SUMMARY
1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE INLAND OPEN WATER FISHERIES OF BANGLADESH
3. FISHERIES POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
4. POLICY CONFLICTS
5. STRATEGIES FOR INLAND FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
6. STOCK ENHANCEMENT SCHEMES - COMPENSATION MEASURES
7. MITIGATION MEASURES
8. RECOMMENDATIONS
9. REFERENCES
by
Md. Liaquat Ali
Director General, Department of Fisheries
and
Keith Fisher
Senior Management Adviser/Team Leader, Third Fisheries Project
This paper describes the resource status, the constraints, the policy implications of management regimes and access arrangements in the open water fishery of Bangladesh. To discern the impact of any strategy on resource values, whether by compensation (stocking) or by mitigation, one must consider the prevailing rural power structure, the socio-economic conditions, the real possibilities of communal/community management and the effect on the sustainability of the fisheries resource.
The paper also discusses the use of a strategy of stock enhancement to compensate for losses in floodplain fish production. Two examples and approaches are considered. The lessons learnt from a technical viewpoint are identified. The results of fisheries studies undertaken as part of the Flood Action Plan (FAP) are also considered. The FAP 17 study examined the impact of Flood Control, Drainage and Irrigation Projects (FCDI) on fisheries and fishing communities. One of the constraints on open water fisheries is the continued expansion of FCD/I schemes. The FAP 17 follow-up project is concerned with mitigation (management and conservation) measures.
The experience gained under these projects shows:
- Production monitoring indicates that stock enhancement can produce economically efficient increases in production. However, the socioeconomic impact results are mixed in the sense that the distribution of the benefits is not equal across the different strata and level of society and community.- Data are required on the cost-benefit of mitigation measures and the distributive efficiency of such measures.
- Resource economics are crucial and over-fishing pressures become greater with environmental interventions, and where the value of the resource is increased by stocking or by mitigation measures.
- Conservation strategies are required to be integrated with management strategies.
- Resource management needs govern the degree of success that can be achieved in terms of equity and poverty alleviation.
- A clear policy and institutional framework is required for effective management of open water fisheries.
- Community-based approaches are more relevant than target group approaches.
In conclusion, this paper has focused mainly on the floodplain fishery of Bangladesh. The FAP 17 study also examined the riverine fisheries in the Jamuna and Padma River systems.
Bangladesh is very rich in inland capture fish production. It has a large number of rivers with extensive floodplains. The total area available for inland fisheries is 4,307,974 hectares, with culture fisheries comprising 260,658 ha (DOF, 1986). The inland capture fishery covers an area of 4,047,316 ha, comprising rivers and estuaries (excluding the Sundarbans) 1,031,563 ha, beels 114,161 ha, Kaptai Lake 68,800 ha and floodplains 2,832,792 ha.
It is estimated that the annual production of fish was about 1,090,610 tonnes in 1993/94 (DOF, 1994), of which inland capture contributed 51 per cent (compared to 60 per cent in 1983-84). Fish production has increased at a rate of 3.4 per cent per year over the period 1983-84 through 1993-94. Growth in the period from 1990-91 to 1993-94 has been estimated at an average of 6.5 per cent per annum by the FRSS (DoF) methodology. However, the increase in fish production is mainly attributable to the rise in production from inland culture fisheries, particularly from pond aquaculture and shrimp farms, and catch from the artisanal marine fishery. On the other hand, the area and production from inland capture fisheries has declined over time. The most recently published production statistics are shown as Table 1.
Table 1: Species group-wise catch in open water fisheries by sector (1993-94)
(Unit: Metric Ton)
|
Species |
River |
Sundarbans |
Beel |
Subsistence |
Kaptai Lake |
Total % of |
Weight |
|
Major Carp |
1,875 |
|
13,203 |
25,169 |
103 |
40,350 |
7.04 |
|
Other Carp |
1,410 |
|
5,198 |
|
181 |
6,789 |
1.18 |
|
Exotic Carp |
- |
|
- |
|
61 |
61 |
0.01 |
|
Cat Fish |
5,347 |
|
16,066 |
5,337 |
315 |
27,065 |
4.72 |
|
Snake Head |
247 |
|
2,891 |
52,972 |
62 |
56,172 |
9.80 |
|
Live Fish |
392 |
|
1,640 |
58,272 |
- |
60,304 |
10,52 |
|
Other Inland Fish |
41,094 |
6,234 |
14,843 |
193,785 |
5,913 |
261,869 |
45.67 |
|
Hilsa/lllish |
70,938 |
432 |
|
|
- |
71,370 |
12.45 |
|
Big Shrimp & Prawn |
738 |
274 |
|
2,885 |
- |
3,897 |
0.68 |
|
Small Shrimp & Prawn |
21,384 |
187 |
1,751 |
22,177 |
- |
45,499 |
7.94 |
|
TOTAL |
143,425 |
7,127 |
55,592 |
360,597 |
6,635 |
573,376 |
100 |
The contribution of fisheries to the economy of Bangladesh is substantial, particularly with reference to food consumption, nutrition, employment and export. It is estimated that the fisheries sector contributes 4.7 per cent of the country's GDP (BBS, 1994), although this figure may not fully reflect fisheries-related activities such as processing, transportation and marketing. The average annual growth rate of the fisheries sectoral GDP was about 6.6 per cent over the period 1984-85 to 1992-93 (BBS, 1994), while growth in agricultural GDP as a whole was only 1.9 per cent during the same period. The fisheries sector also accounts for about 10 per cent of export earnings (EPB, 1994) and employs about 1.3 million people (DOF's own estimates). FAO estimates that there are up to 11 million subsistence fishermen. A significant number of households live on trade and transportation of fish and on manufacturing nets and equipment.
In 1988-89, fish ranked third in terms of expenditure and accounted for nearly 9 per cent of food expenditure in Bangladesh. Fish is extremely important in the local diet and a significant proportion of non-cereal per capita daily average calories intake is contributed by fish in Bangladesh. The real significance of fish consumption lies in its importance as a source of protein in the local diet. The contribution of fish to animal protein intake is 70-80 per cent, and to total protein intake is 12 per cent (BBS, 1994).
In the light of the importance of fish to Bangladesh, any decline in the catch from capture fisheries is cause for serious concern. There is a national need to look at how this decline can be halted or even reversed, considering not only the importance of maintaining fish yields but also the need to provide employment and maintain the incomes of vulnerable social groups.
Situated in the deltaic plain of the three river systems - the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna - Bangladesh has vast inland open waters, rich in fisheries resources. The inland open water is inhabited by 260 species of fish and 25 species of shrimp. Species/group wise catch composition is furnished in Table 1. Historically, inland open waters were the major source of fish production of the country. The inland open water fishery resources contributed about 90 per cent of the country's fish production in the 1960s (DOF's own estimate), but due to man-made causes, such as overfishing in the absence of fisheries management and conservation measures, implementation of flood control and drainage projects, fish production in the inland open water, particularly in the rivers and floodplains, has declined significantly during the last three decades.
The area of floodplains was estimated at 5.5 million ha by MPO for 1958 (MPO, 1985) but the DOF estimates of fish production area in the open water fishery is close to only 3 million ha. The downward trend in the late 1970s saw a 20-25 per cent decrease in the contribution to production from inland open water sources. This contribution to the country's fish production has continued to drop and is about 51 per cent at present (DOF, 1994). Source-wise fish production over the period is shown in Table 1 (DOF, 1994).
