4.1 Consolidation
4.2 Farming systems and agronomy
4.3 Natural resources management
4.4 Community forestry
4.5 Social, cultural and gender recommendations
At the commencement of Phase III the three Projects should review the village expansion targets with their UNDP partner, taking into account the need to balance expansion into new areas with the benefits of consolidating the achievements already made. The projects have introduced a range of interventions in, for example, community mobilisation and organisation, watershed management and protection, forestry development, income generation, training, participatory planning, and technology development. This is an appropriate time to review progress to date and to use the results of that review to determine the way forward.
Phase III provides an opportunity to complete the previously established working models of direct participatory grassroots intervention. It gives an opportunity to improve the models' capacities for sustainable agricultural development including the rationalizing of staff to beneficiary ratios, fine tuning extension methods used, such as field trials, demonstrations, the identification and build-up of a corps of farmer-researchers, as well as the documentation and popularization of project experiences and appropriate indigenous practices. Phase III also gives an opportunity for replacement service providers to prepare to take over.
(1) Participatory Technology Development
In Phase III it is recommended that there should be increased emphasis on participatory technology development, particularly for agricultural production, taking into account the different agro-ecological conditions within each project. Topics would include variety evaluations for field, horticultural and fodder crops; simple fertilizer, manure and compost trials; crop responses to soil and water conservation measures etc.
It is recommended that the three projects enhance the capacities of farmer researchers through: a) Identifying and organizing farmer researchers into groups and federating them with other farmer researcher groups as well as fostering exchanges between them. b) Linking them with local and international sources of ideas and information relevant to agricultural development. c) Improving their skills by involving farmer researchers in applied research activities of the projects. d) Plan activities that recognize their farmer researcher efforts including documentation of their work, offer awards and organizing of guest shows. Any plans should be drawn up and undertaken with the participation of the farmer researchers as well as other concerned parties. The objectives must be clearly understood and acceptable to all parties concerned. Present project support for the development of farmer researchers should continue.
It will be virtually impossible for existing project staff to satisfactorily undertake such work, they do not have either the resources or the time available. Therefore the Mission recommends that the projects develop proposals to contract the work to local or external institutes (to be identified by the projects). The plans of the projects to invite national and international research institutions to undertake field research in their project areas would be a good opportunity for collaboration between farmer researchers and institutional researchers. The assistance package need not be too elaborate, sophisticated or expensive.
It will be essential that quantitative monitoring and evaluation of all research and demonstrations be undertaken.
(2) Expanding Contacts
In order to expand the flow of technical information and encourage the exchange of ideas and personnel it is recommended that the projects seek to further develop and strengthen links with outside institutes, particularly those in the Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia and Australia. Contacts established through the Technical Units of FAO-RAP, and with the FARMAsia network, with ICIMOD and the Participatory Watershed Management Training in Asia Programme in Nepal could assist this process.
(3) Consolidating Achievements
In the Phase III there should be emphasis on consolidating the work already being undertaken, rather than on a rapid and wide scale expansion into new areas. This consolidation should include further training of farmers to increase their technical skills, knowledge and understanding in such areas as soil fertility management, IPM, seed multiplication, produce storage, fodder production, livestock management, farm equipment maintenance, and participatory technology development. Training should be monitored and followed up in the field to assess the extent of skills and knowledge transfers. It will probably be necessary for the projects to obtain additional manpower and material resources to undertake such work, if necessary through the re-allocation of budget lines.
(4) Income Generating Groups
The services already being provided by FIGGs and LIGGs in the sourcing and buying of inputs such as fertilizers, seeds, chemicals, livestock, and feeds in general should be supported and encouraged in all areas as part of project strategy. Support and training should be continued to enable them to become more self-sufficient in handling all aspects of FIGG management in general. This would be part of the consolidation process. The possibility of making savings through the bulk-buying of inputs should be further explored.
(5) Livestock Activities
The important role of women should be taken into account by the projects when evaluating loan applications. It is recommended that when a household applies for, say, a pig loan, the women of the household should be consulted regarding the number of pigs the household (the women) can handle and whether they agree with the loan. Feed requirements for a fast multiplying livestock project should be planned for in advance. Interviews conducted by the Mission indicate that the majority of households can only care for one pregnant sow or one or two weaners for fattening. It is recommended that women be specifically targeted for piggery health training since it is usually they who take care of sick pigs. It is recommended that the projects encourage private veterinary drug suppliers, possibly at Township level, to provide drugs on consignment to the project-trained para-vets. In this way para-veterinary services for the livestock programme could be made more sustainable.
Following the example of the Dry Zone pig programme, which spun off a number of activities in pig fattening, meat processing, and animal feed stores, it is recommended that projects should explore the development of related enterprises based on the original income earning starter activity.
