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Osman El Tom Hamad |
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MOIWR |
Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources |
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PJTC |
Permanent Joint Technical Committee |
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NCWR |
National Council for Water Resources |
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TWRO |
Technical Water Resources Organ |
Life in the Sudan revolves around water, as the major part of the country lies within the arid and semi-arid zones. The total amount of fresh water from internal and external sources is around 30×109m3/year, bringing the per caput water availability below the water stress limit of 1 000 m3. If these resources were devoted to agriculture alone, they would irrigate an area of less than 5% of the irrigable land of the country. However, agriculture has to compete with other municipal and industrial uses. The latter are increasing with the expansion in urbanization and industrialization, and they present a higher marginal value for water.
Some of the issues and problems faced are referred to in the paper. The main ones are the physical constraints, such as the limitation in the availability of water, the inadequate storage facilities, sedimentation in reservoirs and canals, and difficulties in harvesting the flow of seasonal streams and abstracting groundwater. The environmental issue is felt through the growth of aquatic weeds in canals, pollution of water bodies through the application of agricultural chemicals, water hyacinth and tsetse fly in the south. Any conservation projects to increase the Nile flow by decreasing evaporation losses in the southern swamps is bound to have some environmental impact on the fauna and flora, the established ecosystem and animals and human way of life.
As the Sudan shares water resources with all its neighbours, its water policy has to reflect this international dimension. The paper shows some of the joint efforts to establish and advance cooperation with the Nile basin countries for the integrated development of the shared water course. Initial steps have been taken heading for the joint management of other common surface and groundwater resources.
The Sudan has recently taken some major steps to organize the water sector. The first step was putting the monitoring, assessment, planning, management and development of all the surface and groundwater resources under the Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources (MOIWR). The second step was the formation of the National Council for Water Resources (NCWR), which includes representatives from all stakeholders of the wide water sector. The third step was the decentralization, privatization and active participation of users in the management and funding of the irrigated schemes.
The paper concludes with a future policy look to address the emerging issues. A water policy is bound to be dynamic as it addresses issues with many variables. It is expected that, as time goes on, some new issues will surface while earlier issues will fade out. When this happens, another review of the water sector policy would be appropriate.
A water policy is a dynamic process which needs to be reviewed from time to time, taking into consideration the outcome of previous policies, changes in supply and demand parameters, advancement in knowledge and alterations in the surrounding environment. Water policies are complex, as water goes beyond its sector to involve many other sectors and may go beyond the international boundaries. A number of the United Nation’s conferences stressed the idea that policy-makers are requested to adopt a holistic approach by recognizing the interrelationship between the different components of a water resources system.
Water is an essential factor for the development and social welfare of developing countries as it is the key to agriculture, agro-industry, transport and domestic activities. Its importance is felt more when it is scarce, as in arid and semi-arid zones. The major part of the Sudan falls within that category. Scarcity of water may be the reason behind the low population density of the country. Nearly all the people gather around water points, being it the Nile or other streams, as water forms the centre for all their activities.
A study to review the water sector policy in the Sudan has to be multi-dimensional in order to address the different aspects related to water. This study attempts to follow the relevant issues referred to in the terms of reference for the study and described by FAO (1995a) and FAO/UNDP/World Bank (FAO, 1995b) documents. However, the water policy of any country is case specific, hence the reader may find that the study dwells more on the existing situation and the recent changes in policies and attitudes. It concludes by looking forward to some unsolved issues which might dictate the direction for Sudanese water policy in the new century.
Water is an inter-sectoral commodity to the extent that one can hardly find a sector where there is no influence of water. Indeed, it echoes the statement in the Qur’an which may be translated as “and We have made from water every living thing.” The importance of water is felt more when it is scarce, as in arid and semi-arid areas where nearly all revolves around water availability.
The area of the Sudan is 250 million ha. Unfortunately, two thirds of that area is either arid or semi-arid land with rainfall less than 400 mm annually. Rainfall in most of the remaining third is concentrated in four months, with the rest of the year virtually dry. Even in those four months the rain generally comes in isolated showers and varies widely from one year to another. Thus, the Sudan has to rely on irrigated agriculture to secure food and cash crops.
Agriculture, the key user of water, dominates the overall economic growth and development of the country. It constitutes 90% of the Sudan’s exports and contributes about 36% of the GDP. The livelihood of more than 80% of the population depends on agriculture, which employs 61% of the active labour force, the majority of whom are women (FAO, 1997).
Water demand in the Sudan extends beyond agriculture to industry, which is mainly agro-based; to electric energy - mainly hydropower; to trade, transport, health and the environment. The Sudan is under-populated, with an average population density of about 10 persons/km2, but more than half its people live on just 15% of the land, which is the area adjacent to the Nile.