This decline has been comparatively high in the case of important and valued fish like major carp (Rui, Catla, Mrigal, etc.). The major carp, which earlier contributed about 30 per cent of the fish production, has now dropped to 5-6 per cent (Tsai and Ali, 1987). The species composition in open water has been out of balance because of the disturbance to natural reproduction of the fish by overfishing and other causes.
In the open water production system, floodplains play an important role in fish production. Floodplains are the low-lying areas which are flooded by rivers and rainwater congestion. About one-third of the total area of Bangladesh is flooded every year and remains under water for 4-6 months. The floodplains, naturally rich in nutrients and fish food, are the feeding and grazing grounds of almost all inland fish, and the breeding grounds of many of the aquatic species. During the flood seasons (June-November), fish and shellfish grow in the floodplains and are harvested by the rural people. When the water recedes, fish accumulate in the deeper part of the floodplains, called beels, or they migrate to rivers which retain water throughout the year. Due to the decline of fish population in inland open water and obstruction in the migration route, recruitment of fish in the floodplains has declined and resources in the floodplains are not fully utilized.
The riverine fish catch was considered by FAP 17 and various management regimes for riverine jalmahals were undertaken by the DoF/ICLARM/Ford Foundation ENIMOF Project. Similarly, FRI has undertaken research activities on the Hilsa fishery.
3.1 Assessment of fisheries policy
3.2 Decline in fish catch
3.3 Over-fishing
3.4 Economic efficiency
The inland open waters, except seasonal floodlands, are owned by Government. Seasonal floodlands comprise large privately owned areas devoted to crop (rice) production. The Government water bodies, particularly the rivers, are divided for management convenience into segments known as jalmohals (fishery/fishing ground). Individual beels (depressions) are also known as jalmohals. There are about 13,000 jalmohals (Land Ministry, 19 -), including closed water bodies like ponds and baors (oxbow-lakes), owned by Government.
Traditionally, the management system of jalmohals has been mostly revenue-oriented, ignoring the biological aspects of fisheries management and the fishing rights of the fisherfolk. Because of this, the fishery has been over-exploited, leading to stock depletion and catch reduction. The fishermen are exploited by leaseholders and moneylenders and do not get their share of benefits from the fishery. In order to ensure the biological management of the fishery and to protect the interest of the poor fishing community from these exploitative influences, the New Fisheries Management Policy (NFMP) was introduced on an experimental basis in 1986 to cover ten jalmohals. Under the NFMP system, the leasing system was abolished and fishing rights were directly licensed to fishermen. Subsequently, 257 jalmohals were brought under this system. NFMP has generated some tangible benefits, but problems in organisation, management and logistics remain. Community development is also required.
The historical perspective of fisheries management has been concerned only with the jalmohals. The jalmohals were originally operated by landlords (zamindars). The management of the jalmohals was taken up by the Government after the abolition of the zamindari system in 1951. This responsibility was transferred to the Department of Fisheries during the early 1980s, but reverted back to the Ministry of Land soon after.
The auction system, which sells off annual use-rights for fishing grounds, is a major component of fisheries management in Bangladesh. It was largely the responsibility of the Ministry of Land, which is seen as consistent with the revenue collection function of that Ministry. Current leasing policy requires that Fishermen's Associations or Cooperatives should receive priority in the allocation of use-rights at auctions. However, the intention of this instruction founders on two grounds. First, Fishermen's Associations are often fake - little more than a list of names provided by a powerful individual. Second, the recent changes in the system, from open bids to sealed bids, makes the monitoring of prioritisation of Fishermen's Associations impossible.
The NFMP was perceived as a way to:
- Prevent the exploitation of genuine fishermen by leaseholders;
- Provide the ability to manage the resource more effectively;
- Provide for more control on degradation of the fishery;
- Provide for improvement of the socioeconomic status of genuine fishermen;
- Provide access to institutional credit for genuine fishermen; and
- Provide secure property rights for genuine fishermen.
Shortcomings in the NFMP remain, but, in many cases, the following are problems that also exist in the leasing system:
- The need to provide accurate lists of genuine fishermen;
- The need to provide fisheries surveillance;
- The need for accurate information on fish catches;
- The need to control effort and apply fish conservation measures;
- The lack of DoF resources to undertake fee collection;
- The problems of securing institutional credit and access to markets; and
- The conferring of secure property rights on one group which could lead to displacement of other fishermen and conflicts.
A recent development in the leasing system has been a decision by the government to extend the current 1-3 year period to 7-8 years. The reasoning behind this is that it will encourage the lessees to conserve the fish stock and invest in improvements. The longer leases will only be given to lessees who have had their development plans approved by the Department of Fisheries.
Pursuant to the announcement by the Prime Minister during the 1995 Fish Fortnight that the lease system for open waters had been withdrawn, the Ministry of Land issued an order. This order does not address the implications for fisheries management and ignores the NFMP. The sustainable management of the fishery is concerned with rational exploitation and the control of the number of fishing units/effort. The order does not recognise this.
The Department of Fisheries is responsible for the fishing restriction policy. The stocking is mainly of carp. There are a number of fishing restrictions in force, based on the Fish Act 1950 (Amendment 1985):
- Mesh size restriction. Gillnets made of monofilament twine of 4.5 cm or less (stretched diagonal) are prohibited.- Fish size restrictions on capture: Major carp/Hilsa less than 23 cm long cannot be caught. Nor can catfish of less than 30 cm.
- Fishing by dewatering of land is prohibited.
- Fishing by using explosives and fixed engines is prohibited.
These regulations are seldom fully enforced, partly because of a lack of resources and partly because of opposition from local people. The enforcement of the gillnet ban early in the season has been increased recently, stimulated by a wish to protect the stocked carp.
Inland fisheries management is also under-resourced in relation to the scale of the management task which the Department of Fisheries sets itself. Too few staff are expected to carry out too many tasks.
Inland capture fisheries can be of considerable importance for a variety of reasons, not least being the value of their product and their economic value to the population dependent upon their exploitation. Over the last decade, recognition of this has led governments to reconsider their policies towards inland fisheries and to experiment with management regimes.
Policy can be defined as the collection of decisions which sets out the general aims and objectives of the governing body with respect to inland fisheries. It provides a context within which more detailed decisions about organisation, resource allocation, procedures, etc. should be made.
Management regime is the set of arrangements and procedures which are established to govern the fishery, so that policy objectives may be secured.
The main conflict between the concepts is confused by such management objectives as:
Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) - the maximum quantity of fish which could be theoretically extracted from a given biomass indefinitely;
Maximum Economic Yield (MEY) - the volume of landings which could produce the highest value added of the sector in the long term; and
Maximum Social Yield (MScY) - the production level which would maximize the social value of factors like income distribution, employment, etc.
The double objectives of maximizing production and poverty alleviation with equity should be examined against this framework. The purpose of fishing could be described by fishermen as the need to make as decent a living as possible. The objective of the Government is to manage the resource efficiently in order to provide the highest level of well-being, including that which must be set aside for economic growth (enhancement of well-being in the future). Examples that illustrate the categorization of different policy goals are:
|
Social/Economic Policy |
Biological Management |
|
Maximum contribution to national economic growth |
Increase the physical productivity of the fishery |
|
Maximize employment in the fishery |
Make fishery biologically sustainable |
|
Increase government revenues (through licenses or leasing) |
Change the composition of species (to improve quality of the fishery) |
|
Increase the incomes of fishing households |
Conserve particular species |
|
Assist fishing households |
Improve the quality of existing species |
|
Promote community development |
Maintain biodiversity |
The two categories of policy are linked. Action taken in pursuit of a goal under one policy can have an effect on the ability to achieve goals under the other policy. Therefore, it is possible for policy to set objectives under each heading which are incompatible.
