The natural ecosystem contributes to all aspects of local communities providing land for agriculture, leaf litter, building materials, medicine, fuelwood, wild foods, grazing and household commodities. It is also a source of many essential services, such as traditional medicine, ecotourism, control of erosion, maintenance of soil fertility and hydrological cycles. Much of the forests are also a source of cultural symbols and sacred sites.
Miombo is the most widespread vegetation in southern Africa. However, there are very few systematic studies which attempt to measure the overall value (NWFP) of miombo woodlands to local communities and compare the woodlands as a source of economy to other activities, such as timber, crop and livestock production (Clarke et al., 1996). In Mozambique, like in other tropical countries, most of the studies consist of forest inventories which are concerned only in enumerating that part of the ecosystem which is of interest for immediate exploitation of timber (UNESCO/UNEP/FAO, 1978; Mangue, P. personal obs.).
Albano et al. (1998) in their survey on NWFP in regulado de Santaca, southern Mozambique, recorded 41 edible fruit species, and Xavier (1998) in a remnant of miombo, in Senhote, northern Mozambique, an area of about 6,000 ha, found 144 tree species with multiple uses.
Trade in bamboo and palm products is mostly concentrated in urban areas, particularly in Maputo, Inhambane, Beira, Chimoio, Quelimane, Nampula, Tete and Pemba. In Maputo, there are a growing number of palm leaf processing small enterprises. The products are diverse, from furniture, through to baby's cots and carpets. The markets are large and usually located where there are more tourists, like on the roadside, in front of hotels, restaurants and along the beach. The prices vary, as can be seen from Table 3 below.
Table 3: Current prices of some non-wood goods
item (product) |
price/unit (US$) |
market |
Single chair for the living room |
30 |
Costa do Sol, Shoprite |
Complete set for the living room |
120 -150 |
Costa do Sol, Shoprite |
Book shelf |
50 -70 |
Costa do Sol, Shoprite |
Fruits are perhaps the most important wild food from the forest, since fruit trees bear fruits in different seasons and even in drought years. They can be eaten crude, cooked, roasted (seeds and nuts) or as a flower.
The preferred fruit species vary according to the region. Thus in Maputo the most valuable fruit trees are Sclerocarya birrea and Strychnus madagascariensis. In Manica Province, both Uapaca kirkiana and Sclerocarya birrea are known to be of greater importance due to their cultural value. Later in this report, the cultural value of these species will be discussed in detail. The value of Strychnus madagascariensis is based on its by-product fuma. Fuma can be consumed either by itself or with honey as a stable food during the hunger periods in the agricultural cycle.
Albano et al. (1998) in their survey on NWFP in "Regulado de Santaca", Maputo Province, recorded 41 edible fruit species. According to this survey, the most common fruits are Strychnos madagascariensis, S. spinosa, Sclerocarya birrea, Hyphaene coriacea, Phoenix reclinata, Aloe sp., Ficus sycomorus, Ximenia caffra, Boscia albitrunca, Diallium schlecteri, Trichilia emetica, Antidesma venosum, Ziziphus mucronata, Grewia sp., Garcinia livingistonei, Dovyalis longispina, Syzygium cordatum, Mimusops spp., Manilkara discolor, Landolphia kirki, Tabernaemontana elegans, Vangueria infausta, Coffea racemosa.
It is believed that around 80% of rural households still depend on wild animal protein as a supplement to their diet; these are either birds, reptiles, small mammals or amphibians (Chambal, 1997).
In the past, there was a clear difference between hunting strategies. The hunting was and still is a male activity. Although the children were allowed to accompany the adult males, big game hunting was restricted to adult males while small game hunting, like mice and birds, was left to the children. The prevailing hunting methods used by adults were snares, dog chasing and traps for the children (Joaquim Tembe, personal communication).
According to Chambal (1997) most of the game animals have been drastically reduced as a result of the Tripanosomiasis Control Mission, and secondly as a result of indiscriminated hunting undertaken during the civil unrest and more recently due to a lack of resource use control and law enforcement.
Although, the legislation states that permission to hunt requires a license, in practice it has been different. The number of legal hunters is very low. Local communities hunt and sell wild meat along the main roads or at local markets. But, in general, most wild meat is for household consumption, whilst, poachers are market oriented. They hunt specifically to sell in their houses, at some specific markets or to deliver to restaurants.
In hunting concession areas, the hunting quota has been increasing drastically. From 1992 to 1994 the quota increased, in average 74% for residents and 33% for non-residents (Nhantumbo and Soto, 1994).