Some figures frequently cited in the international literature about the water availability per person in the Sudan need to be corrected. As more than 60% of the area of the Sudan lies within the Nile basin, any water that flows to the Nile in that area is considered as part of the Nile waters, of which the Sudan can only abstract within its share according to the 1959 Nile Waters Agreement with Egypt. This is limited to 18.5×109m3 as measured at Aswan, which is estimated to be 20.5×109m3 as measured in Central Sudan, out of 84×109m3 - the long-term average annual flow of the Nile. The Sudan’s share in the Nile waters may be increased by acting with Egypt to reduce evaporation losses from the swamps of the south after due consideration of the environmental effects of such actions. It might also decrease as an effect of climate change and requirements in the upstream reaches. As is well known, nine countries share the Nile with the Sudan. These are Burundi, Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda.
The annual flow from the local seasonal streams which do not flow to the Nile varies considerably from one year to another, reflecting the erratic nature of the rains causing them. They range from 3 to 7×109m3 per year. About one third of these waters come from the rivers Gash and Baraka, which flow from Eritrea, and the Azoom, which flows to Chad. The amount of renewable groundwater has not yet been measured accurately, but it is estimated to be around 4×109m3. Thus the internal renewable water that the Sudan can utilize is less than 10×109m3 in a year of average rainfall. Adding this to the Sudan’s share from the rivers flowing from other countries, the figure becomes around 30×109m3. Assuming that the population of the Sudan in the year 2000 will be 33.1 million (FAO, 1995a), the per caput water availability would be 302 m3 from the internal resources. When including the share of the international waters, the amount of fresh water at the country’s disposal would be 906 m3 per caput. This is below the water stress limit of 1 000 m3 per caput.
Reduction of evaporation losses from the swamps in Southern Sudan is bound to have adverse effects on the local society and the environment. Some efforts have to be exerted by the beneficiaries to cater for such effects. If this is done, the flow of the Nile might be increased by 12×109m3. These conservation projects take time and money and may materialize some time in the next century. The Sudanese share in those waters will be taken up by the increase in population, which is currently growing at the rate of 2.8% per year. Thus the Sudan is a water-stressed country, and is likely to continue to be so for the foreseeable future. Such a stress in water is imposing severe constraints on the country’s socio-economic development and any environmental protection measures. The situation is worsened by the fact that more than 80% of these waters flow in spates during the flood season, loaded with silt and debris and causing serious problems for the limited storage facilities, pumps, turbine intakes and irrigation networks.
Groundwater is found in many parts of the country, but generally in formations at considerable depth, ranging from 40 to 400 m. Moreover recharge is rather limited and the aquifers are generally found under regions distant from the infrastructural facilities. The aquifers that are easily accessible, like the Gash basin in the east and Nyala basin in the west, have been seriously drawn down and water quality has deteriorated considerably.
The country’s arable land amounts to 84 million ha. Evaporation and evapotranspiration is generally high, ranging from 1 000 to 3 000 mm/year. One hectare of seasonal crop requires about 12 000 m3 of water if planted once per year. Hence, the 30×109m3 available from internal and external water resources will irrigate around 2.5 million ha, which is 1% of the country’s area and less than 5% of its arable land. If some of the area were planted to perennial crops or used for more than one seasonal crop per year, the irrigated area would be even less. With increasing use of water for other than irrigation, the water stress situation is bound to become even worse.
About 94% of the presently abstracted water in the Sudan goes to agriculture, 5% to human and animal consumption and 1% for industrial and other uses. Gezira, Rahad, Suki and New Halfa are the four largest national schemes of the country. They cover more than half the currently irrigated area and consume around 60% of the present Sudanese annual water abstraction. Annual abstraction from the Nile has been fluctuating between 13 and 16×109m3 for the last 20 years. This is mainly because of the varying nature of the Nile flow, coupled with the limited storage volume of the existing reservoirs, which is continuously decreasing due to siltation. The rest of the Sudan’s share is already committed for future irrigation of well-studied, highly productive agricultural areas awaiting the currently ongoing heightening of Roseries Dam. If the projects to conserve water from the southern swamps materialized, the Sudan would have no problem in using its share, provided enough storage facilities were put in place.
The overall efficiency for irrigation in the Sudan is generally high. Elawad (1991) showed that it may be as high as 85% for Gezira schemes, which consume about 40% of the present abstraction of the country. The high overall efficiency may be attributed to the skill of the operating system and the characteristics of the central clay plains, which do not allow for high seepage, salinity or waterlogging. The main headache is siltation and aquatic weed growth in the canals, and the deteriorating condition of the irrigation infrastructure.
Present power generation - which is mainly hydropower - is lagging behind demand, with clear evidence of suppressed demand and low standby generation. However, there are many potential sites for hydropower generation on the main Nile and its tributaries in the east and south. Although hydropower does not consume water, storage for it causes an incremental increase in evaporation losses, which is considered as part of the water abstraction in the region. Annual incremental increase in evaporation losses from dams proposed for hydropower generation from the Main Nile alone may exceed 6×109m3.