Fisheries policy consists of both social and biological dimensions, so a comprehensive assessment of policy and management options requires inputs from both the social and biological sciences.
Changes in the annual catch in a fishery may be random, due to specific circumstances, or systematic, because of progressive, long-term changes in the fishery. Without catch data over a period of at least ten years, it is difficult to determine the cause.
There are two general reasons why yields might be falling:
- Environmental degradation; and
- Over-fishing.
Common forms of environmental change which have an impact on a fishery include:
|
- Pollution |
from agriculture, or from industrial or residential areas, which affects water quality. |
|
- The extraction of water |
for agricultural, domestic, or industrial use. |
|
- Flood control measures |
where infrastructure may decrease flooded areas and disrupt fish migration patterns. |
|
- Siltation |
where reduced water flows allow the build-up of silt. |
A high amount of fishing effort in an inland fishery can cause 'biological over-fishing'. However, while fisheries officers are trained to consider biological over-fishing as the main obstacle to the development of tropical inland fisheries, the ability to identify effective policy depends upon a more detailed understanding of the nature of biological over-fishing in these fisheries. The conventional wisdom is that there is a relationship between the effort and catch in a fishery, which serves to define a maximum sustainable yield (biological).
If the intention of policy is to increase the contribution of the fishery to national economic growth, then it is important to assess whether the fishery is being exploited efficiently. In this analysis the biology of the fishery and economics can be brought together, by considering the relationship between catch-effort data and cost and price data. Economic efficiency needs to be examined in terms of static, dynamic and distributional aspects.
Inland capture fisheries policy in Bangladesh is the subject of considerable debate, reflecting the great importance of these fisheries. There are three concerns that can be identified.
Over-fishing. The fisheries are seen to be at risk from over-fishing. This is a natural inference from the reduction in total catches when there is no sign of reduced fishing effort. In addition, there is particular concern that the stock of large fish has been depleted. The Department of Fisheries has two approaches (stocking and conservation) and these two approaches are interrelated; the stocking of carp increases arguments to reduce early season fishing, in order to let more of the carp grow to a reasonable size before capture.
Environmental degradation. The major environmental threat to the capture fisheries is thought to be the river defenses that are part of flood control efforts. These defenses can interfere with the movement of migratory fish, and may prevent them reaching their breeding grounds. The loss of fish habitat due to siltation is common and is a natural threat to the open water fishery in Bangladesh. An additional impact of siltation is to increase the conversion of land to agricultural use.
Poverty and employment effects. Many of the policy issues in Bangladesh are concerned with distributional efficiency. Both the Department of Fisheries and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) indicate that they want to increase the share of the catch that goes to real fishermen. They see this as complementing their conservation efforts, as they regard poverty as a major cause of over-fishing. They see the leasing system as contributing to the poverty of fishermen and favour the elimination of middlemen in the leasing system. It is this that underlies their support for the NFMP, which limits licensing of water bodies to groups of "genuine fishermen".
The response to the continuous decline in the catch in open water fisheries has resulted in a number of development strategies.
There are three main strategies:
- Stock enhancement schemes.- Improvement of fish habitats, fish migration routes in FCDI schemes and re-excavation of siltation.
- Biological management, including the enforcement of conservation measures, establishment of fish sanctuaries, and rational exploitation.
6.1 Approaches and methodology
6.2 Case study of Chanda Beel
6.3 Stocking programme under the second aquaculture development project
6.4 Impact of floodplain stocking
6.1.1 Stocking Programmes under the Third Fisheries Project
6.1.2 Technical assumptions
6.1.3 Socio-Economic Assumptions
6.1.4 Institutional assumptions
6.1.5 Research
6.1.6 Monitoring and impact assessment
6.1.7 Protection and conservation of the stocked fingerlings
6.1.8 Results
The objective of the stocking programmes is to develop a long-term strategy for enhancement of floodplain fisheries through adoption and application of a culture-based stocking scheme. The technical basis of the programme rests on proper utilization of the under-utilized nutrients and fish food produced in the floodplains during the flood season. Nutrient-rich river water, which spreads across the deltaic plains, is further enhanced by the soil fertility of the plains, optimal temperatures and intensive light radiation, and produces areas of water with a high level of biological productivity. Floodplains are, therefore, most suitable for breeding, nurturing and growing the fish which migrate into and out of the plain with rising and falling floods. A planned and systematic programme of stocking with suitable fish species in an appropriate balance, in order to utilize the underutilized nutrient and food in the floodplains during the flood season (June-November) would also enhance catches in rivers and other permanent waterbodies. This intervention, if properly applied, is expected to result in an incremental yield of 300kg/ha in the major floodplains and 700 kg/ha in minor floodplains against the present low level of productions of 70-100 kg/ha.
Two important assumptions are that:
- There are ecological niches that are under-exploited; and
- Stock enhancement will not adversely affect biodiversity.
Based on this rationale, the Government has taken up a programme of floodplain stocking under donor funded projects (the Third Fisheries Project -IDA/UNDP/ODA and the Second Aquaculture Project of ADB) as well as using Government resources.
The project focussed on Western Bangladesh and proposed the stocking of floodplains in Khulna Division, Rajshahi Division and greater Faridpur (Dhaka Division). The programme planned to stock 100,000 ha by 1996. The major depression in Khulna-Narail, Gopalganj-Madaripur and Chalan Beel of Rajshahi-Pabna regions would be stocked in phases with 6-16 cm fingerling of major carps at a stocking density of 20-30 kg/ha, starting with 29,000 ha in 1992. With the stocking of the 100,000 ha floodplain a total incremental production of 30,000 m ton fish would be obtained at 300 kg/ha, it was intended.
A pilot stocking programme was initiated in 1991 in two minor floodplains, Garalia Beel in Jessore district and Hilna Beel in Naogaon District. The encouraging results of this programme provided guidelines in respect of species composition for the major stocking programme to be started in 1992. In 1992, three major floodplains, the BSKB Beel (a poldered area of 13,000 ha, of which effective stocking area is 6,000 ha) in the Khulna Narail-region, Chanda Beel (an open system of 6000 ha) in Gopalganj and Halti Beel (a semi-closed area of 10,000 ha) in the Rajshahi-Natore region were stocked with carp fingerlings. The 1992 stocking results provided valuable technical information for improved stocking of the floodplains in 1993. Figure 1 shows the location of the project floodplains.
* The project initially stocked a number of floodplains that were earmarked during appraisal for stock-enhancement. These floodplains were found to be significantly different in their hydrological, biological and physical characteristics. The BSKB 'floodplain' was within a totally empoldered Flood Control Drainage and Irrigation Project (FCD/I). Halti Beel was partly empoldered. And Chanda Beel was an open floodplain that most nearly equated to the traditional terrain.* The species mix was based on the stocking composition found to be most effective under the Baor Project. However, this concept was markedly different from TFP; the baors are relatively small, totally enclosed areas of water that are likely to respond to an aquaculturally-based re-stocking programme. The physical, biological and hydrological characteristics are significantly different.
* The lack of detailed observations on the floodplains led to an assumption on the areas of inundation that would prevail. In fact, rainfall levels impact significantly on the areas of inundations for the open and semi-open system. This in turn leads to the concept of the area inundated that is suitable for the growth of stocked species.
* Production estimates were based on a 12 per cent retrieval rate and an overall incremental yield of 300 kg/ha.
* No impact on bio-diversity
* Baseline data on gear selectivity and fish food availability/limnology would be generated by a research component operated by the Fisheries Research Institute (FRI).
* Fingerlings would escape from the floodplains.
