2. CAPITAL COSTS OF COMPONENTS

2.1 Buildings and basic infrastructure
2.2 Information and communications systems
2.3 Vessel monitoring systems (VMS)
2.4 Patrol platforms
2.5 Development of institutions and human resources

2.1 Buildings and basic infrastructure

The scale of MCS headquarters and field offices varies widely. The offices may be located at the fisheries department, or at naval, or coastguard facilities. In some developing countries the MCS functions are closely linked to the licensing activities and separate offices are not required. A basic office is likely to include the following: operations room fitted with desks, chart table, wall charts, and situation (state) boards, whiteboards, or blackboards; a radio room; several offices for key staff; and possibly a coffee room, storage area and emergency generator. The office may occupy 75-150 m². The building costs vary widely depending on the cost of labour and the quality of the building materials, but is likely to be in the order of US$200-300 per m² giving an indicative cost of US$25 000 for a basic MCS office excluding fittings and furnishings which may cost an additional US$5-10 000. Additional facilities may include accommodation for observers, or duty officers if a 24-hour watch is maintained and space to install vessel tracking equipment. If all catch and effort data is logged by the central MCS office[8] then additional computer area will be required. Indicative costs of office equipment and basic requirements of fisheries control officers are tabled in Annex 1.

Field offices will depend on the nature of the fishery and the expectations of the personnel. Rudimentary field offices for artisanal fisheries may be simple tin, or grass-roofed structures of local construction, sufficient to store paper records of control activities, house a radio, and act as a store for fuel, outboard motors, and confiscated fishing gear. Under co-management regimes such fisheries offices may be constructed by the local fishing community. Costs are in the order of US$1-5 000.

Field offices in urban areas are preferably located at the fishing port, or main landing site. These offices may be larger than those at headquarters as secure storage for boats, vehicles, boat-trailers, and other equipment may be required. In addition, a small repair and maintenance workshop for engines, radios and other gear may be of use. Indicative costs vary from US$20-70 000. In practice, a provincial, or district fisheries officer may have multiple functions and be located in the local administrative building, while the local fisheries installations and facilities may be shared between inspection, research and extension staff. If computerized records (e.g., a ‘provincial’ fishing vessel register, catch, or landings statistics) are maintained at the local office then provision should be made for an air-conditioned office with suitable electric power supply.

2.2 Information and communications systems

A range of communications systems are required both within the MCS organization, and between the MCS organization and the fishing vessels, or fishermen. Several information systems are the object of communications within the MCS organization:

(a) vessel and licence data generated usually within the organization as the responsibility of the licensing office;

(b) catch and landings data generated by the fleet, or fishermen. Compilation and analysis may be the function of the fisheries management office and/or the research institute;

(c) resource assessment and management data based partly on the catch/landings information and supplemented by data from research cruises, economic and market surveys and a range of other sources (e.g., environmental data). The research institute is likely to be responsible; and

(d) information generated by surveillance and inspection activities (e.g., VMS data, records of violations, observer reports) for which the navy, coastguard, or fisheries MCS unit are generally responsible.

Figure 1. The overlapping components of data collection

Figure 2. The overlapping components of a fisheries management information system.

Personal contacts. At the simplest level the communications are through direct talks between fisheries officers and fishermen, or their organizations to discuss fisheries regulations and collect information on the fishing activities. This requires mobility by the field staff using either vehicles, motorcycles, bicycles or boats. Indicative costs of these items are given in Annex 1.

Radio and telephone. Basic inter-office voice communication by radio, or telephone, or voice communication with fishery patrols (patrol vessels, aircraft, vehicles) is also a fundamental requirement for effective MCS. The costs of installing telephones often depend on the location of the MCS office and the availability of lines. Connection fees may be in the order of US$100. The cost of HF and VHF radios depend on their power and quality of manufacture, and are in the range of US$250-600 per unit.

2.2.1 Database systems

Two different information technology (IT) solutions with quite different cost structures can be envisaged: an integrated database system and several ‘stand-alone’ databases systems. The integrated solution (e.g., Namibia), whereby licensing information, catch and effort data, information from surveillance and observers, and possibly research data are recorded in a suite of integrated databases. This requires substantial investment not only in equipment but more particularly in programming and is likely to require permanent IT staff. Many OECD countries still retain ‘stand-alone’ systems, maintaining separate database systems for licensing, catch and effort records, and surveillance/inspection information.

