by
Jarnail Singh
Principal SFS College
Dehradun, UP India
1. Introduction to Forestry Management Planning in India
2. Review of the present and past forestry planning process
2.1 General Features
2.2 Level, growth and change of forest and other natural resources
2.3 Land uses and ecological attributes of the watersheds
2.4 Different Sub-sectors of forestry
2.5. Allied sub-sectors of forestry
2.6 The cultural Environment
2.7 Level and Nature of participation of stakeholders in forestry Planning
2.8 Process of priority setting for choosing alternatives for planning
2.9 Use of Remote Sensing and GIS techniques in forest planning
2.10 Investments in forestry
3. The current forestry planning process in India
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives and Strategy of planned development
3.3 The Procedure and Methodology of Development planning
3.4 Structural Framework of development planning
3.5 Planning process in vogue
3.6 Allocation of Central Assistance to States
3.7 Gaps and challenges of forestry planning
4. The Strength, Efficiency and Weakness of forestry planning process
4.1 The Strength and Efficiency of Forestry Planning Process
4.2 Weaknesses of Forestry Planning Process
5. Forestry Planning Process
5.1 Proposed forestry planning process and framework
5.2 The Planning Process
5.3 Investment In Forestry Sector
1.1 Introduction
The story of evolution of forest management is as old as that of the civilization. It begins with change of way of life of the people from nomadic existence to the settled agriculture. The mankind used forests for meeting its needs of existence and progress, since time immemorial. The evidences of cultural evolution of India, such as, Vedic and epical references, testify that forests and natural environs were an integral part of the way of life of the people. Kautilya’s Arthashastra (3rd Century B C) describes the superintendent of forests as one of the important functions of the state. However, in the subsequent periods forests were relegated to other land uses and were treated as wastelands (jungles) meant for removal for other uses. Throughout, the historical times, forests were denied status of being a resource of economic and intrinsic value, till recently, when scientific management of forests was introduced. This apathetic attitude of the nation towards forests led to their clearance for agriculture, habitation and other land uses. In addition, influx of invading tribes and communities and their subsequent assimilation and settlement, in India, caused removal of forests in the fertile tracts of the nation, particularly, in the Northwestern part. Industrial revolution and exponential increase of human and livestock population had its own pound of flesh leading to enhancing the pace of degradation of natural forest ecosystems. Moreover, planned socio-economic developments, after the independence, also lead to diversion of a large chunk of forest areas for different development land uses.
As a consequence, despite scientific management, the conditions of forests continued to slide down the scale, ultimately, forcing the nation to realize their basic role and intrinsic value in the form of a new forest policy in 1988. The process of degeneration of forest resources also focused attention and efforts on environmental aspect of socio-economic development through recent legislative and planning interventions. Nevertheless, the compulsions of present scenario in forestry as well as challenges of forestry in the new millennium call for an introspective view into the present process for formulating a holistic approach for sustainable management and development of forest resources as well as for harmonious growth of the forestry sector.
1.2 Background
British introduced scientific forest management in India, in 1860s, with a view to obtain sustained production of timber and other forest products to meet the commercial needs of its industrial economy. The Forest Department was established and geared to carry out this task with professional efficiency. Dr. Brandis, a German forester, was chosen for the task, as Inspector General of Forests to create the forest organization as well as to provide a sound base to the forestry administration and management.
The forestry legislation was undertaken, in 1865 to empower the newly created department, which was revised in 1878 and was, subsequently, given a comprehensive shape as Indian Forest Act 1927. The policy initiatives in the last decade of 19th century provided a firm anchorage to forestry management planning in India. To this end, Dr Boelcker provided necessary impetus in his report on improvement of agriculture. Dr Brandis emphasized the need of basic underlying principles for forest management in his report on improvement of forests. These initiatives and the realization that forests shall serve the agriculture in more direct way led to enunciation of first National Forest Policy in 1894. The subsequent policy endeavours in 1952 and 1988, delineated the course of forestry in more clear and realistic manner, in accordance with, the changing scenario in the field of forestry. The management of forests by scientifically prepared working plans was given due emphasis in these policy initiatives and interventions.