The assumption being that ecological niches exist in the floodplains, caused by various interventions and activities. The technical process of stock enhancement would lead to increased incomes for fishermen. Changes in fishery ecology would induce changes in income distribution and assist in poverty alleviation. Restocking will compensate for a reduction of fish habitats and the decrease of fish habitats will not affect the rate of growth of stocked species. The assumption of declining catches of Indian major carp in floodplains is reflected in the work of Tsai and Ali (1985). They examined catch composition data from 1967 to 1984 in beels in the Sylhet-Mymensingh basin and found that the contribution of major Carps declined from 67 per cent (1967) to 50 per cent(1973) to 4 per cent (1984).
Figure 1. Beels stocked in Third Fisheries Project
* Stock enhancement would improve the incomes of fishermen in the floodplain area.* The project would support poverty alleviation and achieve equity objectives in the floodplain community.
* The floodplain stocking component would allow genuine fishermen greater access.
* The system of leasing would be gradually replaced by a licensing system under the NFMP.* The private sector nursery operators would provide incremental production of fingerlings.
* The private sector contractors, with administrative and financial skills, would organize nursery operators.
* In the formative years, the DoF would require assistance in certifying of fish delivered. Ultimately, the DoF would have a capability to manage a large-scale stocking programme.
* The Fish Act would be applied to control the early catching of stocked fingerlings.
A research programme was conducted on water quality, fish food, gear selectivity and disease in the three major floodplains (BSKB, Chanda and Halti) to suggest appropriate species composition, stocking density and suitable gear for harvesting the fish.
The limnological and biological parameters studied in the three major floodplains were temperature, pH, DO2 and plankton. For study on gear selectivity and growth of stocked carp, length-weight data and species-wise, catch along with particulars of different gears were collected. Occurrence of fish disease in different beels was recorded and diseases were identified.
In order to assess the impact of the stocking programme on fish production, biodiversity, and socio-economic condition of the fishing community, an intensive fish production monitoring programme and socio-economic study were undertaken in three major floodplains by engaging a local consulting firm, BCAS. In the minor floodplains, the monitoring programme was undertaken by DoF personnel.
The production monitoring programme required a frame and benchmark survey before stocking and a continuous collection of catch data based on statistical sampling technique for estimating of fish production by species and gear and by month. A socio-economic study was undertaken before stocking in 1991 to obtain benchmark information. The study was repeated in March-June 94.
Table 2: Quantity of fish stocked (kg) and harvested in TFP project
|
Species |
BSKB |
CHANDI |
HALTI |
HILNA |
GARALIA |
||||||||||||||
|
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1991 |
1993 |
1994 |
||
|
Rul |
Stocked |
|
34,018 |
36,333 |
30,041 |
|
20,134 |
27,234 |
29,702 |
|
26,970 |
29,183 |
8,285 |
3,421 |
6,741 |
9,664 |
7,881 |
9,100 |
9,600 |
|
Harvested |
21,741 |
66,809 |
392,518 |
8,530 |
26,422 |
61,689 |
187,971 |
80,481 |
30,395 |
15,338 |
105,952 |
|
|
79,114 |
14,159 |
|
129,746 |
82,014 |
|
|
Cotla |
Stocked |
|
21,110 |
24,180 |
25,001 |
|
12,242 |
18,957 |
27,555 |
|
17,852 |
52,362 |
4,673 |
4,290 |
8,457 |
11,503 |
4,000 |
6,100 |
7,487 |
|
Harvested |
12,002 |
43,761 |
148,517 |
5,720 |
10,425 |
34,647 |
81,650 |
56,120 |
10,970 |
19,330 |
174,443 |
|
|
07,757 |
44,209 |
|
35,047 |
42,000 |
|
|
Silver |
Stocked |
|
66,402 |
18,400 |
7,272 |
|
30,327 |
5,170 |
|
|
51,840 |
30,539 |
15,055 |
5,081 |
5,367 |
|
18,704 |
4,479 |
1,500 |
|
Harvested |
19,838 |
20,030 |
28,120 |
2,657 |
|
2,387 |
7,693 |
2,956 |
34,307 |
50,009 |
5,883 |
|
|
8,912 |
83 |
|
6,200 |
21,000 |
|
|
Mrigal |
Stocked |
|
17,851 |
18,136 |
13,437 |
|
11,306 |
14,415 |
10,568 |
21,122 |
27,998 |
4,587 |
5,191 |
5,367 |
1,898 |
3,937 |
4,600 |
4,500 |
|
|
Harvested |
1,476 |
17,036 |
94,883 |
998 |
|
33,954 |
32,301 |
7,700 |
9,888 |
10,977 |
59,861 |
|
|
88,737 |
3,873 |
|
100,989 |
59,076 |
|
|
Common |
Stocked |
|
7,475 |
14,802 |
17,744 |
|
5,142 |
5,770 |
15,080 |
|
54,474 |
27,082 |
1,801 |
276 |
1,809 |
91,098 |
3,517 |
3,420 |
4,497 |
|
Harvested |
0 |
10,824 |
138,481 |
14,350 |
33 |
80,153 |
413,451 |
399,861 |
2,119 |
19,421 |
232,285 |
|
|
46,046 |
89,416 |
|
94,398 |
54,534 |
|
|
Sarputi |
Stocked |
0 |
0 |
5,389 |
6,465 |
0 |
0 |
694 |
5,711 |
|
|
2,437 |
0 |
291 |
1,487 |
3,305 |
0 |
1,429 |
2,416 |
|
Harvested |
0 |
0 |
11,932 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
3,806 |
20,807 |
|
|
19,176 |
0 |
0 |
17,593 |
27,250 |
|
3,074 |
10,872 |
|
|
Karbau |
Stocked |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
718 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Harvested |
0 |
0 |
2,745 |
5,137 |
0 |
0 |
1,395 |
26,381 |
1,256 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
1,754 |
1,907 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
|
Bighead |
Stocked |
0 |
3,970 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
4,250 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
6,396 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
Harvested |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
|
Total |
Stocked |
|
150,832 |
117,299 |
99,900 |
0 |
83,401 |
72,246 |
80,333 |
21,122 |
185,530 |
146,196 |
35,005 |
18,726 |
25,818 |
119,807 |
38,702 |
29,029 |
25,500 |
|
Harvested |
55,747 |
159,110 |
817,196 |
37,404 |
36,880 |
214,225 |
753,256 |
569,181 |
87,688 |
115,375 |
597,600 |
0 |
0: |
349,913 |
180,897 |
0 |
369,460 |
270,852 |
|
The most important issue after stocking is to protect the fingerlings from being harvested before they attain legal size for capture. According to the Fish Protection and Conservation Act 1950, catching of major carp below 23 cm (9") is prohibited and punishable. Enforcement of the Fish Act is very difficult in circumstances where there is great demand for fish and the fishing community is very poor. There are also limitations of manpower and logistics in enforcing the law properly. However, special attention was paid to protect the fingerlings stocked under this programme. NGOs were engaged in a section of BSKB and Halti beel to organize the fishermen and motivate them on conserving the stocked fish. This experimental NGO intervention proved to be successful in restraining the fishing community from catching undersized carp.
In 1992, the production was insignificant because of a severe drought and late flooding (Tables 2 and 3). Such droughts occur once in twenty years. In 1993-94, the production improved in all the stocking areas. In 1993, incremental production of stocked species was 150 kg/ha in Chanda, 118 kg/ha in BSKB, 57 kg/ha in Halti, 243 kg/ha in Garalia and 150 kg/ha in Hilna. The escape of fingerlings from the beel has not been considered in estimating the production. In other words, production (catch) of stocked species varied in different beels from 3 to 12 times the stocked quantity.
