources. The labor supply, especially in the Amazon Valley, is a critical problem and is tied up with the need for food production and medical facilities in that region.
Puerto Rico is an island of nearly 1 million hectares with a population of about 2 million. Thirty percent of the population is urban, and 70 percent rural. Farmland covers 720,000 hectares and forested land over 200,000 hectares.
Ownership of the forested land is divided between insular forests - 18,000 hectares; federal forests, 13,000 hectares; and private forests, 53,000 hectares. In addition there are 6,000 hectares of woodland pasture and 73,000 hectares of coffee plantations, privately owned; and some 37,000 hectares of potential forest land whose use and ownership status is not clearly established.
It has been estimated that forests are being depleted by over 2 million m3 per year. Of this 9,000 m3 are used for lumber; 800,000 m3 for charcoal; 1,400,000 m3 for fuelwood; and 6,000 m3 for miscellaneous agricultural purposes. In contrast the growth is estimated to be only 12,000 m3 of sawlog size and 1,600,000 m3 of all other tree growth, including brush.
Estimates of timber requirements include 2,400,000 m3 for fuelwood or 1.2 m3 per caput per annum; 1,298,000 m3 for public and private housing, schools and public works; 7,000 m3 of imported lumber for sash and door manufacture; over 5,600 m3 for furniture, of which some 1,400 m3 can possibly be produced locally; 2,360 m3, about one-half in the form of shooks, largely from imported material, for boxes and crates; as well as 9,000 m3 for railroad ties, about 5 percent of which can be produced locally; and 2,700 poles from imports.
Most of the locally produced lumber is obtained by handsawing, with only two or three sawmills producing hardwood for furniture. Efforts to expand the wood-using industry include plans for a bigger furniture industry, sawmills, possibly a planing mill, and a central lumber yard. Logging, owing to the topography and the very light cut which is permissible to avoid serious erosion, will probably remain a hand rather than a power operation.
The administrative organization comprises the Insular Forest Service and the Caribbean National Forest of the United States Forest Service, with a joint Chief, who is also Director of the Tropical Forest Experiment Station. In addition, the Puerto-Rican Reconstruction Administration- handles land-use and resettlement projects and the Puerto-Rican Development Company has been set up to handle the expansion of wood-using industries. Research is carried on at the Tropical Forest Experiment Station at Río Piedras in reforestation, silviculture, and forest inventory. The present Director of the Tropical Forest Experiment Station also serves as head of the Forestry Committee of the Caribbean Commission.
No forestry training is provided at the University of Puerto Rico or at the Agricultural College.
Future legislation will have to devise controls of cutting methods and provide for the expansion of the work of the Insular Forest Service.
Surinam's area of 15.5 million hectares supports a population of 200,000. Rivers form the principal means of transportation into the interior. The coastal alluvial strip is the principal inhabited region and cultivated area. Not quite 52,000 hectares are under cultivation. The mountainous area, which is largely unexplored, contains some savannahs which are said to be caused by mankind.
Sixty-eight percent of the country is forested land with an unknown but great volume of timber. The land is held by the Crown, which grants timber-cutting concessions to private operators.
There is no information available on growth or on domestic timber requirements. Local housing construction is mainly of wood. Surinam is beginning to help meet the large demand for logs, plywood, and lumber in the Netherlands.
There are ten sawmills with an annual capacity of 30,000 m3. A modern new sawmill and a plywood plant are being planned. Hand-hewn railroad ties, fuelwood, and charcoal are important products.
The original Forest Administration, formed in 1904, was disbanded in 1925 and reinstated in 1947. It consists of a Conservator, who is a trained forester, under the Ministry of Finance and Commerce, with several assistants. There are also a number of forest guards who are responsible for checking the timber removed from cutting concessions on Crown land.
An aerial forest survey is now in progress and is to be completed within a period of four years. A special study of resources and exploitation possibilities was made in 1947. Between 1900 and 1925 some small plantations were established for experimental purposes. There are no local facilities for training technicians.