The need of qualified and trained staff for forest management was realized in early 1870s, which lead to creation of Imperial Forest Service (IFS) and other subordinate ranks in the forest organization as well as establishment of forestry research and training institutions, in the country. Besides, efforts were also undertaken to develop capacity of self-administration and management. Thus, by the turn of 20th century forestry was well set to scale heights of professional management, in the subsequent years.
The first half of 20th century witnessed further growth and extension in forest management through consolidation of forests under reserved and protected forests for providing legal protection against unauthorized use. However, consolidation of forests under legal classification lead to regulation and restrictions of traditional rights and privileges enjoyed by the local people. It led to alienation and exodus of people from forest areas. In fact, the process of reservation emerged as a sharp cleavage in the, hitherto, harmonious relations between forests and people.
After independence, India chose medium term planning approach for socio-economic development of the nation. The funds and resources were channelled through programmes, schemes and projects undertaken under the Five Year Plans. Despite, little experience in medium term planning, the socio-economic development under Five Year Plans proved successful which led to its continuity. However, this mega approach of development planning accorded low priority to forestry sector resulting in drying of funds for development of natural forest ecosystems. In the recent years, various site-specific approaches, such as, management plans, micro plans and JFM plans, have emerged on the horizon of forestry which are being incorporated in development programmes, schemes and projects, in order to, tap resources from Plan and other funding agencies within the country and abroad.
1.3 Evolution of Forest Planning in India
The tract of forestry planning in India is fairly long and diverse one and begins with adoption of scientific forest management. Forests have been managed, traditionally, by scientifically prepared and approved instrument called working. The silvicultural systems and ‘sustained yield management principle’ were developed in European forests with a view to convert forests in normal form for obtaining sustained yield in perpetuity. They were subsequently adopted and introduced in Indian forests through working plans / working schemes. Each policy document refers to preparation of working plans for scientific management of the forests that provided anchorage and direction to forestry planning. Moreover, provision of initial training to field staff and establishment of training capacity and facility provided forestry planning a sound and professional footing.
Working plan process was further refined to suit the site factors and variation in vegetation. The rules and procedure for writing, implementation and revision of plans were codified in Working Plan Code to ensure uniformity of approach in the country. The forests were surveyed, studied, classified and documented to serve the field foresters and professionals. The process of consolidation brought more forest areas under legal classification and subsequently under planned management. The process of improvisation of silvicultural system of management and methods of regulation of sustainable cut helped in developing firm and deep roots of sustained yield management in minds of Indian foresters.
The process of scientific management and consolidation of forests resulted in improvement of growing stock and site conditions. It also led to rehabilitation of degraded forest tracts under excessive use. However, the sacrosanct status accorded to working plans made the foresters inflexible and myopic to see beyond traditional forestry principles and concepts. Such an attitude lead to closed thinking resulting in lack of evolution in modes and concepts of forests management. Subsequently, the working plan approach was also questioned by increasing number of foresters and professionals and was gradually replaced by more flexible modes of planning (Singh, 1999).
Despite, long and rich experience of forest planning as well as strong and proven base, the extent and conditions of forest resources deteriorated thereby casting shadows on the nature and style of working in the forestry sector. The forestry sector, as such, failed to achieve the objectives of successive policies and could not perform to the expectations of the people. Hence, the forestry in India, these days, is said to be on the crossroads.
The forestry planning suffered the same fate as the management. Foresters continue to believe that the traditional approach of management planning is a panacea for all the problems of the sector. The lack of incorporation of changes in management planning, in due course, virtually, made the forestry planning an ineffective and irrelevant system for present day forest management. Though, new initiatives have emerged in various areas of forestry, yet, their incorporation and institutionalization in the existing set-up seems a distant dream.
In view of the above scenario, there is a potent need to re-look into the forest management planning, in the context of, socio-economic development planning approach adopted by the nation, after independence, with a view to suggest change in process and framework of planning, in order to, address the present and future needs of the forestry sector. Moreover, the long-standing process of forest management planning requires integration with development plans for seeking requisite resources for the forestry sector.
1.4 Objectives and framework of the study
The objective of the present study is to review the existing forestry planning process and to identify the gaps and inadequacies in the process and the framework. On the basis of this review, the study terms require, an integrated and coordinated model for forestry planning in India. To this end, it has been proposed to deal the subject, in the following sequence.
Review of the present and past forestry planning process in India.
Identify the strength, efficiency and weaknesses of forestry planning.