Table 3: Species composition (%) of fingerlings stocked in different beels in different years
|
Spcies |
Year |
|||||||||||||||||||
|
92 |
93 |
94 |
92 |
93 |
94 |
92 |
93 |
91 |
92 |
93 |
94 |
91 |
92 |
93 |
94 |
94 |
94 |
94 |
94 |
|
|
Rui |
20 |
30 |
30 |
20 |
28 |
30 |
20 |
20 |
20 |
|
30 |
32 |
20 |
20 |
20 |
25 |
25 |
30 |
20 |
|
|
Catla |
15 |
20 |
25 |
15 |
30 |
30 |
15 |
30 |
10 |
|
20 |
25 |
10 |
33 |
30 |
30 |
30 |
30 |
30 |
|
|
Mrigal |
10 |
15 |
12 |
10 |
15 |
11 |
10 |
15 |
10 |
|
15 |
15 |
10 |
15 |
15 |
5 |
9 |
10 |
10 |
|
|
S.CARP |
40 |
15 |
5 |
40 |
5 |
0 |
40 |
15 |
50 |
|
15 |
5 |
50 |
15 |
15 |
0 |
30 |
5 |
5 |
|
|
C.CARP |
10 |
15 |
20 |
10 |
20 |
20 |
10 |
15 |
10 |
|
15 |
15 |
10 |
15 |
15 |
30 |
5 |
20 |
25 |
|
|
Sarputi |
|
5 |
8 |
|
|
8 |
|
5 |
|
|
5 |
8 |
|
3 |
5 |
10 |
|
5 |
10 |
|
|
Karbau |
|
|
|
|
2 |
1 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Bighead |
5 |
|
|
5 |
|
|
5 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The stocking programme has been found economically viable in all beels except Halti, with Economic Rates of Return varying from 12 per cent to 70 per cent. Project Performance Indicators show a 10-11 fold increase in production of stocked species and a 12 per cent retrieval rate by numbers of fish captured to fish stocked. This would give an initial incremental production of 220 kg/ha. Stocking densities are planned to rise to reach the final target of incremental production, 300 kg/ha.
The summary results for 1993-94 are:
|
Beel |
Stocked Quantity (t) |
Production of Stocked Species (t) |
|
BSKB* |
119 |
713 |
|
Halti |
177 |
570 |
|
Chanda |
77 |
741 |
|
Garalia |
29.7 |
365 |
|
|
|
(to December 1993) |
|
|
|
309 |
|
|
|
(to Jan/Feb.1994) |
|
Number (Dec. 1993) |
xlncrease |
Retrieval % |
|
BSKB |
x 6 |
13.4 |
|
Halti |
x 3 |
9 |
|
Chanda |
x 9.6 |
7.5 |
|
Garalia |
x 12.3 |
NA (33.5 1991-92) |
|
Hilna |
x 10 |
21 (to Jan./Feb. 1994) |
*BSKB: Barnal Salimpur Kola Basukhali
In general, the only species to achieve the target weight at capture has been the common carp, with the next best performing species being catla.
6.2.1 Socio-economic indicators
6.2.2 Impact of stocking programme
Chanda Beel, in terms of conventional economic appraisal, has achieved an economic rate of return of 29 per cent.
The breakdown of fishermen categories is:
|
Full-time fishermen: |
8 per cent of total population |
|
Occasional/Subsistence fishermen: |
16 per cent of total population |
|
'Non-fishing': |
76 per cent of total population |
|
Total population: |
~ 32,000 |
|
Total households: |
6,846 |
The costs of leases have varied as follows:
|
1991-92 |
Tk 114,900 |
|
1992-93 |
Tk 365,200 |
|
1993-94 |
Tk 172,544 |
|
1994-95 |
Tk 446,377 |
The term 'non-fishing' household is not applicable under stock enhancement, for every household has a potential for involvement in fishing on an occasional basis.
The share of stocked fish being taken by gear or type of fishermen has been dynamic. The dynamics of the situation, with stocking likely to influence changes in categories, and gear ownership not reflecting strict categorisation (e.g., part-time and full time fishermen may operate cast nets) act against simple classification.
The DOF applied strict conservation measures in 1992-93 in Chanda Beel, although there appeared to be a far greater impact on the intensity of fishing by full- and part-time fishermen. In terms of changes, pre- and post-stocking in CPUE by individual gear in Chanda Beel, the only gear with a reduced CPUE for all species are bamboo traps. In terms of fishing intensity, the only reduction is for gill-nets.
FISH CONSUMPTION STUDIES
Per capita consumption of fish has increased in the post-intervention period compared to before the intervention (DOF, 1995). In Chanda Beel the increase has been 191 per cent, from 5.36 g to 15.61 g. Adequate data was not collected of stocked species, but the general trend was increases of between 300 and 165 per cent in consumption of the indigenous species sampled (Koi, Taki, Magur). One species, Singi, showed a decline (20 per cent).
Before stocking, the mean fish consumption in fishing households was 0.268 kg/h hold/day. This increased to 0.440 kg/HH/day after stocking (+27 per cent). In non-fishing households, pre-stocking consumption was 0.130 kg/HH/day; post-stocking was reduced by approximately 8 per cent, to 0.120 kg/HH/day. Household fish consumption was maximum in December for fishing households both in the pre-and post-stocking periods. The maximum period of consumption by non-fishing households shifted from August (pre-stocking) to December (post-stocking). Fish consumption was at a minimum for all households in April.
In addition, the harvesting of kuas also influences the period. A period of maximum fish consumption in Chanda in February (post-stocking) may be consistent with this.
The general trend would appear to be:
- Increased fish consumption, comparing pre- and post- project intervention.- The fishing households appear to have gained in fish consumption terms.
- The minimum quantity of fish available has increased with stocking; levels of fish consumption have increased in the post-project period and for a longer period i.e. increased fish consumption for a longer period.
Table 4: Per cent Distribution by Annual Income from Fishing by Fishing Strata Professional (PF) and Non-professional (NPF) in Chanda
|
Pre-lntervention |
|
|
|
Income Band (Tk) |
PF (%) |
NPF (%) |
|
0 - 2000 |
10 |
21 |
|
2001 - 10,000 |
20 |
56 |
|
10,001 + |
70 |
23 |
|
Post-lntervention |
|
|
|
0 - 2000 |
18 |
22 |
|
2001 - 10,000 |
27 |
58 |
|
10,001 + |
55 |
20 |
Table 5: Investment in Land Assets by Fishing Strata (per cent Distribution by land values) in Chanda.
|
(in Taka) |
Before intervention |
After intervention |
||||
|
PF N=11 |
NPF N=295 |
NF N=90 |
PF N=11 |
NPF N=295 |
NF N=90 |
|
|
0-10,000 |
18.2 |
13.8 |
17.7 |
9.1 |
11.4 |
9.18 |
|
10,001-20,0000 |
9.1 |
13.9 |
16.7 |
18.2 |
13.2 |
16.7 |
|
20,001-30,000 |
18.2 |
13.9 |
12.2 |
9.1 |
13.9 |
12.2 |
|
30,001-50,000 |
18.2 |
23.7 |
18.9 |
18.2 |
23.4 |
18.9 |
|
50,001-75,000 |
- |
15.6 |
8.9 |
-- |
15.9 |
7.8 |
|
75,001 + |
36.4 |
19.3 |
25.6 |
45.5 |
21.7 |
25.6 |
|
Total |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
NF=Non-fishermen
In Chanda, the trend for professional fishermen would appear to be upwards. The trend for non-professional and non-fishing households would appear to be more ambiguous.