In situations where the availability of veterinary services are a problem, duck raising can be more successful than chicken production. Processing eggs with sodium silicate (waterglass) or lime could increase incomes from duck eggs. Preserving eggs is one way of extending their shelf life without the need of refrigeration.
(6) Home Gardens
Home gardens should be regarded more from the standpoint of their direct contribution to household food security than as a microenterprise. In promoting household home gardens, the projects should be aware that home gardens are considered as women's responsibility, part of their domestic chores. Therefore, promoting equal sharing of responsibilities among all members of the household should be part of the home garden-for-household-food-security campaign. Otherwise, women may be overworked.
It is recommended that the projects consider: a) encouraging the production of a wider range of medicinal plants for home consumption; b) introduction of more multi-storied cropping combinations; c) documentation of indigenous plant and plant uses and, more importantly, exchanging this information between the projects. The home garden is one of the best conservatories of crop diversity. Households, and women in particular, should be enlightened about the importance of biodiversity. Households should also be made aware of the current race to patent and thus control the use of plant and animal products and extracts. Women should be given training in simple ways of seed selection, storage, and labelling. Indigenous ways of storing seeds should be noted and, where possible, improved upon and encouraged.
It is recommended that the projects, in collaboration with the HDI Health and HDI Education projects, work to integrate nutrition concerns into the home garden activities. This means that the nutritional needs of the households and community should be studied and taken into consideration when deciding the crop/livestock mix for the home garden.
The projects should seek out and document, as leaflets for distribution, models of effective intercropping or intensive production systems.
(7) Data Analysis
Detailed economic analyses should be undertaken for a wide range of interventions in all three projects, as soon as sufficient data comes available, under different input and seasonal conditions. This will generate information on farm incomes as opposed to returns to single enterprises, and will provide data for planning purposes. Analytical tools are being developed in the Dry Zone for the appraisal of village capacity building, micro-project and rainfed farming activities. Their suitability for use in other areas should be considered. Because of personnel constraints, work on the analysis of interventions in the Shan State and Delta projects, may best be sub-contracted to a national agro-economist.
(8) MYA/96/006 (Dry Zone)
I. Since there appears to be little reliable information available on optimum fertiliser rates for different soils and different crops, and under different moisture conditions it is recommended that the project establish a series of simple fertiliser trials on farmers' fields. The possibility of undertaking this work through a contract with national specialists should be considered.II. Work already started on the sourcing and evaluation of improved crop varieties adapted to local conditions should continue during the Third Phase. Contracts with national specialists or with overseas institutes to undertake the evaluation process should be considered in order to reduce the pressure of work on limited project staff members.
(9) MYA/96/007 (Southern Shan State)
I. The wider use of legumes (green manures, food crops and fodders) relay-cropped into main crops such as wheat, maize, upland rice and potatoes should be researched. Other intercropping patterns could also be explored which may have the advantage of giving higher total yields and better utilization of the soil profile.II. Research should be initiated into the value of fallow periods as practised in the project area (commonly one to four years) in the maintenance of soil fertility. Alternatives such as legume cover crops (in addition to rice bean) should to be explored in greater depth.
III. The planting of different fodders on contour bunds, in fodder plots and around the homestead should be expanded from the work already started.
IV. Para-vets who are being trained in veterinary medicine should also receive training in fodder production and utilization, and animal nutrition.
V. In Shan State, the project has expanded piggery activities to include support for farmers to specifically maintain breeder stock to provide the piglets for distribution to regular multi-purpose pig raisers. These farmers keep larger numbers of animals than the regular pig raisers and the majority of them are men. It is recommended that women, who are traditionally the pig raisers, be encouraged to apply for these middle-sized breeder projects. Additional training will be needed for the farmers to ensure quality animals. Projects should encourage some applicants to raise one or two quality breeder boars in order to earn income from the services of these boars.
VI. In Shan State and the Delta it is recommended that the projects should investigate the interest in constructing chicken pens over fishponds. The chicken manure and feed droppings could provide additional feed for the fish.
(10) MYA/96/008 Ayeyarwady Delta Zone Project
I. There would appear to be scope for the further development and diversification of ornamental foliage and flower production and marketing. Seed quality is an important issue here since local seed is poor. The project should investigate the possibility of developing quality flower seed production on a relatively large scale as an income generating activity, as well as flower production itself.II. Home garden cultivation requires increased attention particularly regarding the transfer of increased knowledge and skills in vegetable production, fruit tree pruning and the dynamic management of multi-layered gardens to increase the range of plants grown and their productivity.