The following figure shows some of the components of a fisheries information system which addresses some of the operational data requirements and the basic support data (reference tables at left hand side of Figure 3).

Figure 3. An overview of the structure of the operational component of a fisheries information system

Development of simple databases for vessel register, licensing and catch/landings and effort data using ‘off-the-shelf’ software and a local software developer is likely to cost in the order of US$30 000 including hardware. A number of countries have developed their ‘in-house’ staff capabilities and gradually built and modified databases to meet their requirements. However, such efforts are often undermined if non-specialist staff is unable to keep pace with the rapid development of IT. The more integrated and ambitions in scope the more costly the IT system and a highly professional product may cost over US$100 000 and require substantial maintenance. The five data domains listed in Figure 2 are rarely integrated in a single fisheries information system, except perhaps in relation to a specific fishery, where bioeconomic, or other advance models are used.

2.2.2 Managing surveillance information

The cost of data systems for surveillance information varies widely as a function of the type and presentation of the information. At the simplest level the records would be manual records of vessel sightings, or boardings logged onshore after a surveillance mission, or a ledger record of the results of regular radio contacts with vessels requiring them to report position, catch, or other information. A far more sophisticated application would be to overlay radar and VMS targets on a graphical display in real time, or near real time (i.e., to identify targets which do not carry VMS by comparing the results of VMS polling with the results of a radar scan). These VMS/radar applications are often designed for military purposes and may be marketed as part of a proprietary navigation/defence system for a patrol platform (e.g., aircraft). The cost of such a sophisticated application including the hardware is likely to be in excess of US$0.5 million.

Smart and expert systems. The most advanced MCS surveillance data systems have capabilities which allow the operators on patrol vessels, or aircraft to compare real-time (or near real time) vessel distribution with historical records of vessel distribution for the same fishing season, water temperature profile, or weather pattern, thereby helping to optimize the search pattern and costly patrol time. A legislation database may also be linked to the system enabling the fisheries officer to check national, or international regulations, which may apply to a suspected violator (e.g., ICCAT, CCAMLR, CCSBT, or IOTC regulations, or the obligations of the vessel under its flag state legislation). Costs of such systems are not available as they generally evolve internally within the MCS agency over an extended period.

2.2.3 International vessel registers

The Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) in the South Pacific charges an annual registration fee of US$500 per vessel for the approximately 1 200 vessels recorded on the “Regional Register of Foreign Fishing Vessels”. The fee is meant to cover the costs of the register (or “record”). The Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission in West Africa has considered a similar scheme as a revenue-generating device to support regional MCS activities.

Attention should be drawn to the difference between a register which is a database, and a Shipping Register. A Shipping Register is a special system that records the ownership of the vessel (and any mortgages), it confers on the vessel nationality and the right to fly the flag. It issues the Certificate of Registry which is necessary if the vessel goes on the high seas or in another country’s jurisdiction. It is a property register, is administered by a publicly appointed Registrar and the public are allowed to inspect it (probably they have to pay a fee). Usually the legal formalities are laid out in the Merchant Shipping Laws, but they apply to all vessels including fishing vessels and pleasure craft above a certain size (e.g., 10 m) (usually excluding government vessels).

2.3 Vessel monitoring systems (VMS)

A number of developing countries are either already using, or considering the use of VMS[9]. These include: Malaysia, Maldives, Seychelles, Namibia, Mozambique, Morocco, and member states of the Forum Fisheries Agency (FFA) in the South Pacific. The use of VMS is also either advocated, or required on vessels operating under fisheries regimes regulated by international fisheries organizations[10]. A harmonized system is used in the EU, while the USA is moving towards harmonizing a number of different schemes developed independently for various fisheries. Considerations and criteria used to determine if VMS is appropriate include:

· the ecological health of the fishery, or habitat · low compliance levels · high compliance cost for non-VMS enforcement · need for accurate management data · need data immediately

· geographic distribution of the fishery · views of industry · public perception of industry · safety at sea · costs of the system

The costs of VMS are decreasing. Current costs (depending on the specifications of the system) are in the order of US$200-350 000 for the base station and software, which receives the satellite information and US$3-5 000 for the transponder (automatic location communicator, or ALC) required on onboard each fishing vessel. As software is a significant part of the VMS package, costs are partly related to labour rates for skilled programmers, e.g., in South Africa a single base station (with a minimal capability installed and configured for 50 vessels) can cost as little as US$60 000. Mozambique is implementing a system with more recent technology costing US$1.3-2 million over a three-year period (including financial charges). Namibia is acquiring a VMS system capable of supporting 400 vessels polled up to 12 times per day for a total cost of approximately US$1 million, which includes VMS data analysis capability on board two patrol vessels and training of staff.

