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ACP |
African, Caribbean and Pacific Countries |
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EC |
European Community |
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FAO |
Food and Agriculture Organization |
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NWFP |
Non-Wood Forest Products |
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INE |
Instituto Nacional de Estatística |
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DNE |
Direcção Nacional de Estatística |
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DNFFB |
Direcção Nacional de Florestas e Fauna Bravia |
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US$ |
United States Dollar |
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Kg |
Kilogram |
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NGO |
Non-Governmental Organization |
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EMOFAUNA |
Empresa Moçambicana de Fauna |
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GERFFA |
Gestão dos Recursos Florestais e Faunísticos |
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Transfrontier Conservation Areas |
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SPFFB |
Serviços Provinciais de Florestas e Fauna Bravia |
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IUCN |
International Union for Conservation of Nature |
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SADC |
Southern African Development Community |
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CBNRM |
Community Based Natural Resources Management |
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ADB |
African Development Bank |
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GNP |
Gorongosa National Park |
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GNRMA |
Gorongosa Natural Resources Management Area |
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ZNP |
Zinave National Park |
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SEI |
Sociedade de Estudos e Investimento |
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RSA |
Republic of South Africa |
The traditional "management paradigm" world-wide is that if forests are properly used and managed, then the use of non-wood forest products will be sustainable. If data on non-wood forest ecosystems is systematically gathered by Forest Departments, the non-wood component will be easily integrated into the planning, implementation and monitoring levels of the adopted forest management system.
The Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife in Mozambique is committed, through its policy and sector development strategy and its five year development programme (PROAGRI), to protect, conserve and utilize forestry and wildlife resources in a sustainable way. The successful materialization of these objectives is the first step to ensuring economical, ecological and social benefits of both present and future generations. The Sector Policy and Development Strategy addresses the use of resources by local communities in the context of conserving biological diversity and promoting economic self sufficiency.
If more than 80% of rural people are poor and traditionally rely on existing non-wood goods and services, and if biological diversity conservation has to be assumed as a serious challenge, then sustainability and its related social and ecological benefits have to be secured from well conceived management programmes. However, this will not be realistic unless data on non-wood forest goods and services are systematically collected.
Scientific data on non-wood forest products in tropical countries, and particularly in Mozambique, are lacking or simply scarce. Furthermore, the knowledge of their economical and social uses, as well as their distribution and market, are limited.
The main aim of the current study is to present both qualitative and quantitative information on the most important uses, distribution and market for the country's non-wood forest products, and for goods and services, other than timber and fuelwood. The study also intends to prepare country data on non-wood forest products goods and services which will be required for planning and sustainable use of forest resources.
The information presented in this study is based on a review of the available literature, professional experience and the personal observations of the authors, as well as on the non-wood forest products market survey.
Among various concepts and definitions, 1FAO (1995) defines non-wood forest products (NWFP) as consisting of goods of biological origin other than wood, as well as services, derived from forests and allied land uses, and trees outside forests.
In a broader context, 2FAO (1998) suggests that the NWFP definition includes non-wood goods and services, available from both forest and trees outside the forests, i.e. home gardens, wind break plantations, etc. NWFPs are mainly either for subsistence or for commercialization in local, domestic or regional markets.
There are a wide range of NWFPs that are produced and marketed by rural communities in Mozambique. Notable ones include (i) medicinal plants, (ii) grass, (iii) bamboo, (iv) reed and veldt foods, such as wild vegetables, fruits and tubers. The degree to which they are marketed depends on the distance to and from the market.
Medicinal plants are gathered in small quantities from dispersed locations throughout rural communities in Mozambique. However, the main markets are located in urban centres, such as Nampula, Beira, Quelimane and Maputo. It would appear therefore that the cost of transport is a major limiting factor to the commercialization of medicinal plants owing to the fact that the margin of profit is rather low.
Other products, such as bamboo and reeds, are relatively far away from the main markets and thus local traders have faced serious difficulties in transporting them to the main markets.
Other types of NWFPs that are of extreme importance and contribute to the income of rural households, especially along the coastline, are cashew nuts and mangoes.
