Chapter 1

The overall objective of the study is to provide a practical framework to reinforce the national forestry programs of Botswana. This in turn will give useful information to development agencies, development banks, the private sector, Non-Governmental Organizations and others to improve their strategies, programs and investments in forestry sector in the country. The key aspects of the study cover: conservation and management, production and environment, policies, social and economic dimensions.

1.2.1. Location

Botswana is an arid and semi-arid country with total land area of 582,000 km². It is land-locked and shares borders with South Africa in the south and east, Namibia in the west, and both Zimbabwe and Zambia in the northeast.

1.2.2. Rainfall/Temperature

The annual rainfall ranges from 650mm in the north to 255mm in the extreme southwest. Day temperatures in summer can soar up to 40^oC while winter days are invariably sunny and cool to warm. Temperatures in the evenings drop low and can reach freezing point in some areas.

1.2.3. Soils/Vegetation

The Kalahari sands cover 80% of the country. An estimated 6% of the total land area is said to be suitable for arable agriculture, while shrub-like vegetation, sparse savannah, open woodlands and dry deciduous forests cover 60% of the country. The main forested areas are in the north and northeastern parts of the country.

However the climatic and adaphic conditions in Botswana support a varied range of fauna and flora which play a critical role in the social, economic, and ecological well being of the country.

1.2.4. Land tenure

Freehold: The land is owned by an individual or group of people who have exclusive control over its use, and it can be transferred from one owner to another without obtaining permission from government.

Tribal land: This land is owned by the different tribes throughout the country and is administered through Tribal Land Act.

State land: This land is owned by the state and is used in a number of ways; for communal grazing, national needs such as forest reserves, national parks, leasehold rights to individual or groups for different uses. (see table 5 under annexes)

The shares of total land under the three major land uses has changed in the period 1974 to 1995. However the most significant changes took place in communal land and state land major tenure systems as a result of re-allocation of part of the communal land to state land. This was mainly due to the creation of Wildlife Management Areas, which did not exist in 1974, but had a share of 23% of the national land area by 1995, and gazetting of Forest Reserves the same period. Subsequently the share of total land area that fell under the communal land tenure system dropped from 459,601km2 (79%) to 318,997 km2 (54.8),while state land increased from 103,170 km2 (17,7%) to 243,304 km2 (41.8%) by the end of the same period. The share of the total land area under freehold increased by only 0.1%. It is important to note that 99.6% of the total re-designated land was a result of the re-allocation of communal land to land reserved for conservation uses. The conversion of communal land into conservation area is in line with the Convention on Biodiversity, which this has ratified. (Environ. Statistic, 2000).

Figure 1.1: Land Use in 1974

Figure 1.2: Land Use in 1995

Source: Derived from Land Tenure System

1.3.1. Institutional setup

Unlike other countries in this region, Forestry in Botswana is a sub-sector under the Ministry of Agriculture. The initial functions of the sub-sector were to establish plantations, control grazing, collect taxes, rents, fees, and royalties etc. However these functions have since expanded to include some technical responsibilities with the view to consolidate the wider objectives of protection, conservation and development of forest resources of Botswana in accordance with the national forest policy and legislation. Today the main broad functions of the sub-sector are:

Declaration of lands as forest reserves and the reciprocal power to make grants or dispositions of such lands for the purpose other than forestry i.e. extension of villages and towns.

Regulation of the protection and flow of goods and services from the forest to society. This reflects the exercise of sovereignty over the national forest resource vested by legislation in the government.

A conservation role expressed through the sustained yield concept in forest management, which stresses the paternalistic attitude towards resources justified on grounds of safeguarding the public interest.(Min. Agric. Paper, 1984).

These functions embrace the following:

Development of forest resources

Management of forest estates

Conservation of forest ecosystems

Development of forest based industries

Utilization of wood and non-wood forest products

Research

Extension and public education

Institutional development

1.3.2. Indigenous forests/woodlands

Forests and woodlands cover more than 60% of the country. These woodlands/forests are largely on tribal land. The six gazetted forest reserves make merely 0.8% of the total land area of the country, and are all on state-land save for one. (see Table 1 under annexes)

The forests and woodlands of Botswana represent an important resource in terms of providing the majority of rural populations with energy source, in providing materials for fencing, construction, building, crafts and maintaining environmental balance.