One of the most comprehensive VMS systems is operated by the Forum Fisheries Agency on behalf of its member states in the South Pacific. By sharing the system among 14 countries both the capital and operating costs per country have been greatly reduced. The development cost (capital cost) of building the FFA VMS for approximately 1 200 tuna fishing vessels was US$1.1 million. Each vessel operator must purchase an FFA VMS type-approved Automatic Location Communicator (ALC) which must be fitted to the vessel by an FFA VMS-approved installation agent. The type-approved ALCs typically cost between US$1 500-5 000 each, including installation costs.

As VMS is still in the initial stages in many developing countries, some indicative costs from OECD countries are also of relevance. The scale and approximate costs of six stand-alone VMS systems in the USA are given in the following table. Based on these initial VMS costs, the Office of Law Enforcement (NOAA/OLE) estimates that VMS system start-up costs range from US$200 000 for 50 vessels to US$4 million for 5 000 vessels (US$4 000 - 800 per vessel, respectively).

Table 2.1: Development and implementation costs of VMS systems in the USA

Fishery	No. vessels	Cost US$1 000
Hawaii pelagic longline	120	1 200
Hawaii lobster	12	120
Guam foreign vessels	24	240
New England scallops/multispecies	230	1 500
HMS swordfish	2	20
HMS Atlantic pelagic longline	800	-
Gulf of Mexico shrimp	12	120

The EU provides grant support for mandatory VMS installation on all EU vessels over 25 metres to a maximum of 50 percent of vessel expenditure in excess of €2 500 per vessel and not exceeding €3 250 per vessel. Information is not available on the costs of radio-based VMS (i.e., without the use of satellite transmission).

Radar systems. Relatively simple low technology coastal radar systems with a 25-50 nm range (Mauritania, Indonesia, and Senegal) cost in the order of US$10 000 per unit including solar panels and antenna tower, but excluding the buildings. Installation in remote areas may add substantially to the costs. HF and VHF radios and additional electric power may also be required for the radar post. Fully equipped radar stations including buildings and HF, VHF radios and GPS were budgeted at approximately US$50 000 each for Madagascar (1997).

2.4 Patrol platforms

2.4.1 Patrol vessels

Offshore patrol vessels. An ‘offshore’ patrol vessel is considered to be a patrol vessel with the capability to patrol the full extent of a 200-mile EEZ. Such a vessel will normally be at least 30 metres LOA with ability to stay at sea for at least 20 days. Three types of vessels with vastly different costs can be distinguished:

a) naval vessels which have a high speed and are fully equipped for a military role;

b) high speed offshore patrol vessels without military characteristics (e.g., without armour plate, or sophisticated weapons systems); and

c) converted fishing (or similar) vessels.

Table 2.2: Comparison of purchase costs of old and new naval patrol vessels

Year of construction	Built 1972	Built 1999/2000
Tonnage	972 GRT	1 500 GRT
Dimensions	56.2 m (length) x 10.4 x 4.4	78.84 m x 14 (beam) x 3.8
Engines	2 British Polar Diesels; 4 200 hp; 1 Shaft	2 X Twin 16 cyl V26 WARTSILA 26 Diesel giving 5 000 Kw at 1 000 RPM, 2 Shafts
Horsepower and speed	4 000 at 17 kts; 6 750 at 12 kts	6 000 nm at 15 kts
Personnel	46 (5 Officers)	44 (6 Officers)
Armament	None	1 x 76mm OTO Melara; 2 x.5” HMG; 4 x GPMG; 2 x 57 mm Rocket Launchers
Purchase price in 2000/2001	<US$75 000	€24.4 million

Namibia is acquiring a new patrol vessel[11] at a total cost of approximately US$14.6 million including costs of financing and crew training, while in 1996 Mauritania acquired an offshore patrol vessel at a cost of US$10.5 million.