1 Definition proposed and adopted at the International Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products, organized by FAO, Jogjakarta, Indonesia, January, 1995
2 Definition proposed by country representatives to the FAO/UNEP/EC workshop on data collection and analysis for sustainable forest management in ACP countries held in Mutare, Zimbabwe, December, 1998.
Mozambique covers an area of 799,380 km2 and occupies the south-eastern part of Africa. The coastline extends from the Rovuma River mouth (10027'S) to the South African border (260 52'S). It is bordered by Tanzania to the north, by Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Swaziland in the west, and by the Indian Ocean to the east. It covers about 78.6 million hectares, of which 62 million are natural vegetation.
The climate is subtropical in the south and tropical in the centre and the north. There are two distinct seasons: rainy and dry. The rainy season is from November to March, October and April being transitional ones. The coastline usually receives 800-900 mm of rainfall per year. North of Save River, the rainfall is even greater, ranging from 1,000 to 1,400 mm. However, in Gaza province and Tete there are places where the climate becomes drier with rainfall dropping rapidly from about 600 to 400 mm, especially along the boundary with Zimbabwe.
According to INE (I997), the total population is around 16,5 million3. The rural population is estimated at 80 % of the total population. The population density is 21 inhabitants per km2. Distribution is uneven, Maputo province and city (capital) are about 1.02 million inhabitants i.e. 3,384 inhab/km2 while Niassa province is the less densely populated 6 inhab/km2.
Mozambique, because of its geographical position and extension (about 2,700 km of coastline), exhibits diverse climatic and edaphic conditions that contribute to creating diverse ecosystems. The purpose of this section is to describe the major vegetation types that occur within the country since there is a correlation between the types and utilization of NWFPs, and the vegetation type that occurs in a specific habitat.
Sub-hygrophilous forest is one representative of the closed forest, which occurs chiefly in the Zambeze, Manica, Sofala and Cabo Delgado provinces. This forest formation occupies relatively small and scattered areas, at the foot or on the mountain ridges where the amount of precipitation is greater than 1,800 mm, like on the southern and eastern slopes of the Namuli, Milange, Tamassa, Gorongosa and Chimanimani mountains and on the Mueda plateau. The most common tree species are: Mellitia excelsa, Cordyla africana, Kigelia africana, Morus lactea, Newtonia Buchananii, Ficus spp. Uapaca spp. and Vitex spp.
Mountain forests are closed and moist and usually occur in very restricted area's subject to heavy rainfall (> 2000 mm) and frequent fog, such as Gorongosa and Chimanimani mountains, in Sofala and Manica provinces, and in the highest parts of mountains in Zambezia province. The dominant tree species are: Widdringtonia whytei, Acacia xiphocarpa, Podocarpus sp., Celtis dioica, Aphloia myrtifolia, Maesa lanceolata and Rauwolfia inebriens.
Woodlands are the most common vegetation type in the country. The most relevant broad-leaved woodlands are miombo and mopane, followed by cimbirre woodlands. However, there is occurrence of diverse undifferentiated woodlands characterized by the dominance or codominance of the following genera or species: Acacia spp., Strychnos spp., Combretum spp, Terminalia spp., Adansonia digitata, Milletia stuhlmannii, Uapaca spp., Trichilia emetica, Sclerocarya birrea, Guibourtia conjugata, Hymenocardia ulmoides, Pteleopsis myrtifolia, Xeroderris stuhlmannii, Albizia versicolor, A. adianthifolia, Afzelia quanzensis, Burkea africana, Pterocarpus spp., Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia, Dialium schllechteri, Lonchocarpus capassa, Syzigium cordatum and Garcinia livingstonei.