Table 6: Per cent distribution of fishing equipment (owned by fishing strata) in Chanda
|
(in Taka) |
Before intervention |
After intervention |
||||
|
PF N=11 |
NPF N=295 |
NF N=90 |
PF N=11 |
NPF N=295 |
NF N=90 |
|
|
0-500 |
9.2 |
23.8 |
51.1 |
- |
25.8 |
50.0 |
|
501-2000 |
35.4 |
0.2 |
31.1 |
36.4 |
43.1 |
30.0 |
|
2001-5000 |
18.2 |
19.7 |
13.3 |
27.3 |
25.1 |
13.3 |
|
5001 + |
36.4 |
6.4 |
4.4 |
36.4 |
6.1 |
6.7 |
|
Total |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
The data presented represents the socio-economic and production monitoring. The results seem to provide conflicting signals. The general indication is that fishermen incomes, fish consumption and asset ownership have increased. However, the distributive efficiency cannot be fully identified.
Under the Second Aquaculture Development Project, the depression and floodplains in the Northeast Region (Sylhet-Mymensingh Basin) of Bangladesh would be stocked with hatchery-spawned fry in April-May. Three-to-five-day-old hatchery-produced carp fry would be stocked at 500,000 per ha in a low-dyked nursery pond. The pond is prepared in the beels for raising 3"-4"-sized fingerling, by using toxicants to remove the predators. The dykes around the beel/pond nursery are so constructed that the fry are raised to the desired size before they are inundated during the rainy seasons and the fingerlings automatically dispersed in the open water of the floodplains. Starting with the development of a 200 ha nursery area in the first year, a 1600 ha beel nursery would be developed by the fifth year of the project. It has been expected that at least 5 per cent of the hatchling stocked would survive to an average harvestable size of 330 g. Thus, by stocking 880 million hatchlings in the fifth year of the project, an incremental yield of 13,000 t fish would be produced.
This programme was initiated during 1991-92 when a 277 ha nursery was stocked with 89 million carp hatchlings (rui, catla, mrigal, silver carp, grass carp, common carp).
Subsequently, 79 ha and 578 ha beel nurseries were stocked with 27.6 million and 237 million hatchlings during 1992-93 and 1993-94. The fingerling raising system is the same as practised in pond nurseries. Survival rate of fry in the nursery before dispersal (or when attaining 4-8"-size), as estimated by sampling, varied beel-wise, from 20 to 30 per cent of the stocked hatchling. The per ha production of fingerling was estimated by sampling to be 95,000.
In addition to the beel nursing concept of stocking under the project, a programme of stocking in the light of Third Fisheries stocking concept was also undertaken in Hail Haor (8000 ha) and Kao Dighi (60 ha) in Moulavibazar District and Kuri beel (80 ha) in Sunamgonj District during 1991-94.
The stocking programme is an efficient and appropriate approach to managing fisheries resources for increasing production when the stock is overfished and the aquatic niche is underutilized. But it is a very difficult and costly approach. In the context of the present fisheries situation in Bangladesh, this approach to resources management may be suitable. However, the biological management of the natural stock in inland open water should be given due consideration along with increasing fish production.
Carp hatchlings harvested from natural sources are less now due to sufficient production of carp fry in hatcheries. The volume of fry production from natural sources is most probably not enough to sustain the natural stocking of carp to such an extent as to give the maximum sustainable yield. However, to supplement aquaculture and to maintain a good brood stock for induced spawning of major carp, hatchlings from natural water are necessary. The survival rate of fry in nature is also much lower compared to when they are collected and reared in nursery ponds. The collection of carp hatchlings from natural water should, therefore, be discouraged, except for the purpose of maintaining a brood stock for induced spawning.
Two different open-water stocking approaches are adopted in Bangladesh. First, under the Third Fisheries Project, fingerlings reared in nursery ponds are transported to stocking sites and stocked in the open water. Second, under the Second Aquaculture Development Project, 4-5-day old hatchery-produced hatchlings are stocked in a low dyked nursery prepared in beels (after removing predators by using toxicants) and are allowed to grow to fingerling size when they automatically get dispersed in the open water during inundation of the nursery. Both approaches are very difficult but may be effective. However, the approach adopted under the Third Fisheries Project is costlier, lengthy and management-oriented. However, it creates more employment for the rural people. On the other hand, the approach adopted under the Second Aquaculture Development Project is less expensive but it involves more risk, because of the possibility of sudden flash floods. Besides, it might have a negative impact on the biodiversity to some extent.
The lessons learnt from TFP are:
- The questions of access and participation in the fishery are crucial.- Effort control, privatization or establishment of secure property rights may not automatically result in effective conservation.
- There are initial indicators of significant overfishing pressure.
- Community intervention/management may not be universally applicable. Informal management tends towards formal management as soon as the value of the resource is recognised.
- An experimental programme on the technical success of stocking is required to be supported by various attempts at social intervention to achieve equity.
- The institutional/policy framework is crucial to questions of equity and sustainability.
- Motivational control of gear usage and closed seasons do not work in large project impact areas. Regulation is required. The shifting of the period of high fishing intensity for a few months creates short-term problems for fishermen incomes, but the longer term rewards are evident in terms of improved catches later.
- Management of the programme is easier in smaller floodplains from the point of view of biological production monitoring and the prospects for community management.
- It is by no means certain that poverty alleviation and equity objectives can be achieved without institutional/cultural change.
- The unplanned response has been an increase in groups of fishermen who want to undertake private stocking of small floodplains.
- Where equity does not inherently exist, it is difficult to impose it. The overall tendency is for fishermen's groups to seek to achieve a monopoly.
- The theory that the enhanced fishery is valued and cost recovery is built into the system is related to scale. The private sector will stock smaller floodplains (see above), if they can secure, enforce and exclude others from the fishery. Cost recovery becomes credit recovery for these fishermen groups.
There is a need to develop an understanding of the following aspects:
- A sound knowledge base of the social interactions in the fishing community.- Sensitive management approaches to possible community management initiatives.
- The institutional constraints.
- The fishery - in terms of current fishing levels, recruitment, species and gear interactions, gear ownership and usage patterns within the community.
- The implications of any control of effort and whether they are manageable.
The concept of mutual co-existence under any scheme that increases the value of the resource may be misguided.
The impact of stocking open water through the beel nursery concept under the Second Aquaculture Development Project could not be directly assessed, as monitoring of production was not initiated early in the project. However, an overall increase in carp production in the area was a trend observed. Stocking of carp fingerlings in Hail Haor has, of course, shown a positive impact on the carp production in the haor itself. The positive impact in production terms has been identified through market surveys.
7.1 The FAP 17 Phase 1 study
7.2 Objectives of flood control
All FAP regional studies included an examination of the impact on fisheries in existing or proposed FCD/I schemes. These studies suggested various measures to either compensate for or mitigate fisheries losses. Compensation measures included stock enhancement and the promotion of pond aquaculture. Several schemes proposed the adoption of fish-'friendly' sluice gates and fish passes.
The Fisheries Studies and Pilot Project (FAP 17) was the only FAP project designed solely to address inland fisheries issues. Phase I, the Fisheries Studies, was a biological and socio-economic research project which aimed to assess the impact of different types of FCD/I projects on fish resources and the fishing communities dependent to varying degrees on these resources. Phase II, the Pilot Project, was designed to demonstrate feasible strategies to mitigate harmful impacts of FCD/I projects on capture fisheries, through the integration of fisheries into water management, Phase I commenced in December 1991 and ended in June 1994. Phase II is under consideration by the GoB and the ODA.