III. The project should examine the results of urea-molasses nutrient block demonstration of the Dry Zone project with a view to introducing these items to the Delta. The treatment of rice straw with urea to enhance digestibility and protein content for livestock would also be worth evaluating.
IV. In the Delta it is recommended that the use of pig manure for methane gas production be investigated. The methane gas digester could be designed to utilize pig manure and human waste. Alternatively, neighbouring pig raisers could pool their pig manure and share a single digester.
V. It is recommended that the project should seek to educate the buying public about cultured mushrooms to help overcome buyer resistence. Considering the investment made in the mushroom spawn producing facility, its use could be maximized if it were to grow table mushrooms as well as spawn. It is recommended that greater effort be made to maintain sanitary conditions within and around the spawn making facility. Contamination can spread rapidly, is hard to eradicate, and could severely damage the business.
(1) General
It is recommended that Phase III of the three FAO-executed HDI projects give greater attention to:
I. monitoring and documenting the environmental impacts of community forests and of conservation measures created under the projects;II. carrying out field research in the silviculture of community forests, including species suitability, effects of initial spacing, weeding techniques and conservation measures;
III. using the field research data to establish objectives and guidelines for sustainable management of community forests.
Field research and impact monitoring should be built into any agriculturally-based project, especially one aiming to restore degraded environments and land productivity. These are long-term activities, however, and difficult to visualize for projects with a thirty month time horizon, especially with regard to forestry. But the need is strong, and an opportunity to generate essential knowledge could be lost by not at least starting the process. For the future, it has to be assumed that, fully realizing their weakness and lack of resources, the Forest Department and the Myanmar Agricultural Service would take over responsibility for these activities after project withdrawal,
Aside from their short time horizons, the projects are already stretched for qualified staff and budgets to carry out routine project delivery and have little capacity to take on additional tasks. On no account should the proposed monitoring and research activities interfere with and compromise their present performance. Project plans and budgets are already drawn up for the next project phase, and to some extent the proposed activities might fit into these plans. It is most likely that additional resources would have to be tapped, which at this stage might not be easy.
Finding well qualified and available personnel to undertake these activities would also be difficult, especially with respect to forestry. If qualified national staff cannot be directly recruited, the following options could be considered:
I. contracting a national institute or NGO;
II. contracting to regional institute or NGO; or
III. using a regional institute through a twinning arrangement.
(2) Technical Approaches
Environmental Impact Monitoring
Environmental monitoring is intended to measure the effects of fixed interventions. It is recommended that the projects should assess (qualitatively or quantitatively) and should document:
I. the effects of improved protection of natural community forests on biomass and species diversity (Shan and Delta);II. the effects of contour bunds and other on-field conservation measures on cropping and crop yields (Dry Zone and Shan);
III. the effects of soil and water conservation structures, water harvesting structures and sediment storage dams on biomass and groundwater re-charge as indicated by changes in streamflow and the water levels in downstream wells (Dry Zone); and
IV. the effects of sediment storage dams and checkdams in the Dry Zone on sediment accumulation, cropping, and crop yields (Dry Zone).
Data should be collected not only on the direct and indirect effects, but also on input costs and output values in order to analyse economic viability. As far as possible the measured effects should be compared with a "no treatment" situation.
Monitoring in community forests should mean establishing and marking square or circular permanent sample plots of, say, 500 m2 for regular annual measurement. Circular plots have the advantage of being easily marked with a permanent centre mark from which the plot is described with a 12.6 m radius at each annual measurement (central markers should be something other than posts or other items likely to be stolen). Each plot should be numbered and the exact position mapped in order to be re-located.
Monitoring in agricultural fields should involve selecting demonstration fields that represent typical with and without treatments. Crop yield should be sampled with small temporary plots. The effects of water harvesting structures on re-charging aquifers and water levels in wells could be done qualitatively through informal interviews.
(3) Field Research as a Basis for Future Management
Unlike environmental monitoring (which measures the effects of fixed interventions), field research is intended to measure and compare the effects of different treatments to build a base of knowledge for decision-making. It refers specifically in this case to testing different methods of woodlot establishment, including species suitability, effects of initial spacing, weeding techniques and conservation measures (such as water harvesting trenches in the Dry Zone).
The field research envisaged here might help the community groups to stay involved in the protection and management of their woodlots by helping them to set more specific objectives, clearer management procedures and understanding, and more realistic expectations of future production and income. Building in and assessing varied factors such as spacing would allow user groups to realize the obvious differences in labour inputs and value of product outturn, then to decide for themselves which regimes most benefited them. The projects should at least initiate this kind of field research, even if their short time horizon and other constraints did not permit them to complete the work.