However deficits are beginning to occur in areas surrounding major population centers. The situation is not helped by persistent cycles of droughts, wild fires, overgrazing, and the deep rooted cultural belief of "free for all". The results have been devastating as large areas have been stripped off tree cover through indiscriminate cutting of live trees. The combined effects of deforestation, overgrazing, and perennial wild fires have resulted in conversion of 20,000ha of productive woodland to less productive grasslands and shrub formations leading to serious soil erosion problems, flash flooding and localized fuelwood shortage and construction wood.(Ministry of Agric Report, 1984).

1.3.3. Plantations/woodlots

These have been attempted as far back as the 1930s with the aim to produce building and construction materials, but have frequently met with considerable varying degrees of success (often as low as 25% survival, where as 85% survival of healthy seedlings is usually considered normal. So far less than 2000 ha or so exist ( Min. of Agric. Paper, 1996).

The success rate of plantations and woodlots in Botswana has been a modest one. This has often been attributed to a lack of site maintenance or lack of water, but other equally significant factors may have had an effect. For example, there has been a history of planting Eucalyptus spp., but sometimes on unsuitable sites, that is; outside their natural range. Planting and growing of such trees as ornamentals may produce quite satisfactory results because they receive individual care and attention, but growing in plantation is quite a different matter. Research and major re-evaluation of plantations and woodlots is underway, together with several associated factors such as re-evaluation of the appropriate choices of species. (see Table 4 under annexes)

1.3.4. Environmental services

Botswana, like most of the developing countries is currently experiencing serious depletion of forest resources. The expansion of agricultural activities, forest fires, and high rate of urbanization etc have put considerable stress on the existing forest resources. This is evidenced by deforestation and land degradation around major population centers. The majority of these environmental problems are directly linked to some human activities particularly fuelwood harvesting, overgrazing and arable agriculture.

To date very limited studies have been undertaken to assess the stocking situation and the impact of these activities particularly in tribal land where the bulk of these resources are found. The past studies in tribal land have focused mainly on energy needs and consumption patterns in the eastern part of the country. Thus the countrywide woody biomass situation, and the data on other forestry related activities and associated problems remains inadequate.

The Ministry of Agriculture has over the years undertaken various forest inventory studies in the six gazetted forest reserves. All the studies from 1934 to 1965 focused mainly on assessing merchantable timber with very little regard for other important values/uses.

However a more embracing inventory study sponsored by the Norwegian Forestry Society was undertaken between 1991-1992. The overall objective of the study was to provide fundamental information to develop management plans for sustainable use of both timber and non-timber forest resources in the six gazetted forest reserves. The study recommendations covered important areas such as:

Research and monitoring,

Eco-tourism,

Development of surrounding villages,

Production of forest products,

Conservation and protection of the resource base,

Environmental and cultural education,

Grazing and range management,

And wild life utilization.

Very few of these recommendations from the inventory study are currently being implemented, and they include; construction of firebreaks, and grazing. The rest of the recommendations have not yet been fully implemented because of resource and institutional constraints.

1.3.5. Forestry sub-sector contribution to the national economy

The contribution of Forestry Sub-Sector to the national economy is extremely difficult to quantify in economic terms. However what is appreciated at local level is that forests and woodlands contribute to:

The improvement of food security

Meeting rural subsistence needs

Generation of income

Agricultural productivity and protection of the environment

For example, it has been estimated that 53% of domestic energy consumption is generated from wood, while electricity, coal, gas, paraffin, petrol and diesel account for the remainder. The major users are the rural people the majority whom are generally poor. These people also derive benefits such as construction and building materials, food, medicines, game meat, and fodder for their livestock from the forests.

Because of a lack of adequate data on the output and services of forests and woodlands, the real direct and indirect benefits derived from forests have been grossly undervalued and under estimated in both sectoral and national Gross Domestic Product. This has resulted in limited resources allocation, in terms of manpower needs and equipment by both Government and other stakeholders.