The island of Trinidad, with an area of 512,000 hectares, has 300,000 hectares, or 59 percent, of forested land. State forests contain 14,206 hectares which are considered a national domain where no exploitation is allowed. In addition, 23,957 hectares are classified as production reserves and 93,000 as protection reserves. The remainder is classified as productive forest except for approximately 20,000 hectares of marsh and waste regions. The privately owned forests consist, for the most part, of poor quality brushwood of little value.
Transportation of wood is greatly facilitated by a good network of roads. There are 59 sawmills and one match factory. Sawmill equipment is still rather primitive. There are numerous furniture factories and woodworking shops, and much charcoal is produced for local use. The sawmills process 5,500 m3 of various kinds of wood annually. The match factory consumes 2,294 m3. In the State forests 14,000 m3 of unbarked or undressed timber was sawn by hand in 1945. During 1945, also, the State forests produced 20,000 m3 of firewood and 65,000 m3 were processed into charcoal. Production from private forests is negligible.
Timber sold from a forest reserve is measured in Trinidad.
Almost all construction wood produced is used on the spot. Exports are insignificant. On the other hand, imports of softwoods amounted to approximately 1,200,000 m3 in 1945.
The Forest Service forms a part of the British Colonial Forest Service. The establishment of a research division in the Forest Service is planned for the future.
Since the natural forest includes a great variety of species of no commercial value as yet, it has been decided to confine future exploitation to easily accessible plantations, in order to make the island self-sufficient in construction timber.
Uruguay has a population of over 2.2 million people and less than 19 million hectares of rolling land. A third of the population lives in Montevideo, the capital city. There are almost 375,000 hectares of natural forest and over 77,000 hectares of plantations. The principal streams are the Uruguay, Negro, Yi, Santa Lucia, Queguay, and Cebollati Rivers. The highest elevation does not exceed 700 meters above sea level. Transportation facilities, such as roads and railroads, are well developed.
The principal forest activity so far has been the planting of windbreaks, largely eucalyptus, willow, poplar, and Pinus radiata, around farms. Plantings have also been made for local fuelwood and fencepost production. Most of the land yields more from farming than it would from forest production, resulting in a small output of forest products. Uruguay imports almost all of its lumber and fuelwood, Parana pine from Brazil being an important item.
Venezuela, with an area of over 91 million hectares has a population of over 4.4 million. The country consists of the mountainous regions of the Andes and coastal ranges in the Northwest, the Orinoco Basin and llanos in the South, the Guiana highlands in the East, and the coastal plain including the area around Lake Maracaibo.
Over 40 percent of the country is forested, but timber production is still in the early stages of development. Much of the forest in the coastal range of the Andes and around the Maracaibo Basin has been cleared for agriculture, and erosion is a serious problem in these regions. The llanos are treeless except along the rivers. The vast forests south and east of the Orinoco River, in the Amazonas Territory and in the Guiana highlands, are largely unexplored. Most forests are owned by the Government.
There are between 10 and 20 sawmills in the towns of Puerto Cabello, Valencia, Caracas, and Maracaibo. However, most of the timber used in the oil fields and in the construction of the recently established steel industries has been chemically treated southern pine, Pinus palustris, imported from the United States. Local forest products include rubber, balata, tanning material, dye woods, tonka beans, chicle, barbasco root (for insecticides), and cinchona.
The forest administration forms part of the Ministry of Agriculture. Considerable work has been done on the botanical description and classification of forest vegetation. The Forest Department also supervises several forest nurseries for the production of trees on farms and for ornamental purposes in towns. Experimental work has been carried out on methods of handling seeds.
The Corporación de Fomento of Venezuela is planning to obtain technical assistance to make a survey of forest resources and to develop plans for sound forest exploitation. The Venezuela Basic Economy Corporation, a local unit of the International Basic Economy Corporation, seeks to develop local industry and is anxious to co-operate with the Corporación de Fomento in its plans.
Photos accompanying these articles are reproduced by courtesy of the Argentine Embassy, the U. S. Forest Service; Victor Bianchi, Department of Forests, Chile, and Tom Gill.