Navigation, fisheries and recreational activities are yet to be explored fully. Water requirements for human and animal consumption are bound to increase with time as a reflection of the expansion in urbanization and industrialization. They are expected to take some of the ground occupied now by agriculture. A recent study of expected abstraction up to the year 2020 gives a figure of 69% for agriculture, 18% for industrial and hydropower requirements and 13% for human and animal needs.
Rivers and streams flowing down from the Ethiopian highlands and those seasonal ones originating inside the Sudan sometimes flood the fertile plains around them and may erode their banks, causing loss of life, property and agricultural land. As flood protection and bank stabilization could be costly, an early flood warning system was recently put in place in the Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources (MOIWR). Although the system has not been completed to its full extent in equipment and coverage, it proved to be a very helpful tool in mitigating the effects of floods in 1994 and 1996.
Construction of dams and storage reservoirs have their environmental impact on the local community and the aquatic ecosystem. Deposition of silt and debris, build up of aquatic weeds and changes in water quality in reservoirs and irrigation canals may increase water-related diseases. Application of chemical fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides in irrigated agriculture may cause pollution of water bodies. Water hyacinth and tsetse fly in the wetlands of the south impose an unhealthy environment for human and animal life. At the same time, reclamation of these swamps is bound to have environmental impacts on the fauna and flora, domestic livestock and wildlife, and the livelihood of the inhabitants. Municipal and industrial wastes from the developed parts of the country, which are on the increase, may cause environmental hazards if not treated properly. Drought spells and the accompanying desert creep, loss of vegetal cover and deforestation have far-reaching environmental effects.
Environmental effects usually go beyond national borders. Hence regional joint efforts are required to address them, such as joint applied research and training, exchange of information, consensus concerning control measures, regional integrated projects, and the like.
The Sudan is central within the ten Nile basin countries. All the major tributaries meet inside the Sudan and the Nile flows thence to Egypt as a single river. The three major non-Nile systems, namely Gash, Baraka and Azoom, are shared with neighbouring countries. The Nubian Sandstone aquifer is shared with Chad, Egypt and Libya. Thus any national water resources policy is bound to affect and be affected by the policies of those countries sharing the same water resource systems.
The Sudan, when under British rule, made some bilateral treaties and agreements with neighbouring countries, such as Egypt and Ethiopia. After independence came the 1959 agreement with Egypt. The Permanent Joint Technical Committee (PJTC) was formed to preside on the application of that agreement. As a result of joint efforts initiated by the Sudan and Egypt and supported by UNDP, the Hydromet Project on the Equatorial lakes was started in 1967 and continued to 1992. It then evolved into the Tecconile Project to target an integrated development of the Nile basin. The Nile basin countries, through their membership in Tecconile, formulated an action plan composed of twenty-two projects. Some of these projects are now being implemented. As a consequence of one of these projects, the Council of Ministers of the water resources affairs of the Nile countries agreed to form a Panel of Experts with three members from each country. The main task of the Panel is to plan for a basin-wide cooperative framework which would lead to the equitable, sustainable and environmentally sound optimal utilization of the Nile for the benefit of all the riparian countries.
A joint advisory committee was formed recently between the Sudan and Ethiopia for the exchange of information and bilateral efforts, especially in watershed management, wildlife protection and hydropower linkages. Some work has started with Chad for water harvesting along the shared water courses. Groundwater assessment for the Nubian Sandstone aquifer has started jointly with Egypt and Libya, and may continue to a common management of that shared resource. The Sudan will continue to support, activate and enhance cooperation with its neighbours, especially in water sector affairs.
As water is a part of every living thing, it is too large to be contained under one umbrella. MOIWR is responsible for monitoring, assessment, development and management of the Nile waters and some other major shared streams, like Gash and Baraka. Responsibility for other streams and drinking water facilities used to be under other ministries. In a major step towards closer coordination, these responsibilities, together with groundwater affairs, were brought within the responsibilities of MOIWR at the start of this decade. Meteorological data and information are catered for through a public corporation under the Ministry of Aviation. There is close coordination between that public corporation and MOIWR.
Another major step taken by the government recently was the formation of the National Council for Water Resources (NCWR). It is headed by H.E. the Minister of MOIWR and includes representatives of the stakeholders from the supply and demand sides, legal, financial, international relations, research and training and the related private sector. Its main objectives are to formulate common water resources development policies, strategies, plans and legislation, guide and supervise their implementation, coordinate and integrate the activities of all the water sector agencies and stakeholders and preside over international affairs related to water. The NCWR has the Technical Water Resources Organ (TWRO) as its immediate executing institution.