Coastal patrol vessels. ‘Coastal’ patrol vessels are normally vessels of 20-30m with ability to remain at sea for three-ten days. However smaller vessels may be suitable for sheltered areas, archipelagos, or lakes. Capital costs vary widely according to specifications from US$400 000 for 22 m vessels (Indonesia) to a series of three GRP coastal patrol vessels (25 m approx.) purchased by Angola with loan of over US$5 million. Two well-equipped inshore patrol vessels of 16 m and 17 m recently acquired by an OECD country cost US$1.7 million and US$2 million respectively.

A simple and more cost-effective solution in selected fisheries may be to use traditional designs of vessels (e.g., junk, abari, dhow, or local fishing vessel design) as these vessels have the same silhouette, or profile at sea as do the local fishing, or cargo vessels. As any such vessel sighted by an offender is potentially a patrol vessel, the fishing behaviour of the offenders may be influenced by the presence of cargo and fishing vessels. The cost of a 17 m GRP ‘abari’ design vessel equipped for fisheries protection duty is US$180 000[12]. Confiscated fishing vessels have also been deployed as patrol vessels with some success.

Open patrol boats. Small inshore vessel used for patrols in artisanal fisheries, in rivers, lakes and estuaries range in cost from US$1 500-70 000. Indicative costs are given in the following table. Rigid inflatable boats with road trailers offer considerable flexibility for rapid reaction and surprise inspections.

Table 2.3: Indicative costs of inshore patrol boats (in US$)

Inshore patrol vessel type	Indicative operating regime	Cost
7-9 m GRP open launch with outboard motors and radio	3-4 crew, 6 hours autonomy, requires good weather (United Republic of Tanzania)	5 000
fully equipped 9 m rigid inflatable (RIB) with twin 100 hp outboard engines and launching trailer	4 crew, radar and GPS enables operations at night and in poor weather (Sierra Leone)	30 000
fully-equipped RIB with vehicle and trailer (OECD)	coastal, estuary, and river patrols	58 000
7-9 m GRP with cabin and twin 150 hp inboard engines, radar and radio	3-4 crew, 6 hours/day x 150 days/year (Yemen)	70 000

2.4.2 Aircraft

Three different types of aircraft used in fisheries protection can be distinguished:

a) relatively small (six-eight passenger) short range aircraft usually used in low level (< 1 000 ft.) maritime surveillance;

b) longer endurance aircraft often used for high flying radar scans and extended low level patrols; and

c) helicopters used for boarding and non-fisheries tasks (e.g., air sea rescue).

Longer-range aircraft. Extensively used to patrol the vast EEZs of the South Pacific islands, the Orion aircraft, deployed by the Australian and New Zealand air forces, is an example of a longer range surveillance aircraft. A similar aircraft is used by the Norwegian authorities to patrol their isolated Arctic fisheries. The CASA CN235 (cost US$21.5 million) is also used by many countries for multipurpose maritime patrol.

Helicopters are rarely used. Namibia discontinued the use of its helicopter for fisheries protection on the grounds of high costs and inefficiency as a patrol platform. The Norwegian Coast Guard makes successful use of helicopters operated from their larger patrol vessels to board fishing vessels. While the operating cost is high, the helicopters are judged to be safer than rigid inflatables (RIBs) in bad weather and give an added element of surprise.

Further aircraft cost details are provided in Annex 1.

2.4.3 Maintenance facilities

This brief overview of MCS costs makes no attempt to estimate the costs the wide range of maintenance facilities which may be required. These include slipways, hangars[13], fuel dumps, airstrips, and electrical and communications workshops. In many cases these facilities are integrated into defence force, or coast guard institutions. Alternatively they are provided through service contracts.

2.5 Development of institutions and human resources

This short study cannot adequately address the full extent of MCS institutional development and training. Three topics are selected:

a) Coordination among institutions responsible for MCS at the national level;
b) Practical training of fisheries inspectors and operational personnel; and
c) Systems and software development.

The coordination function, per se, does not involve a high capital cost. However, the lack of such coordination may incur duplication of costly capital items. The main capital costs result from: (i) preparation of a comprehensive MCS plan for the country; (ii) the time invested by ministers and senior officials in reaching consensus on responsibilities and tasking of MCS (e.g., developing an effective working arrangement between naval and fisheries personnel; and (iii) development of the communications, data handling and operating procedures.