Edible insects, in Mozambique, play a very significant role in food security in rural areas providing animal protein. The most common edible insects are caterpillars and termites. Caterpillars feeding on Sclerocarya birrea (Maputo and Gaza provinces), Burkea africana, Erythrophleum africanum (Manica, Sofala and Zambézia) and Colophospermum mopane (Tete provinces) are the most sought after by rural households. Although, Gaza along with Tete are the most densely covered provinces with Colophospermum mopane, local communities report the disappearance of "mopane worms" around the 70s, but the causes are not clear (Mangue, P. pers. obs.). Caterpillars are normally harvested by women and children. They can be cooked fresh or dried.
Termites dwell chiefly in miombo ecosystems and are very common during the rainy season. Since termites are attracted to light, in rural areas the harvesting techniques consist of placing a torch in a container of water, so that they can capture them. In villages and towns, it is common to see hundreds of children with baskets around electricity poles to collect the termites all night long. Although, every member of the household gathers termites, during the peak of the termite dispersal, the main harvesting group consists of women and children.
Leaves, mostly of herbaceous plants, contribute significantly to the diet of all rural households in Mozambique. The most common leaves consumed in Mozambique are Adeinia gummifera, Amaranthus sp., Corchorus tridens, Ipomea lapatifolia and momordica balsamica. These leaves are cooked with peanuts or Sclerocarya birrea nuts and consumed with rice or maize porridge.
Roots and tubers are consumed only on an occasional basis. The most important ones are Commiphora neglecta, Nymphaea capensis, Oxalis semilobata and Scilia hyacinthina (Albano et al. 1998).
Honey collection from the wild and beekeeping are very common practices all over the country. The most important honey trees are from miombo (in the genera Brachystegia) and acacia woodlands. The harvesting process often involves the use of fire. This technique kills many bees and the smog greatly reduces the quality of honey and beeswax.
Most honey and beeswax is produced traditionally by rural households. The number of traditional beekeepers has been estimated at 20,000 and the production of honey and beeswax at 360,000 and 60,000 kg per year, respectively (Nhatumbo and Soto, 1994). The production from modern beekeepers is estimated at 20,000 and 8,000 kg of honey and beeswax, respectively. In Maputo, the price of honey for domestic consumption has been increasing, from 3.66-4.16 US$/kg in 1994 (Nhatummbo and Soto, 1994) to 5.6 US$/kg in 1999 (Mangue and Nakala, current survey).
Presently, there are a growing number of people and organizations involved in beekeeping countrywide. The hard work carried out by the "Programa Nacional de Apicultura" from 1978 to 1994, can be referred to as an example of such a growing trend. In Manica, there is an effective beekeeping association run by women and supported by AMRU, a local NGO.
Mushrooms are one of the most sought after wild foods in natural ecosystems, particularly in the miombo ecosystem. The mushroom season starts with the first rains, early in November, with its peak in January. Despite the prevailing lack of officially recorded data, results from recent studies indicate that in Malawi, especially in the miombo ecosystems, 60 mushroom species were reported (Williamson cited by Clarke et al. 1996).
Households in rural areas rely on locally produced goods. The local producers are highly selective of species since certain attributes are required of the wood for specific purposes (Clarke et al. 1996). The most prominent characteristics are flexibility, durability, strength and resistance to splitting.
For mortars, pestles and plates, the preferred species are Afzelia quanzensis and Albizia versicolor, and for grinders the preferred species are Dialium schlecteri, Manilkara discolor and Newtonia hildebrandtii, Terminalia sericea, Diospyros inhacaensis and Spirostachys africana (Albano et al. 1998, Massango unpublished). Cooking sticks and plates are made from Afzelia quanzensis, Albizia versicolor, Cantunaregam spinosa, Trichilia emetica, Tabernaemontana elegans and Diplorhynchus condilocarpon (Albano et al. 1998). For weaving baskets and hats, palm tree leaves are used but for making brooms they use only the stem. The common palm species in the country are Phoenix reclinata and Hyphaene coriacea. Fish traps are made from Pavetta sp. and canoes from Balanites maughamii. For teeth brushing Euclea natalensis is preferred.
Forests also provide most agricultural tools, such as hoe and axe handles. Women rely on natural shampoos for cleaning their hair, mostly from Dicerocaryum senecioides. For fire starting, the common species are Brachylaena discolor and Tabernaemontana elegans (Albano et al. 1998). Other goods made from wood or cane are carved stools and sleeping mats. The most preferred tree species for wood carvings are Diospyros inhacaensis and Spirostachys africana.
Among various NWFP obtained from wetlands, mat production has been recorded as the most traded locally, starting from villages to the city belts of main towns. It is commonly used for sleeping on. However it also plays a major role in traditional ceremonies. It is made with Phragmitis australis and Cyperus papyrus.
In recent last years, wildlife was, along with the beaches, the most significant tourism attraction in Mozambique. This is not surprising, since according to UNESCO/UNEP/FAO (1978), within the tropics, Mozambique has one of the world's richest fauna diversity. However, in Mozambique, most animals were victim to illicit use during the civil unrest; consequently, the population of all large mammals is well below the hunting areas and park's carrying capacity.