The indicators measured in permanent sample plots or otherwise recorded should include, inter alia:
I. number of trees;
II. species planted;
III. planting survival;
IV. grass growth and species (only if considered of economic value);
V. individual tree heights;
VI. individual tree diameters at 1.3 m above ground (minimum 5 cm).
Example for the Dry Zone
The process here would be to:
I. select certain hillsides for intensive trial and impact monitoring;II. establish the required treatment variations on these selected hillsides;
III. apply these different treatments in bands up and down the slopes to minimize the influence of water flow or downward seepage from one treatment on to the adjacent one;
IV. establish permanent sample plots in each treatment (approximately on the same contour) for the annual measurement of the required indicators.
It is recommended to test the effects of water harvesting trenches and different spacing of those trenches on tree and grass growth. The first priority would be to compare: 1) control (i.e. no trenching or planting); 2) simple pitting (i.e. conventional planting without water harvesting); and 3) water harvesting structures of best known design. A second priority, no less important but with added complexity, would be to compare wide, medium and close spacing between trenches (and planted trees).
Variations in spacing of trenches and trees (the norm is 400 per acre) would affect: 1) how trees interact with one another (e.g. speed of crown closure, shading out of grass, growth of stem diameter and the overall yield of wood per acre); 2) effectiveness of water harvesting, which in turn affects tree and grass growth. The effect on tree growth would thus be interactive.
Measures or indicators likely to show up differences between the above treatments include:
I. establishment and maintenance costs;II. year by year grass production (close spacing of trenches may give greatest initial grass growth, but early shading out and suppression of grass by trees);
III. initial tree survival and year by year growth;
IV. the age at which tree crowns close or begin to shade out grass;
V. tree stem diameter (competition and tree crown closure sets in earlier with close spacing, the effect of which is to slow down stem diameter growth);
VI. volume of wood (or biomass) per acre (close spacing will give highest volume of wood but smaller trees);
VII. value of wood (or biomass) per acre (wide spacing may give lowest overall volume, but of larger and probably higher value trees).
Example for Shan State
It is recommend that the project test the effectiveness of on-field vegetative strips as conservation measures compared with contour bunds. Strips are less costly than bunds, they increase infiltration and form a permeable barrier through which runoff can flow. At the same time, they slow down runoff, filtering and leaving behind the sediments. There is less risk of concentrating runoff with subsequent breaching than there is with soil bunds. Laying-out vegetative barriers is less critical than contour bunds, for which misalignment on the contour can result in water accumulation, breaching and gulley formation. The first priority should be to establish demonstration plots, for which participant farmers should receive full compensation.
Example for the Delta
Spacing is a key factor in determining the most profitable management regime for user groups. As one example of recommended field research, the project should consider different spacings for sowing Avicennia propagules (say, 1 x 1.5 feet, 2 x 3 feet, 3 x 4 feet and 5 x 5 feet) to test the effects on tree growth and profitability. Assuming two thinnings before final harvest, each removing 50 percent of the crop, some expected effects of wider spacing might be:
I. reduced labour for propagule collection and sowing;
II. reduced labour per acre for each weeding, but possibly repeated more often;
III. possibly improved survival;
IV. reduced labour for thinning;
V. reduced number of trees from thinnings, but of larger size and value;
VI. reduced number of trees from final harvest, but of larger size and value.
The measured indicators from permanent sample plots in each treatment should include planting survival, tree height and tree stem diameter at breast height (1.3 m above ground level). Additional information should include the relative costs of planting, weeding and thinning, and the relative market values of different tree sizes. With the collected data, a projected cash flow for each treatment should indicate the most profitable combination of spacing, thinning and final harvest age.
The same principles apply to the thinning of homogeneous stands of natural mangrove forest regeneration, as well as to plantations of Eucalyptus.
(4) Recommended Personnel Requirements
It is recommended that the HDI programme assign the following environmental monitoring team, supported with adequate facilities and transport, to carry out the proposed tasks:
I. a Monitoring and Evaluation Specialist (qualified in environmental sciences) assigned for the project duration to design and oversee the monitoring programme for all three projects, in close cooperation with the three project Chief Technical Advisers;II. a Database Specialist, also assigned for the project duration, responsible for organizing, checking, entering, analysing and reporting the collected data;
III. a full-time field supervisor and at least five seasonal field crew assigned to each project, working closely with project staff and community groups, to be responsible for laying out plots and carrying out the required sampling procedures and measurements.