Miombo is characterized by the dominance of trees in the genera Brachystegia and Julbernardia of the family Fabaceae, subfamily Caesalpinoideae (Chidumayo,1997; Frost, 1996; Malaisse, 1975). Miombo is the most common vegetation type in the country. Its territory extends from the Rovuma river in the north up to the Limpopo river mouth in the south. The dominant soils are typically acid, characterized by low cation exchange capacities, low in nitrogen and extractable phosphorus (Frost, 1996; Desanker et al. 1995, Chidumayo, 1997). According to White (1983) the common Mozambican miombo is dry and is characterized by having a canopy height of less than 15 m and a vegetation floristically impoverished, it occurs in areas receiving precipitation less than 1000 mm per year.
Mopane is characterized by the dominance of only one specie, Colophospermum mopane, which forms pure stands. Mopane is characteristic of semi-arid habitats. This vegetation occupies extensive areas in the western part of the country. In Gaza province, it is found in the northern part of the Libombo hills, the region of Pafuri-Changalane-Massangena. In Tete province, it occurs in the southern part bordering the Zambeze River. It is also found in a variety of soils at various altitudes ranging from clay to sandy. Other species commonly encountered in the mopane communities are Commiphera spp., Terminalia prunioides, Combretum apiculatum, C. imberbe, Kirkia acuminata and Adansonia digitata.
Cimbirre woodlands are characterized by the dominance of Androstachys johnsonii. Cimbirre typically constitutes a canopied, unistratal, even-aged woodland with an open understory composed of scattered grasses and slender stemmed shrubs of Croton pseudopulchellus. Cimbirre woodlands occur on well-drained, xeric and deep red sands.
Thickets occur on medium to heavy textured base saturated soils, but sometimes on sands. In southern Mozambique, thickets occur on sand throughout the whole region from the seafacing windward slopes of the littoral dunes across the central coast plains to the inland sands (EATS, 1990). Different thicket types are characterized by particular species dominance (EATS, 1990) or mix of related species ( Mangue, P. pers. obs). The most common thickets are: thickets and bush clumps, clay thickets, termitaria clump-thickets, sand thickets, ravine thickets and reverie thickets.
Fineleaved forests are usually found in the Acacia communities. The dominant species are Acacia nilotica, A. nigrescens, A. senegal, A. tortilis, A. xantophloea and Dichrostachys cinerea.
Mangroves, along with reverie forests, are the most important wetland ecosystem in Mozambique. Other important wetland ecosystems are: mixed freshwater swamp forest, reed swamps, mixed herb swamps and grass swamps.
Gallery forests/Reverie forest - Reverie forests are characterized by bordering the banks of rivers and streams. They consequently contain species tolerant to regular seasonal inundation. This vegetation type plays a very important ecological function by consolidating the riverbanks and thus controlling the course of torrential waters. Currently, gallery forests are found in the northern and central part of the country as they were severely depleted in the south. The most common tree species are Khaya antoteca, Adina microcephala, Erythrophleum suaveolens, Diospyros mespiliformis, Sterculia africana, Acacia forbesii, A. karroo, Breonadia microcephala, Cassia abbreviata, Garcinia livingstonei, Hymenocardia ulmoides, Maytenus senegalensis, Mimosops fruticosa, M. obovata, Lannea stuhlmannii, Pteleopsis myrtifolia, Sideroxylon inerme, Spirostachys africana, etc.
Mangroves - Mangrove resources in Mozambique, play an important role in the social and economic welfare of the country. They also play an important role in the natural functioning of the biological, physical, geological and chemical situation of the environment where man lives. With these dual functions, mangrove resources deserve to be well managed for the purpose of preservation and it is necessary to secure their conservation for future generations.
The mangrove resources have also contributed for a long time to the economic development of the country. These include forestry products and mangrove dependent fishery resources that have been extracted from mangrove areas. Mangrove dependent fisheries alone contribute about 45% of the external revenue source of the country. Mangrove areas also provide other ecological and aesthetic amenities necessary for the further maintenance of the area.
The most important mangroves in the country are those of the estuary of the rivers Messalo, Zambezi, Pungué, Save, Limpopo and Maputo. There is considerable variation in structure and floristic composition along the coastline, depending upon local conditions. The characteristic species are: Sonneratia alba, Avicenia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera cylindrica, Heritiera littoralis, Lumnitzera racemosa and Xylocarpus granatum.