Wildlife plays an important role in forest dynamics as seed dispersal and pollination agents (FAO, 1995). Thus, if we agree (UNESCO/UNEP/FAO, 1978) that major adjustment in the habitat can bring about major differences in animal population, conversely, significant changes in animal population and composition can also bring about significant alterations in the forest.
In view of the dangers with which wildlife and forests are threatened in most parts of tropical and subtropical Africa, new approaches to wildlife management have emerged. These land use systems are characterized by the involvement of local communities in management of natural resources. This form of management is rooted on the belief that if wildlife still persists it is because local communities are capable of managing their natural resources in a sustainable way.
In southern Africa there are a lot of good examples of wildlife management with the involvement of local communities. Those land use systems are termed CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe, ADMADE in Zambia, Tchuma Tchato in Mozambique, particularly in Tete province. They can sustain village nutrition, generate local income, employment and foremost conserve wildlife populations (FAO, 1995).
Table 4: Safari companies and animal number for 1994
Company |
Place |
Hunting concession area (nº.) |
Quantity |
Gaza |
Gaza-Chicualacuala |
16 |
245 |
Safrique Lda |
Sofala-Manica |
6,7,8,9,15 |
745 |
Madal Naimba |
Zambézia |
10 |
153 |
Promotor |
Sofala |
11 |
141 |
Moçamique Safari |
Tete |
Magoe |
299 |
Southern African Wild |
Safari |
4 |
182 |
EMOFAUNA |
Zambeze/Marromeu |
- |
- |
Source: Nhatumbo and Soto, 1994
In Mozambique, the best known and legally recognized community based wildlife resource management project is Tchuma Tchato. The name of the Project "Tchuma Tchato" in the local language has a connotation of "Our Wealth" i.e. wildlife resources under the Project area are part of the community wealth (The Bawa Village Community, 1997). Other natural resource management projects which currently involve local communities are listed below:
Project Title: Forest and Wildlife Resource Management Project (GERFFA)
Duration: 1996-2001
Locality: Sofala, Manica and Cabo Delgado Provinces
Main activities: (i) to provide institutional support to DNFFB and SPFFBS in the above provinces, (ii) to rehabilitate Gorongosa National Park and Marromeu Game Reserve, (iii) to develop social forestry; and (iv) to carry out forest resource inventories and prepare management plans for concessions.
Project Title: Transfrontier Conservation Areas and Institutional Strengthening (TFCA) Project.
Duration: 1997-2002
Locality: Gaza, Manica and Maputo Provinces
Main activities: (i) to provide institutional support to DNFFB and SPFFBS in the above provinces, (ii) to establish a Government presence in Banhine and Zinave National Parks, Maputo Game Reserve and Futi Corridor; and (iii) to develop community participation in wildlife management.
Project Title: Support for Community Forestry and Wildlife Management.
Duration: 1997-2002
Locality: Nampula and Maputo Provinces
Main activities: (i) to strengthen capacity of DNFFB and SPFFBS in community projects, (ii) to support formal education at Eduardo Mondlane University, and (iii) to implement pilot community forestry projects.
Project Title: Zambezi Valley Wetlands Conservation and Resource Utilization
Duration: 1997-2000
Locality: Sofala/Tete/Zambezia Provinces
This project is a SADC regional project involving all countries sharing the Zambezi River drainage system. It is under implementation by IUCN Mozambique Office in collaboration with a number of partners including DNFFB. The project contributes to CBNRM objectives of the Forest and Wildlife sector through (i) wetlands inventory, monitoring and evaluation; and (ii) assessing community needs, current use of resources and tenure issues.
Project Title: Expanding Tchuma Tchato in the Province of Tete
Duration: 1997-2000
Locality: Tete Province
The Tchuma Tchato community wildlife project is DNFFB's "flagship" example of community empowerment motivating successful land use based on wildlife management. The budget provides for (i) further strengthening of the Bawa community project; (ii) expansion of the project to Daque; (iii) training for SPFFB and project staff; (iv) DNFFB monitoring of the project.
The project is administered by IUCN Mozambique and approximately two-thirds of the Ford Foundation grant has been included in the amounts allocated against the Investment Programme.
Project Title: Niassa Reserve Management Programme.
Duration: Ongoing
Locality: Niassa Province
This joint venture aims at rehabilitation and expansion of Niassa Game Reserve through an initial "holding operation" with additional funds to be raised through lease of ecotourism rights to private operators. The project includes a corporate management structure which involves Government, Investimentos Niassa and local communities as shareholders.
In developing joint ventures with local communities, the following aspects are taken into consideration: (i) local community awareness and information on the company's activities, (ii) local community motivation and awareness of proposed ways for their involvement, (iii) informing local people on ways and opportunities to raise their skills, (iv) local community information and awareness of the benefits resulting from the joint development venture, (v) local communities awareness of the viable options for the development of a joint venture and (vi) negotiation with local communities.