Some major changes took place recently when the Sudan adopted a free-market economy, privatization and decentralization system. Farmers’ associations have now the upper hand in the funding and management of irrigated schemes. Operation, management and development of water supply for small- and medium-sized irrigated schemes are totally under the responsibility of the local community. Cooperatives and the private sector are encouraged to own and operate such schemes. For the four large national irrigated schemes, a public corporation was founded within MOIWR to manage the irrigation system on a cost-recovery basis, funded by the farmers.
Many laws and regulations have been drafted over the years to deal with the use and protection of the water resources systems. They include:
1. The Nile Pump Control Act (1939).
2. The River Transport Act (1950).
3. The Fresh Water Fisheries Act (1954).
4. The Water Hyacinth Control Act (1960).
5. The Public Health Act (1975).
6. The Environmental Health Act (1975).
7. The Regulation of Inland River Navigation Act (1980).
8. The Irrigation and Drainage Control Act (1990).
9. The Gash Basin Water Development and Utilization Act (1992).
10. Wadi Nyala Water Development and Utilization Order (1993).
11. The Water Resources Act (1996).
Some specialised committees have been formed within NCWR to review these laws and regulations in the light of a holistic approach to water sector policies. New regulations are being drafted to cover abstraction from seasonal non-Nile streams, groundwater and regional water affairs under the federal system. Other committees within NCWR are looking into long-term plans, international relations and coordination of research and training in the water field.
The country’s water policy has evolved over the years in accordance with changes in supply-demand relationships and the dynamic character of the water sector. Looking from the supply side, we find that it is now curtailed by the limited storage capacity on the Nile and the seasonal streams, and the high cost for pumping groundwater. Some measures are currently being taken to address this problem, including heightening of Roseries dam and the halted construction of Jonglei Canal. It is recognized that there is an environmental dimension to such projects, which has to be catered for. Nevertheless, more dams have to be built, especially for water harvesting from seasonal streams. Future advancement in technology may render groundwater monitoring and abstraction and non-conventional water resources economically feasible alternative options.
As a supply-oriented policy is capital intensive and is limited by the availability of water, a mixed policy of supply and demand management has to be followed. The policy should target the improvement of water use efficiency, revision of cropping patterns and selection of crop varieties to produce more with less water. Integrated water resources planning and management, research and training at all levels and public awareness of the value of water are important tools to support the demand-management approach. Other tools could be the regular monitoring and inspection of canals and hydraulic structures, and the enforcement of regulations against water wastage, coupled with incentives and penalties as appropriate. Applied research should be encouraged to address the problems of sedimentation in reservoirs and canals, aquatic weeds in canals and drains, appropriate technology to improve water use efficiency, and mitigation of floods and droughts. Active participation of water users in decision making should be encouraged to foster ownership feelings, facilitating the application of any decisions. Users should be trained to shoulder the operation, maintenance and replacement of the water facilities within their domain.
The Sudan is a large country, with varying standards of living, culture and climate. When this is superimposed on the multi-sectoral nature of water, coordination of activities in water resources planning, management and development becomes essential. The formation of NCWR is an important step in that direction. The specialized committees in the council have to explore the means for optimal usage of water and the tools and regulations to guide and control those means. It might be helpful to have affiliated councils or branches at state levels, where water availability and quality are major issues. Monitoring of the application of policies and strategies should be institutionalized through an adequate inspection and feed-back system. When this is done, the Council could play the role of a “watch dog” through its executive body.
The spirit of cooperation and close coordination with countries sharing the same water resources should continue, preferably through an institutional cooperative framework for each shared basin. The guiding spirit should be equitable, legitimated, integrated, sustainable and environmentally sound utilization of the common water resource, without significant harm from one country to another. The overall target should be tolerance and understanding of each other’s aspirations and difficulties, with a search for optimal usage and mutual benefit.
If a water sector policy extends beyond a certain planning horizon, the uncertainty would be too high to be ignored. The main reason is the wide spatial coverage of water and the number of variables involved. This future look was focused more on the issues which emerged recently. When a policy is put into practice, it should be monitored to advance the benefits and treat the drawbacks. New issues are expected to emerge in the future and some of the existing ones may peter out. A water sector policy is bound to be reviewed from time to time in response to the results of previous policies, lessons drawn from them and the surfacing of new issues.
Elawad, O.M.A. 1991. Multicriterion Approach to the Evaluation of Irrigation Systems Performance. PhD Thesis. University of Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, UK.
FAO. 1995a. Reforming water resources policy: A guide to methods, processes and practices. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper, No. 52.
FAO. 1995b. [FAO/UNDP/World Bank] Water sector policy review and strategy formulation: A general framework. FAO Land and Water Bulletin, No. 3.
FAO. 1997. Republic of Sudan National Programme for the Development of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation Sectors. Policy Assistance Branch, FAO Regional Office for the Near East, Cairo.