It is recommended that the Monitoring and Evaluation specialist would:
I. identify the needs, and develop the rationale, approaches and indicators for environmental monitoring and field research in close cooperation with the Chief Technical Advisers;II. establish procedures for sampling, measuring and analysing data;
III. train trainers in the team to work with contact farmers and community members in selecting appropriate sampling locations, bearing in mind the practical purposes and objectives of research and monitoring;
IV. oversee the programme to be conducted by team members and by selected (and paid) community user group members;
V. interpret the effects of project interventions on immediate or long-term product yields and management options, economic and financial viability, other direct and indirect environmental impacts, and likely sustainability;
VI. provide project staff (and hence community groups) with indications of the short- and long-term profitability of project interventions, recommended natural resource management strategies and guidelines for management plans.
(1) Project Expansion
The SPPD mission strongly recommends that in the forthcoming Phase III forestry development activities be consolidated in areas where the projects have been previously operating. Any expansion to new areas as far as forestry is concerned should be justified in terms of communal use of lands adjacent to lands already supported by the projects under either the community forestry or soil conservation programme or, in order to protect the remaining patches of natural forests preserved by villages close to these natural forests;
(2) Forest Policy and Policy Instruments
The Forest Law, the Policy Statement and the Community Forestry Instruction are significant steps in the modernisation of forest management, but bolder steps are needed to truly reform forest conservation and management in Myanmar. Community forestry should be formally recognised through an amendment of the Forest Law, and Forest Rules (or separate Community Forestry Rules) should be drafted, endorsed and promulgated. Community forestry will need to be defined in the Forest Law and the suggestion to create a third category of forest land in addition to Reserve Forest and Protected Public Forest called Community Forest should be seriously considered.
(3) National Community Forestry Workshop
In view of the different and often experimental experiences of the three projects with community forestry, it is proposed that early in Phase III (i.e. after the 1999 monsoon) the projects jointly organize a National Community Forestry Workshop to take stock of progress made, to discuss common issues, to define operational procedures and implementation strategies and to discuss desirable changes of the forestry legislation. Each project should, prior to this workshop, prepare a document outlining the project's concept and methodology for community forestry. The workshop, which would be attended by Forest Department officials, should be technically backstopped by FAO. Following this workshop, the projects could then further tailor their approaches and use these as a basis for "training of trainers" activities, to outline an awareness-raising strategy and to prepare extension materials related to community forestry.
(4) Forestry Community Based Organisations
It is recommended that the three projects should continue to promote the formation of executive committees of community forestry user groups which better reflect their membership. This implies more participation by women, by the landless and by representatives of minority villages (in terms of user group membership) in executive committees.
(5) Status of Community Forestry
The projects should, as the Dry Zone project is doing, explore the possibilities of introducing integrated village landuse planning which would take into account the use of all common lands such as potential community forestry areas (including Reserve Forest and unprotected public forestland), grazing areas and other waste lands.
(6) Community Forestry Management Plans
The three projects should use the first year of Phase III to outline their approaches for community forestry management plan preparation as well as devising the format of management plans. The projects should also assess the need for involvement in the preparation of (user) group constitutions. The efforts of the projects can only be expected to be fruitful if this happens in close consultation with the Forest Department.
(7) Training and Extension
Although several training activities have been undertaken by all projects none of them has yet been able to define a comprehensive community forestry training programme. This is largely because the projects are still defining their concepts of community forestry. It is anticipated that the proposed National Community Forestry Workshop (see 3 above) will help the projects to define their training needs and priorities, as well as their extension strategies, including awareness raising.
(8) Fuelwood-saving Cooking Stoves
The introduction of improved, fuelwood-saving cooking stoves is generally proceeding smoothly. The projects should continue and, where needed, strengthen quality control and close monitoring of the use of stoves.
(9) Sustainability
All projects are seeking to improve the chances for sustainability of community forestry. An evident constraint is the relatively short period of project support that can be provided to community forestry villages. The chances for sustainability could be greatly enhanced by adopting the policy measures recommended above.
(10) Savings and Debts
The projects should explore all options available to address the crisis of indebtedness of community households. Some form of compulsory savings scheme may be a possible solution.
(11) Monitoring and Evaluation
The projects should concentrate their efforts regarding monitoring and evaluation (M&E) on participatory M&E; the monitoring of tree growth and survival, group dynamics and conflict management and resolution. Provisions to monitor the growth of community forestry plantations should be made, so that the financial and economic feasibility of community plantations can be better assessed. Monitoring tree survival, undertaken by all projects, should be continued. The institutional development of community forestry user groups and their abilities to solve conflicts should be monitored. This will help the projects to respond in timely manner to general and specific constraints and to improve the community forestry concept for the benefit of present and future user groups.