There are four national parks covering an area of 16,150 km2, namely: (i) Gorongosa; (ii) Zinave, (iii) Banhine; and (iv) Bazaruto. According to the existing wildlife law, ecotourism development within the National Parks is limited to non-consumptive wildlife resource uses, such as game viewing and photographic safaris, etc. Qualitative and quantitative data on National Parks is presented in Table 5, below.
Table 5: National Parks: location and size
national park |
province |
area km2 |
notes | |
1. |
Banhine N.P. |
Gaza |
7,000 |
Rehabilitation commenced July 1997 -TFCA project |
2. |
Gorongosa N.P. |
Sofala |
5,370 |
Rehabilitation commenced 1996 under ADB project |
3. |
Zinave N.P. |
Inhambane |
3,700 |
Rehabilitation commenced July 1997 -TFCA project |
4. |
Bazaruto N.P. |
Inhambane |
80 |
|
TOTAL |
16,150 |
|||
In 1920, part of the Gorongosa (Vila Paiva de Andrade) District was set aside as a controlled hunting area to serve as the main source of animal protein to feed labour in major sugar and coconut plantations established at that time in the region. By 1935, the initial 1,000 km2 of hunting area was turned into a Game Reserve and the size increased to 3,000 km2. The first Headquarters was established in the early 1940s but due to floods, a year later it was abandoned and became the resting spot for lions -"lion house". By late 1950s, the Chitengo site was selected and a new headquarters was erected. In 1960, the game reserve was upgraded to a National Park with the actual surface area of 5,300 km2.
Until the breakout of the civil war, Gorongosa National Park had two major tourist camps: Chitengo and Boa-Vista - and the number of visitors reached its peak of 11,000 people in 1973. Due to the prevailing instability in the region and several attacks, the Park was closed in 1983 and all management and tourist activities ceased. All the Park's infrastructures were destroyed and the diverse and abundant wildlife reduced to a minimum.
In 1995, an emergency programme funded by the European Community and implemented by IUCN-ROSA, was designed to establish an anti-poaching holding team and initiate the rehabilitation work.
In October 1996, this programme ended successfully and GERFFA (Forest and Wildlife Management Project) of the National Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife (DNFFB) took over. Today a provisional Park HQs has been established in Chitengo after the rehabilitation of some ruins of the old camp and management activities have been re-established, including anti-poaching operations which are being carried out from 13 ranger posts established on the perimeter of the Park.
GERFFA project funded the by African Development Bank is entrusted with the responsibility of rehabilitating the park's infrastructures, establishing sound management practices, promoting applied research and creating the basis for tourism development.
The National Tourism Policy of Mozambique aims at attracting national and foreign tourists to benefit from the existing natural resources, and national and foreign investors to invest in developing those resources, enabling visitors to enjoy the tourism product, project a prestigious image of Mozambique to the World, create more job opportunities for Mozambicans, secure the participation of local communities as a way to guaranteeing their sustainable development, promote the development of regional and internal tourism, develop high quality regional and international tourism and give priority to, and provide incentives for, national entrepreneurs in the development of tourism.
The Gorongosa Natural Resource Management Area (GNRMA) is situated in Sofala Province in central Mozambique, between the lower reaches of the Pungue and Zambezi rivers and extending from Gorongosa Mountain eastwards to the coast, within the Districts of Gorongosa, Marromeu, Mwanza and Cheringoma.
Bisected by the Urema Trough, which is the southern end of the Great Rift Valley system of east Africa, the area can be divided into five regions, namely the Gorongosa Mountain, Gorongosa Plateau or midland, the Urema Trough, Cheringoma Plateau or Cuesta and the Cheringoma Coast.
The region has 43 vegetation types which can be put into 7 major groups; open mountain grassland, miombo woodland, savannah woodland, grasslands, riverine vegetation, mangrove and coastal dune vegetation. Within the five landscape regions identified in 2.1.1, the vegetation type areas are as follows:
Gorongosa Mountain - Open Mountain Grassland occurs on the summit, associated with marshy drainage lines in places. Granite outcrops on the summit are surrounded by thicket and short mountain forest, which merges with the more extensive tropical rain forest on the slope. Savannah woodlands occur on the lower slopes of the mountain. As an isolated inselberg, Gorongosa Mountain has many plants, which are unique to the region.
Gorongosa Plateau - The plateau is largely covered by savannah woodlands of the "Hill Miombo" type, which form a closed canopy savannah. Glades or patches of open grassland are also encountered in this region.
