3.1. STATUS OF FOREST RESOURCES
3.2. UTILIZATION OF TREES
3.3. IDENTIFICATION OF THREATS
3.4. LINKS BETWEEN THE FORESTRY SECTOR AND FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES
3.5. LINKS BETWEEN OTHER ACTIVITIES
The forests provide for subsistence needs in the form of fuelwood, building poles, fencing posts, etc., for about 80 per cent of the population of about 1.5 million. Other wood products include furniture, carvings, pestles and mortars, etc. A survey that was carried out in 1986 by the Energy Resources Limited (ERL) as quoted by Ntogwa (1995) revealed that domestic wood supply depends almost entirely on natural vegetation since there are no plantations of any significant size in the country.
Reliable quantitative data on Botswana’s wood resources are still scanty. There is only limited information available on the woodlands and the savanna type vegetation upon which the majority of the people rely for their fuelwood needs. A survey carried out in 1984 by ODA/ERL covering eastern Botswana, including pilot inventories executed by the Energy Affairs Department of the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Affairs show that the average stocking density in the savanna is relatively low. In the undisturbed savanna in the sand veld and hard veld, approximately 10 and 15 tonnes per hectare of air dry wood can be assumed respectively. Productivity ranges between 0.5 and 2 tonnes per hectare per annum and it is even lower in areas with high human population and livestock density because of reduced stems per hectare, approximately 0.33 tonnes per hectare per annum. These areas include Kgatleng and southeast districts (Ntogwa, 1995).
The wood collection zones around major towns and villages in south-eastern Botswana are the most seriously affected by deforestation and its negative impacts on rangeland quality, soil fertility and water retention capacity. Soil erosion caused by removal of vegetation cover is on the increase. The most favoured fuelwood and/or poles species are Terminalia sericea, Combretum imberbe (leadwood), Acacia nigrescens (knob thorn) and Spirostachys africana (tamboti).
Forests and woodlands are a valuable source of various goods and services. Forests, besides providing building materials, food, cosmetics, medicine, fuelwood and shelter also regulate micro climatic conditions. Forests also have a cultural importance. In Namibia, Combretum imberbe has been respected as an ancestral tree (Asare, 1990, as quoted by Totolo, 1997). There are various usages that can be derived from forests and woodlands of which the most common in the SADC region is fuelwood. It has been confirmed by Kgathi (1989), as quoted by Totolo (1997), that the distance to collect fuelwood has increased with time. Totolo (1997) goes on to quote Cogill and Kiugu (1990) as saying that in Namibia, in the Owambo, 95 per cent of the households had no electricity and 85 per cent used wood for cooking. Botswana is no exception, the most important usage of forest resources for rural populations is fuelwood. Mogalakwe and Mpotokwane (1986), quoted by Magole (1997,) found out that 83 per cent of the population in Botswana depended on fuelwood for cooking in 1986. With a substantial increase in human population since then, it goes without saying that there indeed has been an obvious increase in quantities of fuelwood used. Arntzen and Veneendaal (1986), as quoted by Magole (1997), estimated various uses of wood per annum as follows: Construction 34 000 tonnes, fencing of kraals 170 000 tonnes, domestic fencing 204 000 tonnes, fuelwood 500 000 tonnes.
The most important timber species in the country are Pterocarpus angolensis (Bloodwood) and Baikiaea plurijuga (Zimbabwe teak). Trees used mainly for veld products like wild berries are Boscia albitrunca (Shepherd’s tree), Ximenia caffra (Large sour plum), Berchemia discolor (Bird plum), etc. Nuts are mostly from Schinziophyton rautanenii (Manketti tree), Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra (Morula), etc. Phoenix reclinata (Wild date palm), Adansonia digitata (Baobab) and Hyphaene petersiana (Real fan palm) provide the fibres. For pole production, the most important tree species in northern Botswana is Colophospermum mopane (Totolo, 1997).