Assuming the use of some external consultants, an initial MCS plan may cost in the order of US$60 000, but clearly depends on the scale of the country and complexity of the MCS task. Further detailed technical plans may be required for different MCS components. It is not possible to place a value on the time of ministers and senior officials. Institutional requirements may include changes to legislation, establishment of inter-ministerial committees; alterations to budgets, staff structures and salary levels, and modifications to financial and court procedures. While the technical dimension of communications and data handling has been discussed above, considerable investment may also be required in establishing effective MCS operating procedures. One approach is to prepare MCS operations manual(s) for a range of personnel: e.g., for at-sea and aerial observers, arresting officers, communications officers, port inspectors, naval and police officers, local co-management agents. An initial set of operations manuals using some external consultancy may cost in the order of US$75 000, but clearly depends on the complexity of the country’s MCS tasks and administrative structures.

Further coordination at the regional level is likely to enhance MCS efficiency and effectiveness. Regional MCS projects financed with development assistance exist in: West Africa (SRFC countries); Southern Africa (five SADC countries, €15 million over five years); and in the South Pacific (FFA island countries).

2.5.2 Practical training of fisheries inspectors and operational personnel

MCS training usually takes place in a fisheries training school, or naval establishment. Few[14] countries have a dedicated MCS training facility. Training of higher-level officers and provision of specialist courses often takes place either at a regional level, or in developed countries through bilateral arrangements between the fisheries authorities or military.

Estimated training costs (excluding operating costs of vessels and specialized equipment) of fisheries inspectors and observers are US$250 per person/week either in dormitory accommodation, or at sea (estimates from SADC region). The operations manuals mentioned above provide a useful guideline for training programmes, but specialized training materials must also be prepared. Some of these training materials can be adapted from existing material and courses (e.g., West Africa Project AFR/010, FISHCODE Project and various FAO publications, Namibia, Falkland Islands/Malvinas, and from observer and inspector manuals from various countries). Approximately three-four months of consultancy work may be required to adapt materials and prepare training modules to local requirements (estimated cost US$7-15 000 per month). Overseas (OECD country) university training costs are in the order of US$20-25 000 per person/year, including travel costs. University training in the developing world is likely to cost in the order of US$5 000 per year. Regional training courses for higher level officers cost in the order of US$2 500 per person for a 10-14-day course (estimates from South East Asia).

Training on the introduction of co-management techniques and protection of marine parks and reserves is not widely available. Potential sources of education and training materials include: Zanzibar, Seychelles, Maldives, Caribbean countries, SPC, SECAM, and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Educational materials for introduction of ‘non-coercive’ fisheries control through understanding of the tropical coastal ecosystems have been developed in the United Republic of Tanzania and the Republic of the Philippines. Adaptation to local requirements is likely to require skilled translation (text, radio, and video) and low-cost printing (e.g., posters, or teacher’s materials for schools). The dividing lines between fisheries co-management (community-based) and MCS remain indistinct. Fisheries officers are tending to move from a largely developmental role to one of fisheries management and require appropriate training in techniques for promoting community participation and awareness, for creation of alternative incomes for those involved in destructive fishing practices, and for establishing community policing and fisheries control mechanisms. The estimated cost of ‘in-house’ training of extension workers for 10-14 days per year is US$30 per day including transport, food and accommodation, but excluding training materials and training staff time (estimates from East Africa).

MCS tends to generate substantial volumes of data and information. Rationalisation of public service staff levels and the increasing availability of relatively inexpensive computers lead MCS managers to install increasingly sophisticated levels of data management, upon which the MCS system becomes increasingly dependent. From a cost-effectiveness standpoint, some experiences from developing countries offer useful lessons.

Different sections of a fisheries department may develop unrelated databases. For example, the vessel licensing database may be independent of the vessel landings database (North African country and an OECD country). The design of the fisheries information system may be over-ambitious, the complexity leading to delays and excessive costs (Southern African country). The information system may be of a proprietary nature, i.e., the software code remains the property of the software developer rather than the fisheries administration (West African country). Following substantial investment in training in-house computer staff, the skilled staff may be difficult to retain because of high market demand for such computer staff (East African country).