Urema Trough - Dry forest is found on the sandy areas of old river beds and alluvial fans, while tall tree savannahs with different dominant species are found on sandy clays and loam. Grasses are tall to medium height perennials. The floodplain consists of short open grasslands, especially on southern and north-western plains around the Urema Lake. In areas with abundant large termite hills, these are covered by trees or bush thickets forming islands in the area of open grassland or savannah cover.
The Cheringoma Plateau or Cuesta - The steep, westward slopes are covered by miombo woodlands with dry forest and thicket along the lines of numerous reverie and tall ravine forest trees growing along the ravine floors. To the east of the escarpment, on the gently undulating deep slopes, miombo woodland is interspersed with water logged drainage line grasslands or dambos. Where the dambos are incised, their banks support gallery forests or swamp forests in areas of poor drainage. On lower areas near the coast, thickets of heath are found.
The Cheringoma Coast - The Zambezi Delta alluvial grasslands and papyrus swamps narrow to the south behind broad areas of mangrove forests along the delta front and at the mouths of Cheringoma rivers. On the drier areas, palms and clumps of savannah lie between the flood channels. These merge into the dambo miombo and the forest of the Cheringoma cuesta. The coastal line consists of a low plain with straight beaches and lower barrier dunes fixed by scrub thicket. At the river mouths, extensive mangrove swamps and salt marches occur behind sand pits.
The GNRMA is potentially home to a wide variety and abundance of wildlife, ranging from rare birds to large mammals. Gorongosa Mountain is particularly well endowed with many mountain forest birds, some of which are unique to the area.
The miombo woodlands of the Gorongosa plateau also have a wide variety of birds, as well as being the prime habitat for Sable and Liechtenstein's Heartbeats among other ungulates.
The Rift Valley, apart from a variety of different birds some of which are of international significance like the Wattle Crane, used to support large numbers of Buffaloes, wildebeest, hippo, elephant, zebra, lion, waterbuck, sable, eland reedbuck impala, kudu, nyala, bushbuck, oribi, duikers and suni. Although hunting for ivory and meat has decimated most of these herds by various armed groups between 1983 to 1995, positive recovering of most species has been observed lately (Zolho and Dutton, 1997)
Several unique features are recognized in the GNRMA which make it worth considering for future integrated development for specialized markets.
By virtue of its physical structure and relief and associated changes in vegetation, the area between the coast and Gorongosa Mountain is one of the regions with the highest biodiversity in Mozambique. The ecosystems form a grid pattern, through the north/south Rift coast parallel zones, cross/linked by riverine bands from inland to the coast, and off both slopes of the cuesta (Tinley, 1997) have been identified 74 different vegetation systems, 15 geological formations and some 40 soil types. This has given rise to an extraordinarily rich flora with thousands of different species; a high species diversity of reptiles, frogs and fish, with at least one endemic (a mountain minnow); an avifauna of 500 or more species; 25 wild ungulate species including seven miniature antelope; six primates and three galagos (Tinley, 1995).
From Gorongosa Mountain on a clear day views of the surrounding countryside reach as far as the frontier mountain range to the west and the Chiri river confluence with the Zambezi to the North. Views of the mountain from the Rift Valley are imposing, while the limestone ravines of the western Rift Valley wall (Cheringoma Plateau) are spectacular. The delta plains and the coast are interesting while the feeling of an untamed African wilderness permeates the entire area.
Zinave National Park is approximately 3,700 km². It has some of the best wildlife habitats in southern Africa. It was, initially, declared a hunting concession in 1962 and was run by Mozambique Safarilandia, and was upgraded to National Park status in 1972. Most of the ZNP is located in the north-western corner of the Mabote District of the Inhambane Province.
Fishing and hunting, which forms the livelihood of a number of people who net and dry fish or seek meat for their own consumption or for sale, is currently taking place mainly along the Save River which crosses the ZNP.
The species which were found in the recent past and those which are present today, are shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Large mammal species which are known to have occurred in ZNP and their present status.
Species |
Status |
Elephant |
Nil |
Black rhino |
Nil |
Hippo |
Said to be about 100 left |
Giraffe |
Nil |
Buffalo |
Nil |
Zebra |
Nil |
Eland |
Nil |
Kudu |
Few still present |
Nyala |
Few still present |
Bushbuck |
Few still present |
Roan antelope |
Nil |
Sable antelope |
Nil |
Waterbuck |
Nil |
Common reedbuck |
Very few. |
Wildebeest |
Nil |
Lichtenstein hartebeest |
Nil |
Impala |
Few still present |
Steenbok |
Common in suitable habitat |
Sharpe's grysbok |
Common in suitable habitat |
Klipspringer |
Common in suitable habitat |
Grey duiker |
Common in suitable habitat |
Suni |
Common in suitable habitat |
Warthog |
A few present |
Bushpig |
Present |
Lion |
Nomads pass through |
Leopard |
Few still present |
Cheetah |
Nil |
Wild dog |
Nil |
Spotted hyena |
Few still present |
Font: Transfrontier Conservation Areas and Institutional Strengthening Project (TFCA)/DNFFB
Game Reserves in Mozambique, most of which are under rehabilitation programmes, cover three provinces, namely: Niassa, Zambezia and Sofala, and extend over an area of 18,600 km2 (see Table 5).