(1) Expansion of the HDI Food Security Projects
It is recommended that any expansion to additional villages/village tracts be planned cautiously to ensure that they reach levels of self-reliance that are not in jeopardy when the phase ends. It is recommended that emphasis should be on vertical, rather than horizontal expansion in Phase III. Vertical expansion should focus on upgrading staff and beneficiary knowledge and skills, expanding and strengthening community research/extension capacities, networking among CBOs, and working out replacement service provider mechanisms before the projects withdraw. Any horizontal expansion under Phase III should ensure that the new communities and beneficiaries have adequate time to learn, digest, adopt, and make appropriate adjustments in human resource and technology development initiatives before the end of the thirty month time frame.
(2) Community Based Organisations (CBOs)
It is necessary to ensure that CBOs are equitably representative of the projects' clientele and that they equitably address the concerns of each group. The three projects should vigourously lend their support to equal representation of the disadvantaged and train them to intelligently wield their representation. In this regard the projects should study their present strategies of soliciting the involvement of the very poor (timing, group dynamics and confidence-building instruments, income-generating and welfare packages) and seek ways of making these more accessible to the poor.
It is time to consider the legal status of the CBOs. There is a need to legalize their ownership and the management of their assets. The CBOs need authority to act as a corporate body, to have the right to sue and be sued. Above all, they need Government's recognition and protection of their rights. It is suggested that UNDP and FAO, with the support and advice of Government, initiate discussion on the legal status of the CBOs and take action accordingly. It is further suggested that the matter be taken up and resolved as soon as possible. This would give the CBOs, with the support of the projects, time to discuss the matter with their membership. They also need time to take the necessary action as well to deal with, and experience, their legality. To ensure transparency of CBO financial operations and reduce the chances of misuse or loss of funds, it is recommended that all CBOs who have not yet opened bank accounts should do so. Even where banks are scarce and difficult to reach, ways of dealing with the situation should be discussed. This may be one area in which the HDI micro-credit and HDI Food Security projects could collaborate.
It is recommended that the projects vigorously encourage the federation of CBOs. In this way, the advantages of working with small groups would remain, and individual CBOs would retain their independence and self-identity. A federation could increase the CBOs' bargaining power which they could translate into reasonable terms of access to capital and credit, to cheaper and better farm inputs, as well as to markets and better prices for their products and services. If the federation were large enough and strong enough, it could influence Government policy. The federation could be a network through which information, expertise, and technology were accessed and exchanged. For the projects, the federation's network could be an alternate or supplemental channel for reaching people. A federation should not replace individual groups, just as groups should not completely replace working with individuals. It is suggested that the projects introduce the idea of a federation to project senior and junior staff and initiate a dialogue to clarify and generate ideas regarding its feasibility. The same could then be undertaken, first, with small groups of VDCs and their sub-groups and later with larger groups, perhaps at township level. Meanwhile, VDCs and sub-groups should be more involved in the process of planning and procuring inputs as well as working out product marketing within increasing competition. These participatory activities could provide insights, direction and experience to federation.
It is recommended that the HDI program review its community organizations' campaign and consider supporting the community's traditional way of coping; form a community coordinating body which each HDI CBO is represented. If the HDI projects' objective for organizing CBOs is to develop and train the villagers and the poor to be leaders, it is recommended that CBO leadership should be rotated and that apprenticeship of members to leaders be considered. This may help build a larger cadre of leaders from which to draw.
Throughout Phase III it is recommended that the projects continue to establish linkages and networking between the CBOs and Government as well as with private sector service providers of inputs, information, marketing, credit, banking, extension and research. Village CBOs in isolation will soon lose their usefulness. Contact with other CBOs and service providers is their lifeblood.
(3) Documenting and Disseminating Local Knowledge Systems
It is recommended that the three projects should continue their work of documenting local knowledge systems. What is local knowledge in one area may not necessarily be local knowledge in all communities. The projects should seek to popularize local knowledge beyond the areas in which it is found. When disseminated to other communities, farmer researchers will usually take on the testing and adaptation of this knowledge to fit their own conditions. The projects have prepared extension-teaching materials and the HDIS has also provided training to project staff in the preparation of leaflets.
(4) Community Level Planning
It is recommended that the projects continue to develop their participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and farming systems approaches, making rural people partners in the planning, implementation, and evaluation process. In terms of PRA the projects should be sensitive to how the local communities themselves can undertake PRA. Local methodologies could be developed or adapted jointly with project service users. Interaction should be encouraged between the social planners and the bio-physical scientists. Efforts should be made to enable villages and CBOs to be involved in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of their own data. They should know what information exists and should have ready access to it.
(5) Seasonal Migration
It is recommended that in the Dry Zone, the project pursue its efforts in identifying non-farm income-earning activities which could be undertaken within the community or on the farm, thereby reducing the need for migration. Preference for labour-intensive projects should continue to be given priority.