Cereal containers, fishing baskets and tunnel nets are usually made from leaves of young Hyphaene petersiana. Wooden containers, cups and buckets are made from the fairly soft woods of Albizia anthelmintica (Worm-cure albizia), Berchemia discolor, Commiphora africana (Poison-grub Commiphora), Commiphora angolensis (Sand Commiphora), Peltophorum africanum (Weeping wattle) and Schinziophyton rautanenii. Mortars are obtained from the heartwood of Burkea africana and occasionally from Combretum imberbe or Pterocarpus angolensis. The pestle is obtained from Colophospermum mopane heartwood. Musical instruments are usually derived from hardwoods such as Pterocarpus angolensis or Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra. Dugout canoes which are used commonly along rivers and flooded areas, are made from Baikiaea plurijuga, Guibourtia coleosperma (Large false mopane) and Pterocarpus angolensis (Totolo, 1997).
Apart from medicinal uses, forest resources play an important role in cultural and religious activities such as initiation ceremonies where certain indigenous tree species e.g. Euclea undulata (Thicket Euclea) are put to great use. They are also used for aesthetical purposes and “providing a natural environment for citizens to come closer to nature” (Totolo, 1997). Forests and woodlands also protect watershed from water erosion. Finally, forests, by virtue of their diversity, provide an all important pool of diverse genetic material.
Hobona (1995) quotes Michael Russell, a Forest Management Specialist, as saying that fire has been and is still the worst threat to forests of Botswana particularly in the northern part of the country. This is corroborated by a joint scientific study between the University of Botswana and the Department of Wildlife and National Parks which found out that forest veld fires have a much larger share than previously thought in the causes of forest degradation (Schmidt, 1995). These frequent veld fires occur almost on an annual basis over the same areas and this is very detrimental to the conservation of forest resources because, according to Booth (1994), Savanna woodland may be able to withstand a fire every six years (or every 25) but not every year. This of course takes in to account that some tree species may adapt to fire depending on the size of the tree, bark thickness and fire intensity. But certainly fire damages and kills tree seedlings and saplings, depletes soil nitrogen and organic matter and decreases rainwater infiltration (Booth, 1994).
The rapid human expansion coupled with the related sectoral developments particularly in agricultural, industrial and housing sectors are also a threat to the existence of the forest resources. This is particularly so in major villages and urban areas where there are large human populations which subsequently lead to larger corresponding agricultural and infrastructural developments.
Subsistence use of forests and woodlands for household use did not, in the past contribute significantly to woodland clearance. But is it the commercial collection of fuelwood for urban customers and rural-based industries that largely contributes to the loss of forest genetic resources (Booth, 1994). However, it is only in the eastern part of the country, where 80 per cent of the population reside, where there is a shortage of wood (Otsyina and Walker, 1990). The shortage here does not necessarily imply the non-existence of woodlands but instead the inadequacy of preferred tree species e.g. for fencing poles or building. As a result, people have to travel long distances to find such tree species. Thus in the process of degrading woodlands, some genetic material is being depleted at a faster rate (Otsyina and Walker, 1990). The erosion of such genetic material is exacerbated by inconsistency in legislation to effectively safeguard forest resources in communal areas.
The Division of Forestry and Range Ecology (DFRE) in the Ministry of Agriculture is the National Forest Authority and has to ensure effective and sustainable use of forest resources in the country. This is enshrined in the Forest Act Chapter 38:04 of 1968. Apart from powers vested in the Minister to declare a tree or classes of trees to be protected trees through the Forest Act in private or communal land, the DFRE does not have any wholesale supervisory powers over the management of forests and tree resources on communal and private land. Subsequently critical issues of the forest policy and legislation have been under comprehensive review to improve the economic as well as the environmental management of Botswana’s forest resources by particularly encouraging and legalizing local institutional arrangement which promotes sustainable local level management of forest resources on communal and private land (NCSA, 1997).
The Agricultural Resources Board (ARB) in the Ministry of Agriculture as well, does have some supervisory powers over the conservation and management of non-woody forest resources such as Harpagophytum procumbens (grapple plant), in communal and private land. The powers are enshrined in the Agricultural Resources (Conservation) Act of 1974 and the Herbage Preservation (Prevention of fires) Act of 1977. The Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) in the Ministry of Commerce and Industry has authority over all flora and fauna within National Parks and Game Reserves.