game reserve |
province |
area km2 |
notes | |
1. |
Gile |
Zambezia |
2,100 |
Status uncertain. Air survey planned for 1997 under ADB project. Rehabilitation 1998 |
2. |
Marromeu |
Sofala |
1,500 |
Rehabilitation commenced 1996 under ADB project with further inputs from Zambezi Wetlands project |
3. |
Niassa |
Niassa |
15,000 |
Better status of wildlife than other areas. Receiving assistance under joint venture with MADAL. |
TOTAL |
18,600 |
|||
Private sector investment is being sought in the context of the overall five year Agriculture and Fisheries Development Master Programme, to rehabilitate all Game Reserves. Presently, two of the above areas are already under agreements with private sector investors. Niassa Game Reserve is receiving support under an agreement with Grupo Madal and Maputo Game Reserve is under an agreement with Blanchard Mozambique Enterprises.
The main activities for ecotourism development, other than rehabilitation, are (i) ecological monitoring (ii) reserves management (iii) community mobilization and awareness campaigns and (iv) concessions development and joint management agreement promotions.
The hunting areas, in turn, cover about 51,206 km2. Most of the hunting areas are concentrated in four provinces: Manica (37 %), Sofala (30%), Gaza (19.5%) and Inhambane (13%).
There are 13 gazetted hunting areas in Mozambique ranging in size from 300km2 to 12,300km2 and totalling 59,700km2 in area (see Table 6).
To make investment attractive in these hunting areas, private safari hunting operators require a reasonable period of lease, probably not less than 10 years.
Table 8: Hunting areas "Coutadas"
hunting area |
area km2 | |
1. |
Coutada 4 |
12,300 |
2. |
Coutada 5 |
6,868 |
3. |
Coutada 6 |
4,563 |
4. |
Coutada 7 |
5,408 |
5. |
Coutada 8 |
300 |
6. |
Coutada 9 |
4,333 |
7. |
Coutada 10 |
2,008 |
8. |
Coutada 11 |
1,928 |
9. |
Coutada 12 |
2,963 |
10. |
Coutada 13 |
5,683 |
11. |
Coutada 14 |
1,350 |
12. |
Coutada 15 |
2,000 |
13. |
Coutada 16 |
10,000 |
TOTAL |
59,704 | |
Game ranching, ecotourism development, game farming, commercial and sport hunting, are some of the diversified wildlife services in Mozambique. Wildlife products trade and marketing, including wild and live animal exports, constitute a more common service. Table 9 shows a wide range of services offered by the wildlife sector.
Table 9: Wildlife services by company and region
region |
province |
location |
company or project name |
service |
remarks |
Maputo |
Chikwirimiti Moçambique |
4,5 |
on going | ||
Maputo |
Umbeluzi |
Crocodilo de Umbeluzi |
3 |
interrupted | |
Maputo |
Matutuine |
Machangulo Reserva da |
|||
Natureza |
2,4 |
on going | |||
Maputo |
Sabie |
Korumana Joint Safaris |
1,2,4 |
to commence | |
Maputo |
Magude |
Reserva de Caça de |
|||
Mapulanguene |
1,2,4 |
n.a. | |||
Maputo |
n.a. |
African Dive Safaris |
|||
n.a. |
(P.Manoli) |
2,5 |
n.a. | ||
In'mbane |
n.a. |
Criação de Crocodilos |
3 |
interrupted | |
In'mbane |
n.a. |
Crocodilos de Moçambique |
3 |
on going | |
Southern |
Gaza |
Coutada 16 |
Gaza Safaris de Moçambique |
4,5 |
on going |
Region |
Gaza |
Chigubo |
Safaris de Banhine |
2,5 |
|
Tete |
n.a. |
Safaris de Caça |
2,5 |
on going | |
Tete |
n.a. |
Safaris de Moçambique |
2,5 |
on going | |
Tete |
Zumbo |
Chumachato |
6 |
on going | |
Manica |
n.a. |
Crocodilos de Manica |
3 |
cancelled | |
Manica |
n.a. |
Captura de Répteis |
3,5 |
to commence | |
Manica |
Dombe |
Rancho da Caça Stimbak |
1 |
to commence | |
Manica |
Coutada 4 |
Díceros Lda |
4 |
in rehabilitation | |
Manica |
Coutada 7 |
Kambako Investimentos |
4 |
in rehabilitation | |
Manica |
Coutada 9 |
Rio Save Safaris |
4 |
in rehabilitation | |
Manica |
Coutada 13 |
Nhati Safaris e Turismo |
4 |
in rehabilitation | |
Sofala |
n.a. |
Zambeze Delta Safaris |
2,4 |
on going | |
Sofala |
n.a. |
Captura e Exportação de |
|||
Sofala |
n.a. |
Animais |
1,5 |
on going | |
Sofala |
n.a. |
PGS Safaris Mozambique |
2,4 |
to commence | |
Sofala |
n.a. |
Coovida Moçambique |
2,5 |
n.a. | |
Sofala |
Coutada 5 |
SEI |
4 |
in negotiation | |
Sofala |
Cout's 6/15 |
Moçambique Safaris |