To assess the impact of flood control on fisheries it was necessary to undertake quantitative investigations of fish production (catch), diversity and movements in floodplains, canals and rivers inside and outside FCD/I projects and to examine both quantitatively and qualitatively social and economic factors. Eight FCD/I projects were selected in four FAP regions. The Southeast Region was not studied. Fisheries and socioeconomic surveys started between August 1992 and February 1993 and ended in February 1994, providing a 13-19-month sampling period, depending on the region.
7.2.1 Impacts on flooding
7.2.2 Impacts on fish
7.2.3 Impacts on people
The principal aim of all FCD/I projects studied was how to increase rice production. Outside the Northeast Region, this was to be achieved by the exclusion of external river flooding from protected areas and the conversion of seasonal wetland into drier land where HYV t. aman could replace deepwater rice (b. aman). Several other minor shifts in agricultural patterns were anticipated but the main economic benefit of flood control was to be from the predicted increase in production through the suggested HYV t. aman, a crop which tolerates only shallow flooding during the monsoon.
In the Northeast Region this is the basic rationale of most flood control projects covering inland low-lying floodplains. In the North East, two types of FCD/I projects were studied. The first, a partial flood control project using submersible embankments, and the second, a full flood control project with pumped drainage and irrigation facilities. The aim of all partial flood control projects in this region is to increase winter rice production by reducing damage caused by early or pre-monsoon river floods. These projects are not designed to alter flooding patterns during the monsoon. The FCD/I project, on the other hand, aimed to increase winter rice production and anticipated increases during the monsoon season through increased HYV t. aman production at the expense of b. aman.
Eight flood control projects were selected in four FAP regions (Table 7 and Fig.2). The projects were selected to cover different types of flood control representative of current developments in Bangladesh. The distribution of projects between regions was rather uneven; three in the Northwest and one in the Northcentral Region but this reflected differences in the extent of flood control development between these regions.
|
Type of flood control |
Name of project |
Type of project |
Performance |
|
Full Flood Control |
Brahmaputra Right Enhancement (BRE) (NW) |
Full river embankment |
Successful full flood control embankment in area and year studied. In several other locations the embankment was repeatedly breeched by erosion by the Jamuna. |
|
Controlled Flooding
|
Pabna Irrigation and Rural Development Project (PIRDP) (NW) |
FCDI |
Structurally secure project designed for full flood control but in which external river waters were allowed entry for the production of deepwater aman. |
|
|
|
This produced controlled deep flooding. Pumped drainage not fully functional up to 1994. |
|
|
Chalan Beel Polder B (SBP) (SW) |
FCD |
Structurally secure project designed for full flood control but in which external river waters were allowed entry for the production of deepwater aman. This produced controlled deep flooding. |
|
|
Satla-Bagda Project Polder (SBP) (SW) |
FCD |
Structurally secure project designed for full flood control but in which external canal waters were allowed entry for the production of deepwater rice. This produced controlled deep flooding. |
|
|
Partial Flood Control
|
Shaghai Haor Project (SHP) (NE) |
FCD - with submersible embankment |
Structurally secure partial flood control project using submersible embankments to prevent river until May after which floodwaters overspilled. Monsoon flooding unaffected. |
|
Manu Irrigation Project (MIP) (NE) |
FCD |
Full flood control project in which embankments were cut when outside river levels were high resulting |
|
|
|
|
in flooding of the project. Pumped drainage and winter gravity-fed irrigation and fully functional. |
|
|
Chatla-Fukurhati Project (CFP) (SW) |
FCD |
Full flood control and drainage project in which external river flooding occurred due to non-functioning regulations and damaged embankments. |
|
|
Compartmentalization Pilot Project (CPP) in Tagail (NC) |
FCD |
Flood control and drainage project which did not prevent river flooding due to poor design of original project (Silimpur-Karatin) and non-completion of current design (CPP). |
7.2.2.1 POTENTIAL IMPACTS
The potential impacts of flood control on capture fisheries were based on the general perception that full flood control projects were functional and that natural flooding patterns on floodplains had been radically altered. Outside the Northeast Region, the principal objective of full flood control was to increase rice production by replacing deepwater b. aman with HYV t. aman. In this scenario, some of the possible adverse impacts on fisheries are:
- Loss of flooded habitat during the monsoon, resulting in a loss of fish production.- Blockage of the movements of fish (adults, juveniles and hatchlings) between external rivers and floodplains.
- Reduced diversity of fish due to the prevention of migratory species entering the floodplains.
- Increased fishing pressure on smaller areas of water during the monsoon, resulting in damage to the long-term sustainability of the fisheries.
- Reduced dry season habitat resulting in higher fishing pressure and increased catchability of overwintering fish broodstock. The increasing use of water from beels to irrigate surrounding rice fields is of particular concern.
- Reduced groundwater recharge, resulting in a lower water table in the dry season which, in turn, could lead to a reduction in the area of perennial beels. Dry season rice production dependent on tubewell irrigation is also thought to be at risk from lowered groundwater levels, which also increase the problems with drinking water supplies.
- Loss of high value migratory species such as major carps and catfish, by preventing migrations between rivers and floodplains, and, thereby, interfering with their life cycles.
- Increased fish disease through the creation of adverse environmental conditions, such as stagnation of standing waters, which could trigger disease outbreaks in already stressed and modified fish communities.
7.2.2.2 IDENTIFIED IMPACTS
The impacts of flood control on fisheries Which were identified by the FAP 17 study are summarized below:
- Loss of catch through loss of habitat.
- Reduction in catch per unit area (CPUA).
- Reduced fish density/abundance.
- Increased fishing effort.
- Reduced biodiversity.
- Reduction in the numbers of migratory fish and the number of fish migrations.
- Disruption of fish community structure.
- Increased capture at regulators.
- Reduced opportunity for mitigation measures.
- Reduced potential for stock enhancement.
The project which provided the highest degree of flood control, the BRE, was not covered by socio-economic surveys and, therefore, the greatest social and economic impacts of flood control were probably not recorded. This also partly explains why it was not possible to identify quantitatively impacts solely caused by flood control, since in all projects studied there were substantial monsoon floods. The FAP 17 social and economic surveys did, however, provide quantitative descriptions of rural communities and their varying levels of economic dependence on capture fisheries. These are summarized briefly below:
- The incomes of households in fishing communities are highly dependent on the fisheries resource - across all regions, those households show between 50 per cent and 90 per cent dependence on activities related to fishing.- In the Northwest and Southwest regions, small and landless farmers in agricultural communities are significantly dependent on fisheries. In those areas, between 9 and 15 per cent of these farmers' incomes are generated from fisheries.
- In all areas except the Northeast, fisheries accounted for significant portions of the incomes of the landless during the flood season. Between 10 and 25 per cent of landless farmers' incomes in these areas are from fisheries during the flood season.
- In agricultural communities in all regions, there are high levels of participation in fishing even by those groups which report low-levels of dependence on fishing for their income. In the Northcentral, Northeast and Southwest areas, over 60 per cent of all categories of farmers reported some participation in fishing.
From the results of social and economic studies it was then possible to identify several potential impacts of flood control, namely:
- Whenever full flood control effectively reduces the magnitude, extent and duration of flooding, resulting in a decrease in fish production, all groups dependent on the fishery will lose income, a cheap source of animal protein and employment opportunities. The adverse impacts will affect subsistence, seasonal and professional fishermen, as well as leaseholders and fish traders.- Under controlled flooding for deepwater aman, professional fishermen may lose income through a reduction in the extent of public water bodies which they traditionally fished and through increased competition from agricultural communities.