3.5.1. Agriculture
3.5.2. Agroforestry
3.5.3. Animal husbandry
3.5.4. Industry
The DFRE is in the Department of Crop Production and Forestry (DCPF) of the Ministry of Agriculture. Thus, DCPF combines the responsibilities of two competing and conflicting land use systems. Consequently, DCPF has to strike a balance between the two systems in pursuit of its mandate to ascertain food self-sufficiency and the conservation and sustainable utilization of forest resources. This in essence is not always easy. Food production is always a priority over conservation of forest resources. This is evidenced by certain government policies which encourage the clearing of land for arable agricultural purposes like the Accelerated Arable Rainfed Programme (ARAP) which rewarded in cash resource-poor farmers for among other things the destumping of their fields. The result of the programme was that large tracts of land were cleared through the sponsorship of government and yet only a small percentage of such land was placed under productive arable agriculture (Totolo, 1997). From its inception in 1979 until 1988, the programme enabled 74 000 hectares of woodland to be destumped for arable farming (Otsyina and Walker, 1990).
Due primarily to institutional weakness in overall community forestry extension which is limited to non-governmental organisations and a few foresters in the Ministry of Agriculture, there are very few, if any, organised agroforestry systems in the country (Otsyina and Walker, 1990). That not withstanding, Batswana have a good knowledge of local trees and their roles in the provision of fuelwood, poles, medicines, etc., and have always practised traditional agroforestry systems by often leaving trees in low densities on crop farms for shade, fruits and other products. Equally, trees are traditionally known to play an important part as livestock feed although this is only recognised in drought periods (Otsyina and Walker, 1990). However, for agroforestry to succeed, the integration of trees must aim at improving farming systems and the welfare of farmers, rather than the objective of growing trees.
Livestock production represents a major national resource and continues to be a cornerstone of the agricultural sector. Livestock contributes significantly to the national economy and beef exports to the European market account for about 20 per cent of the value of Botswana’s total export commodities. It also provides employment, income and subsistence (milk, meat, etc.) to about 60 per cent of the rural households. It also serves as a source of status, security/insurance against droughts. In 1988, the cattle population was about 2.4 million together with 1.6 million goats, 258 900 sheep, 147 900 donkeys, 1,809 million chickens and 28 600 horses (Otsyina and Walker, 1990). However, the cattle population has been drastically reduced since then because of the decimation of close to 1 million cattle through the Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia (Cattle lung disease) eradication exercise. Communal forest resources provide the bulk of feed for all these livestock and overstocking and overgrazing have become a perennial problem. Overgrazing encourages forest invader species to take over, thus altering the botanical composition of forests (Ngakane, 1992). But with more than 85 per cent of these livestock managed under the traditional cattle post system in communal land with little or no supplementary feeding, animal husbandry will continue to pose a threat to forest resources.
The Botswana Confederation of Commerce, Industry and Manpower (BOCCIM) is a private non-profit making organisation established in 1971. BOCCIM represents the interests of the private sector in total and is recognised by government as the main “voice” of the private sector. Its membership cuts across all the sectors of the economy and through all categories of the private sector including parastatal organisations. The World Conservation Union (IUCN), in collaboration with BOCCIM, have identified a lack of information regarding business and its environmental obligations. They therefore together conceived of a project that will aim at meaningful contribution of the industry to the conservation and sustainable management of the environment including forest genetic resources. By working together with government and non-governmental organisations and developing a Business and Environment Network, industry can commit itself to environmental excellence. Although some large corporations like Debswana, BCL Ltd., Botash Ltd., KSI Ltd., PCC Cement, etc., have made significant strides in creating their environmental management policies. It is the small and medium sized enterprises that BOCCIM still needs to sensitise about the need to take a broader interest in environmental and natural resource issues (Zhou and Landner, 1999). BOCCIM has actually established an Environmental Unit within its structures to encourage its members to actively participate in the conservation and sustainable management of natural resources.