Where seasonal migrants are also farmers projects should continue to identify measures that could further increase the productivity of their farms, thereby reducing the need to seek supplemental income from migrant employment.
For school children who must accompany their parents during seasonal migration, projects should discuss with school authorities the possibility of allowing these children to continue schooling in the school nearest the place they migrate to. Their home school could provide the children with certificates of enrollment which they would present to their new school. When they leave these new schools to return to their home villages, they would be provided with school performance records. These records would then be added to the home school records. In this way there would be only short breaks in school attendance due to travel time and the children would not need to drop out of school. There is, however, a problem when families move from place to place within a migrant season due to lack of steady employment.
The HDI Health Project should consider programmes to reduce the health hazards affecting migrants and their communities. For example, providing migrants with malaria tablets, undertaking a study of the issue of lead-induced illness, and expanding the AIDS-control program to cover the mines and public works sites.
It is recommended that a separate study on the implications of seasonal migration be commissioned by UNDP. This should include a historical documentation of the evolution of migration, and a review of its relationship to health, education, agriculture, natural resource degradation, security, and economics.
(6) Performance Ranking of Villages
As a first step in determining which villages to exit from, the projects have started to categorize participating villages according to high, medium and low performance. The HDIS has also begun village tract analysis as part of their substantive series. The performance exercise made villagers more analytically aware of their own village as well as of other project villages. It is recommended that these incidental effects should be further explored and possibly adapted to generate constructive village self-determination and competitiveness. The indicators used to measure performance should be reviewed and possibly revised to include more substantive and qualifying (rather than quantifying) indicators or a combination of both. Community ethno-linguistic and religious affiliations as well as reciprocal relationships between community socio-economic groups should be taken into account when measuring performance.
(7) Micro Income-earning Activities:
Handicraft: The weaving of nipa shingles, bamboo wall sidings and mats are handicraft activities which are common to all zones. It is recommended that the projects continue to promote and support the maintenance of nipa/bamboo/palm groves and their related handicraft industries. Further, the development of new weaving designs, techniques of treating the materials to extend their lifetime, as well as seeking additional ways of using the raw or woven materials should be actively encouraged. In collaboration with architects, builders, the tourist sector, the agriculture and forestry departments of Government as well as art/craftsmen's guilds, the projects could consider organizing simple competitions cum trade fairs to meet these objectives. Foreign embassies could be approached to participate in these fairs, either volunteering judges from their countries who are also craftsmen, showing films of similar crafts from their countries, presenting small exhibits of tools, crafts, or books for the same or similar materials. Alternately, the projects could offer to handle simple workshops in, for example, design, finishing, or treating. Such competitions cum trade fairs would sell Myanmar's products within and outside the country, as well as encourage further development of the industry. Unlike other crafts like textiles or decor crafts, these should be looked at from the standpoint of their utilitarian uses. Moreover, making nipa and bamboo housing an indicator of poverty will have a negative effect on the industry. If the use of these materials is avoided because of their implications, nipa and bamboo growing will decline along with the environment they sustain and the employment they generate.
Woodcrafts: including lumber and carving, as well as ceramics, should be reviewed for potential development as handicrafts. The use of poles, coconut lumber, coconut coir for stuffing seats, making packing materials, even as planting medium for greenhouse and intensive vegetable gardening may be worth exploring.
Weaving: The Swedish and back-strap cloth loom weaving workshops which have been sponsored by the Delta and Dry Zone projects for village women should be continued. Provided the projects are careful not to train too many weavers, there will be a local market for their products.
Trading and Retailing
A number of small trading and retailing activities have been assisted by all three projects. These include rice, fish paste, beetlenut, cloth and dry goods. Women show particular interest in small trading. Trading and retailing are activities women can engage in during their spare time, particularly if the trade is in dry goods, processed foods and textiles which are not so perishable. While present incomes from these activities may be small, it is recommended that women be supported to expand their operations. For example: a) small groups or a few individuals could be financed to undertake the trade in farm inputs including seeds, pesticides, fertilizers, farm tools and implements; b) small groups could be encouraged and financed to buy and trade in farm produce. The landless could go into partnership with producers, handling post harvest operations as well as marketing. There are a number of such activities taking place throughout the project areas. What may be needed is to identify these activities and discuss with the villagers, the landless and women in particular, the possibilities of their engaging in these activities with funding from the project and/or from their revolving funds.