- Under controlled flooding for deepwater aman, subsistence and seasonal fishermen can gain through increased fishing opportunity so long as they have access to waters.
- Where flood control allows greater control of drainage, fisheries leaseholders may make short-term gains through increased catches when beels and khals are drained almost completely by sluice gates or when sluice gates are closed temporarily to trap fish and make them easier to capture. In the longer term, however, these practices may be very damaging to the sustainability of fisheries.
8.1 Recommendations - stock enhancement schemes
8.2 Recommended mitigation measures
8.3 Future research requirements
There is further need to develop an understanding of the open water fisheries in Bangladesh. There is need to build on the information base and experience of various projects. The issue of the potential for community approaches is concerned with resource economics. The experience of stocking programmes indicates that where resource values are increased, the distribution of benefits on an equitable basis is not guaranteed. The issue of privatization of stocking or the establishment of community management of open water resources is faced with the problem of establishing the costs of resource use. Without clearly defined property rights that are enforceable, manageable and have the principle of exclusion, the degradation/overfishing of the resource will continue. The management and conservation of the resource must be viewed against this background.
The results of stock enhancement, both in terms of production and socio-economic impact, contribute to this policy debate. Similarly, the results of mitigation measures - beel sanctuaries, improving fish migration by re-excavation of khals - may also generate significant improvement in production. The policy debate will then focus on the most appropriate response for each situation. Similarly, the improvement of local capacity in environmental monitoring will enhance the technical knowledge of the resource.
This paper recommends that existing knowledge be institutionalized within Bangladesh and the gaps in knowledge be addressed (e.g. the effects of pesticide use on fish populations). The largest information gaps appear to be concerned with resource management issues. This issue has been approached from an efficiency of production viewpoint and also the socio-economic aspects, but the policy gap remains. The issue of conservation has been relegated to issues that are more concerned with rights of access. This has led to problems in establishing property rights for fishermen perceived as poor. NGOs have invariably tried to establish fishing rights for their groups (without an adequate knowledge of the group's poverty status), at the expense of other groups. The principle of exclusion has been applied by this target group approach rather than by a community-based approach.
An open water stocking programme may be a successful management tool for fisheries if properly and systematically planned and managed. This would include, inter alia, the following:
- Selection of suitable water bodies on the basis of the physio-chemical and biological parameters as well as on social considerations.- Selection of suitable species of appropriate composition, size and stocking density with due consideration to biodiversity and the ecological condition of the water bodies.
- Protection of the fries/fingerlings stocked, so that they are not caught before attaining desirable/legal size. For a multiple species fishery, gear selectivity may play an important role in harvesting non-stocked species when fishing of stocked fishes (undersized) are prohibited.
- Continuous monitoring of survival, growth and production of fish in the water bodies.
- Raising of fingerlings, by species, to the desired size in the proper time and avoiding stocking of hybrid, inbred and diseased fingerlings.
- Ensuring an improved fingerling transportation system to reduce mortality and stress on fingerlings, and to avoid further mortality after stocking.
- Proper planning and management of the stocking programme, including procurement of fingerlings and management of the stocking operation.
- Creating social awareness of the programme to ensure post-stocking management of the fishery and to promote equal distribution of benefit and social justice.
- Development of a well-planned strategy for sustainability of the stocking programme.
A clear distinction is drawn between compensation and mitigation strategies. Compensation measures rely on aquaculture and culture-based techniques to increase fish production and, thereby, compensate, to varying degrees, for the tonnage of fish lost due to flood control. In contrast, the following mitigation measures are designed to reduce or avoid losses in capture fisheries:
- Production of deepwater aman.
- Habitat rehabilitation and protection.
- Increased fish migration across flood control structures.
- Fisheries conservation: Beel management.
- Fisheries conservation: Prohibited fishing zones at regulators.
- Fisheries conservation: Protection of river (duar) fisheries.
- Fisheries conservation: Etablishment of fish sanctuaries
- Conversion of full flood control to partial control.
- Provision of flood pathways in extensive areas protected by submersible embankments.
- Increased fish migration across rural roads.
- Strengthening of technical assessment and planning capabilities of BWDB/WARPO.
- Establishment of national database on FCD/I projects.
- Improvement of data collection by BWDB.
- Establishment of water-user groups.
- Taining within BWDB.
- Development of flood modelling techniques.
Quantitative catch assessment surveys to obtain estimates of fish densities and yield per unit area of floodplain.
* Stock assessment using length frequency analysis and ageing techniques to obtain information on the population dynamics of selected species of fish and prawns dominating floodplain catches.* Investigation of the biology and ecology of selected fish and prawn species dominating floodplain catches inside and outside FCD areas.
* Assessment of the impact of FCD projects on the diversity of fish and prawns. Standardized systematic, intensive sampling is required to record not only the more common species but also the numerous rarer species which may be more vulnerable to adverse impacts of flood control.
* A national capability to provide systematic quantitative information on geographical variations in the diversity of the aquatic resources of Bangladesh should be established. This would improve the basic knowledge of the diversity of fish, shrimp and prawns and identify environmental problems, including flood control, linked with reductions in biodiversity.
* Investigation of the movements of fish and prawns between rivers and floodplains which are free-flooding and others on which flooding is controlled.
* Investigation of movements by passive downstream drift of fish and prawn hatchlings between rivers and floodplains in relation to seasonal changes in river discharge. This study is essential on the BRE where the Jamuna River provides an annual supply of hatchlings of major carps and many other species of fish.
* Investigation of the impact of water regulators on the survival and movement by passive downstream drift of fish and prawn larvae in relation to seasonal changes in river discharge.
* Determination of water velocities from a range of different types of structures operating under varying head differences and gate openings.
* Determination of swimming speeds of selected fish species.
* Integration of biological information derived from research studies (listed above) and flood modelling techniques, to improve the predictive capability of impact assessments.
* Identification of possible spawning grounds of major carps in the Brahmaputra and Padma rivers in Bangladesh and investigation of upstream breeding migrations in these rivers.
* Investigation of the migration of fish in the rivers of the Northcentral Region to identify possible environmental factors which might explain the general scarcity of riverine and migratory species in them compared in some other regions of Bangladesh.
BBS, 1996. Statistical Pocketbook: Bangladesh 1995. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Dhaka. 337 pp. DoF, 1986. Water Area Statistics of Bangladesh: Fisheries Information Bulletin. Department of Fisheries, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 3(1), 29 pp.
DoF, 1994. Fish Catch Statistics of Bangladesh. Department of Fisheries, Dhaka. 37 pp.
DoF, 1995. Post-intervention Food Consumption Study: Supplementary Study Component under Floodplain Production Monitoring Programme. (Report prepared by Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies for Third Fisheries Project). Department of Fisheries, Dhaka. 79 pp.
EPB, 1994. Annual Report, 1993-94. Export Promotion Bureau, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 48 pp.
MPO, 1985. Fisheries and Flood Control, Drainage and Irrigation Development: Technical Report No. 17. Master Plan Organization, Dhaka. 54 pp.
Tsai, Chua-Fa. and Liaquat Ali, 1987. The Changes in Fish Community and Major Carp Population in Beels in the Sylhet-Mymensingh Basin, Bangladesh. Indian J. Fish., 34 (1), pp 78-88.
Sultana, Rebeka, 1989. Experience of Open Water Fisheries Management Under Leasing and Licensing System. Second Annual Workshop on Open Water Fisheries Management in Bangladesh, DOF, FF, ICLARM, 24-26 September, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp 7.