Figure 1. The Distribution of Mangroves along the Coastline of Mozambique.
Font: Mangrove management project, DNFFB (1998)
Legend of the Figure 1:
Mangal: Mangroves;
Dunas Costeiras: Sand Dunes;
Coasta de Coral: Corals;
Zonas Rochasas: Rocky shores
Eight species of mangroves have been identified in the northern and central part of Mozambique. Table 1 shows the different species found in Mozambique and Figure 1 shows the distribution of mangroves along the coastline of Mozambique.
Table 1. Mangrove areas in ha per province and changes occurred between 1972 and 1990
|
(ha) |
Mangrove area 1990 (ha) |
Depleted Mangrove areas (ha) |
New area of Mangroves (ha) |
Deforestation rate over 18 years (%) |
Maputo |
14,605 |
12,599 |
2,217 |
211 |
15.2 |
Gaza |
387 |
387 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Inhambane |
20,094 |
19,848 |
246 |
0 |
1.2 |
Sofala |
129,997 |
125,317 |
6,334 |
1,654 |
4.9 |
Zambezia |
159,417 |
155,757 |
3,766 |
106 |
2.4 |
Nampula |
55,849 |
54,336 |
2,006 |
493 |
3.6 |
Cabo Delgado |
27,730 |
27,836 |
0 |
106 |
0 |
Total |
408,079 |
396,080 |
14,569 |
2,570 |
3.6 |
Source: Saket & Matusse, 1994.
The diversity of mangrove species decreases in the south. Xylocarpus granatum, Heritiera littoralis and Sonnaratia alba drop out of the association in the vicinity of Inhambane province. Avicennia marina, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Lumnitzera racemosa and Ceriops tagal become dominant, although the last two are less abundant and almost reach their southern limits. Table 2 shows a range of species found in Mozambique.
Table 2. The different mangrove species found in Mozambique.
Family |
Scientific Name |
Local Name (Sena) |
Avicenniaceae |
Invede | |
Combretaceae |
Lumnitzera racemosa |
Mpiripito |
Meliaceae |
Yxlocarpus granatum |
Inrubo/ M'rubo |
Rhizophoraceae |
Bruguiera gymnorhiza |
Mfinse |
Rhizophoraceae |
Ceriops tagal |
Nhacandale |
Rhizophoraceae |
Rhizophora mucronata |
Nhantazera |
Sonneratiaceae |
Sonneratia alba |
M'pia |
Sterculiaceae |
Heritiera littoralis |
Ncolongo |
Source: Zambezi delta Mangrove sub-project, IUCN Mozambique, 1997
Hughes & Hughes (1992) explained this pattern of distribution by the predominance of sandy, rather than muddy, shores in southern Mozambique and the increase in mean wind velocity and wave energy, and the progressive decline of winter temperatures in the south.
Mozambique is a maritime country. Most of the population lives along the coastal zone. A majority of the population are fishermen and subsistent farmers. The people depend on available resources for their needs. Mangrove resources are not spared from these uses. Traditionally, mangroves were harvested to be used as poles for building houses, for construction of fishing stakes, for drying fish catches and for fences. Some favourite species are used to make simple household furniture, such as tables, chairs, cabinets and beds. Small branches were used as firewood and construction of simple household articles, such as ladders, spoons, simple benches and tables. In some areas, mangroves are used to make charcoal for cooking and heating purposes. Deterioration of mangrove areas has been mostly observed in the coastal district of Dondo in Sofala due to uncontrolled harvesting of mangrove trees for charcoal making and firewood. On the other hand, there is evidence of sustainable use of mangrove forest products in the coastal zone of Marromeu. The main difference between the two areas is the accessibility of the resource to local residents and the number of people using the resource.
Reed swamps are dominated by Phragmites australis, Typha capensis and occasionally by Cyperus papyrus. In some lakes in the south, there is occurrence of a few floating-leafed aquatics like Nymphaea capensis. All over the country, the reed swamps are a source of building material and mattresses.
3 Statistical year book (DNE-1997)