4 |
in rehabilitation | |
Sofala |
Coutada 10 |
Bahati Adventures |
4 |
in rehabilitation | |
Sofala |
Coutada 11 |
Promotur |
4,5 |
on going | |
Central |
Sofala |
Coutada 12 |
Companhia de Moçambique |
4 |
in rehabilitation |
Region |
Sofala |
Coutada 14 |
Wicker Trading Consultants |
4,5 |
on going |
C.Delgado |
Lugenda |
Lugenda Safaris |
2,4 |
n.a. | |
C.Delgado |
Montepuez |
Reserva de Kambako |
2,4 |
on going | |
C.Delgado |
I. Q'mbas |
Quirimbas |
2,6 |
in negotiation | |
Northern |
Niassa |
Gestão e Desenvolvimento |
|||
Region |
da Reserva do Niassa |
2,4,6 |
on going |
Source: TFCA 1998 annual report
Note: Wildlife service in column 5: Game ranching (1), Eco-tourism development (2), Game farming (3), Commercial and sport hunting (4), Others including wildlife animals or products exports (5), Community based wildlife resources management (6), n.a. information not available
Data from existing working documents and reports at the Investment Promotion Centre (Table 7), have shown how fast private investment initiatives have been growing all over the country since the peace accord was signed and an economic recovery programme was commenced, and particularly in response to the recently introduced code for fiscal benefits and other incentives introduced by the government. Apart from these companies, the following private enterprises are involved in wildlife products exports:
Table 10: Wildlife products export and destination
Nbr |
company |
product |
destination |
1 |
Mozambique Reptile Exporters |
live animals |
USA, Canada, Switzerland |
2 |
Expofauma Lda |
live animals |
Portugal |
3 |
Simão Barbosa |
carving |
Portugal |
4 |
Jowa Safaris |
live animals |
RSA, Germany, Japan, USA |
5 |
Ibranse International Moçambique |
live animals |
France, Japan |
6 |
Chikwirimiti Moçambique |
live animals |
USA |
7 |
Moçambique Safaris |
leather |
France |
8 |
Gaza Safaris |
leather, trophies |
RSA, |
9 |
Promotur |
leather, trophies |
RSA, |
One of the most important trees for non-wood services in Mozambique is Sclerocarea birrea, in Portuguese known as "Canhoeiro" and "ncanhi" in ronga, mostly spoken in Maputo city belt.
Sclerocarea birrea is the most highly valued tree for the Ronga ethnic group. Probably due to this fact, a most striking phenomenon, in the areas cleared for fuelwood or shifting cultivation, Sclerocarya birrea is the only species left behind.
Although planting of indigenous fruit trees is not a common practice in rural households, they are commonly selectively retained when the farmer clears the land for agriculture. These trees make up the bulk of trees left standing on many rural farms (machambas). The importance of fruit production in making decisions regarding tree clearance is suggested by the removal of male (non-fruiting) S. b. from arable lands. They cut male trees but leave 2 to 3 in order to pollinate the female ones (Junod, 1974).
Sclerocarea birrea belongs to the Anacardiaceae family. It is a medium sized tree up to 10 m in height, but in good sites it may reach 18 m (Carvalho, 1968). It does occur in medium to low altitudes in open woodlands (Palgrave, 1977). The canopy is round and flowering is in unbranched sprays, 5 to 8 cm long. Sexes separate, on the same tree or on different trees. When this form is dominant, local people clear the trees bearing male flowers, leaving 2 to 3 trees per site for pollination (Junod, 1974). Fruits are produced from January to March, and they are fleshy almost spherical varying from 3 to 4 cm in diameter, indehiscent, yellow when mature. The fruit usually ripens on ground in mounds gathered by children and women.
The fruits can be used to produce an alcoholic drink called "Ucanhe or Bucanhe". The pulp is said to contain four to eight times as much vitamin C as orange juice (Palgrave,1977; Makombe, 1993). According to Makombe (1993), 70% of the people in southern Africa eat the fruit which is a seasonal staple in local diets. Without this valuable contribution, many children, who are most vulnerable and the chief consumers, would be affected by dietary deficiency diseases.