Cereal banking
Since areas covered by the three projects suffer from chronic or seasonal food scarcity, it is recommended that cereal banking be considered by the projects as both a food security and an income-earning activity. Project records show that borrowing for rice during hunger periods as well as rice retailing are WIGG activities. Therefore, it is recommended that cereal banking be placed in the hands of women's groups. The cereal banking model popularized by FAO and WFP could be adapted to cover, for example, the following activities in rice cereal banking:
I. cash loans to poor farmers, to be repaid in paddy after harvest at prevailing prices;II. purchase village rice production after harvest for storage, payment in cash at prevailing prices;
III. rice-for-work loans during hunger months at market or less than market values, repaid in cash at 2 percent per month interest;
IV. rice retailing available to entire village, purchases paid for in cash at prevailing prices;
V. seed available to all farmers for planting, on cash and carry basis.
As the women's groups develop experience and skill in paddy cereal banking, they could branch out to cover other crops such as maize, sesame, groundnuts, chickpeas and other legumes.
It is recommended that the projects should consider the upgrading of the business skills of women's groups through small community workshops in which the women could learn to analyze their project records and use their findings to improve their businesses. Women's income-earning activities need not be limited to the scale of operation which earns for them only small incomes. These often restrict women to hand-to-mouth incomes, leaving nothing to be invested in expansion or diversification. Women are capable of owning and managing middle to large-scale enterprises. Projects should guard against depending only on gender stereotyped jobs or income-earning activities. There is a need to explore and provide opportunities to either sex to engage in income-earning activities other than those which are gender tagged. There is also a need to be aware of gender-differentiated constraints and the need to provide supporting activities which address these constraints. These may include ways to reduce the time required to fetch water and firewood, or the provision of some form of day care centre so that mothers can be given extra time to engage in income-earning activities.
(8) Credit
All projects provide start-up capital and credit to CBOs as well as individual beneficiaries. The sensitivity and responsiveness of the credit programmes to the seasonal character of the enterprises for which they are used, is perhaps the most important advantage of the capital and credit schemes which the three projects support.
Most community projects are designed to generate income to initiate revolving fund schemes for the beneficiary community. It is recommended that the projects build in simple but adequate mechanisms for monitoring the administration and management of revolving funds. It is equally important that the villagers or beneficiaries be trained to use these mechanisms.
Not all start-up and credit portfolios charge interest on loans. It is recommended that interest on loans should be adopted for all start-up and credit activities of the three projects. The establishment of this interest rate should take into account administrative charges plus a small amount of profit, and should be fixed on either a per-month or annual rate basis. There should be closer monitoring of group lending to ensure that all members share equally in the risks as well as in the profits.
For the poorer beneficiaries, credit is often used for consumption purposes as is the case with the rice-for-work programme. It is recommended that the rice for work programme should be reviewed and designed in such a way that it can maintain itself. The women who borrow rice so they are able to negotiate for better wages from the farmers for whom they work should be encouraged to regularly save a fraction of the increased wages which they earn. Eventually, their savings should be sufficient so that they will no longer need to borrow rice. They can use their savings just as if they were borrowing from themselves.
Not all eligible beneficiaries will be willing to borrow for income-earning activities. This is particularly true of the poorer members of a community who are wary of risks. They would prefer steady employment rather than involvement in an uncertain microenterprise. In this regard, it is recommended that the projects consider enterprises that can employ members of the community who need steady wages. Many of the community microenterprises including rice mills, fish hatcheries, boat services, farm machinery repair shops and cereal banks could employ a few such persons on a regular basis.
(9) Women's access to microenterprises
The difference between male and female microenterprise ventures lies in the relative size of the activities. This is due primarily to women's lack of time to engage full time in the enterprise. Women respond to this problem by working as a group. The draw back to this strategy is that a group, rather than an individual must share in whatever earnings are derived. In the end, individual incomes may be very small. It is recommended that the projects consider the following possibilities to allow women to invest their time more effectively in microenterprise activities:
i) Organize community day care centers in order to free mothers from caring for their pre-schoolers for a few hours a day. This time could be used to engage in microenterprise work. In addition the day care center would provide employment for one or two child-care givers;ii) Campaign for equal sharing of the domestic chores. One way of highlighting domestic chores is to put a value on them. If household members understand that women could earn more if they were not tied down to household chores, they might be more willing to take on some of the work;
iii) Enhance women's skill levels to make them economically more productive within a given period. Improving the quality of finished products and services could increase the price received and ultimately increase total earnings. Reduction of losses and wastage of raw materials, along with the possibility of recycling scrap into marketable products could reduce production costs and increase profit margins.
iv) Encourage women to engage in economically more profitable microenterprises. Together with the women, the projects should prepare feasibility studies of the possible microenterprises they can engage in. In this way the women can select microenterprises that fit their particular situations and which are likely to earn them better incomes. If some of these enterprises require larger amounts of credit the projects should be willing to finance them provided that the feasibility studies have been properly made.