Each fruit has a single stone (container), inside which there are usually 2 or 3 seeds. These nuts may be eaten either raw or cooked. The Ronga use it as a substitute for peanuts or oil for special meals since they are rich in protein. The stones are used for a game called "ntchuba" or by witchdoctors in their divination. The bark is used in the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea. It is also believed to prevent malaria, particularly if gathered before the first flush of leaves.
A feast celebrating the first fruits of Sclerocarea birrea symbolises the celebration of good crops. This feast is performed by the elders of the regulado by pouring a libation of the fresh juice over the tombs of their dead chiefs (Junod, 1974, Palgrave, 1977).
There are two types of palm wines: Sura and Utchema. The first is produced from an exotic palm tree (Cocus nocifera), mainly in Inhambane and Zambézia provinces. The second wine is obtained from indigenous palm trees (Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata); it is, actually, the most common and produced largely all over the country. Hyphaene coriacea and Phoenix reclinata occur in savannahs located on clay soils which are subject to annual flooding. This activity constitutes big business for a majority of households located along main roads. The production is continuos throughout the year. In Matutuine, south Mozambique, the peak of production is at the beginning of the rainy season, with 20 litres per day (Albano et al., 1998). Contrarily, Koppell (1990) reports that in Cameron the peak of production occurs during the dry season.
The demand for medicinal plants is over 80% of the population (Nhatumbo and Soto, 1994). The forest is highly inhabited by traditional healers "curandeiros". Their knowledge is passed on in the family after death through the spirit or medium. The forest is highly valued as a source of medicinal plants for those traditional healers. Both rural and urban people travel long distances in order to get treatment or to solve all spiritual problems.
The traditional doctor is a healer, diviner, adjudicator, and protector of his whole community (Iwu 1993). Thus, when the birth process is difficult a traditional healer is consulted (Junod, 1974) even though it is usually attended only by ladies and is done at the back side of the hut (mahóssi) of the pregnant lady where the hut is surrounded by mattresses to avoid bad looks, when labour is difficult, the traditional healer is consulted (Junod 1974).
For Ronga in the southern part of the country, the healer is also consulted to name a new born child. Babies born premature born that are thin or weak are wrapped in leaves of Ricinus communis and in a big pan subject to treatment and exposed to the sun (Tobane). One week after birth, medical treatment and a religious ceremony called "cu tjibela chirenguelene" are performed. This treatment consists in placing all kinds of pieces of wild animals skins, such as antelope, elephant, hippopotamus, rodents, hyenas, snakes near to the fire until they burn. When they finish smoking, the new born baby is wrapped with smog and the child cry expire. At last, the doctor takes the remaining skin and mix it with the oil Trichilia emetica and spreads the unguent on the child, mainly around the articulations, and he smoothly distends it in order to help the baby to grow. This treatment has a preventive function, against all threats from by wild animals, after this the child can leave the hut.
Although the knowledge and use of medicinal plants are centred or dominated by traditional doctors, it is not only restricted to them. Each member of the community has a reasonable knowledge of first aid treatments particularly concerning the most common diseases like diarrhoea, fevers, and snake and insect attacks. This knowledge, contrary to the knowledge of traditional doctors, is passed on in the family.
In the southern part of the country, Licuati Forest, the most sought out medicinal plant is Waburdia salutaris and Securidaca longipedunculata (Halafo 1996, Adamo et al 1997, Massango unpublished). Over-exploitation of traditional medicinal plants is a result of large scale commercialization in urban areas, a breakdown of taboos and the introduction of more efficient tools such as cane knives and metal axes (Cunningham, 1997).
The most common parts of plants collected are leaves, roots and bark. The high frequency of roots, bark or bulbs as medicines at markets in southern African region, (Cunningham, 1997) might be explained by the fact that the savannah trees and grasses have a high proportion of their biomass underground (Scholes and Walker, 1993). This behaviour is probably an adaptive response due to an erratic water supply and low fertility, supported by fire regime.
According to Cunningham (1997), due to high level of expectations, high unemployment rates and a psychologically stressful environment, many of the traditional medicinal plants and animal materials sold in urban markets have symbolic or psychosomatic value for luck in finding employment, guarding against jealousy, etc.
Massango (unpublished) surveyed 39 medicinal plants in regulado of Tanga, and Adamo et al. (1997) in four regulados, namely: Tinonganine, Kumbane Norte, Tanga and Jabula, recorded 46 species. Some of the recorded species are: Walburgia salutaris, Balanites maughamii, Tarenna sp., Securidaca longipedunculata, Zanthoxylum sp. Bridelia cathartica, Synaptolepis kirki, indigofera sp. Xylotheca kraussiana, Acridocarpus natalitius, Erythopheum lasianum, Brachylaena huillensis, Ochna sp. Garcinia livingstonei.