Propose an integrated and coordinated model for forestry planning.
The present study is a part of Country Capacity Building (CCB) project (GCP/RAS/162/JPN) sponsored by FAO for building up of Institutional Capacity in South Asian countries in the field of forest planning, assessment and systematic observations of the forests.
In order to provide adequate coverage to various aspects of study and to seek opinions and involvement of other stakeholders in the field of forestry, a framework (Diagram-1) more or less similar to the proposed one, was adopted for the study.
Diagram-1: Study Framework
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Study Team: Principal and Faculty, SFS College, Dehradun |
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Identifying: Sources of information and Stakeholders |
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Review of the information |
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Consultation with stakeholders |
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Synthesis, analysis and verification |
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Report writing and its finalization |
2.1 General Features
On the basis of accepted parameters, such as, culture, biology and physiology, India is one of the most diverse countries in the world. It lies within 8.4˛ to 37.6˛ N latitudes and 68.7˛ to 97.2˛ E longitudes, covering about 328.7 million ha of geographical area. The main land comprises four main geographical areas, such as, Himalayas, Indo-Gangetic plains, desert region and peninsular plateau and three geological regions, viz. Himalayas, Gangetic plains and Peninsular shield. It embodies 14 major river systems which falls under four classes, such as, Himalayan rivers, Peninsular rivers, Coastal rivers and rivers of drainage basin. It has wide range of soils, comprising, alluvial (78 million ha), black cotton (51.8 million ha), red soils (51.8 m ha), laetrile (12.6 m ha) and deserts soils (37 m ha), having varying fertility and suitability for agriculture, forestry and other land uses. The climate is mostly tropical monsoon and montane temperate, in Himalayas, and classified into four distinct seasons. The summer monsoon provides 80 per cent of precipitation to landscape of the nation.
2.2 Level, growth and change of forest and other natural resources
There has been a tremendous increase in area under forests since adoption of scientific forest management. The policy and legal process, initiated in latter half of 19th century, resulted in consolidation of area under forests. However, the alienation of local communities in the process lead to degradation of forest resources due to excess removal from forests near the habitations. The regulations and restrictions imposed on the legal forest areas lead to increase in pressure on adjoining areas. It caused serious depletion of forest cover on non-forest areas. The success of social forestry, Agro-forestry and farm forestry in Haryana and adjoining states, however, present an optimistic scenario about forestry in non-forest areas as well as role of private initiatives in the forestry sector.
The State of Forest Report (1997) of Forest Survey of India reveals all encompassing degradation of forests as a result of unregulated grazing beyond carrying capacity, damage by forest fire and diversion of forests to other developmental uses. As per Report, the recorded forest area extends to 76.52 million ha, forming 23.27% of total geographical area of the country. Whereas, the actual forest cover is only 63.34 million ha, which form 19.27% of total geographical area of the country, of which the dense forest cover amounts to 11.17 per cent only. Moreover, about 90 percent of forests are under public ownership and are managed by State Forest Departments.
The information given in the tables (Table-1) provide a collective scenario of forest cover in the country and helps focus attention on gray areas in the forestry. The extent of area under recorded forests and actual forest cover as well as decrease of forest cover and density is a cause of concern for the nation.
Table 1. Forest Area, Cover and Density Classification
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Forest Area Statistics Forest Area Million ha Legally recorded forest area 76.52 Area under forest cover (1995) 65.00 (Of this) : Natural forests 50.38 : Plantations 14.62 Actual area under forest cover (1997) 63.34 |
Area by Crown density Class Area (m. ha.) Percentage of Total G.A. Dense forests 36.73 11.17 Open forests 26.13 7.97 Mangrove 0.48 0.15 Total 63.34 19.27 Scrub 5.72 (in addition) |
Sources: FSI and FAO
The natural forest cover of the country, comprises of, 16 major forest types, as per Champion and Seth classification. The variation and richness of different forest ecosystems in the different climatic zones of the country add to its awe and complexity. It helps the managers to focus attention on the silvicultural and ecosystem aspects of distinct forest types and to develop insight into their richness, diversity and significance resulting in their conservation and maintenance of the broad ecological landscape.
The rate of deforestation has reduced from 1.3 m ha in 1970s to 129,000 ha during 1990-95, yet, it is a serious set back to the initiatives to meet policy imperatives. The estimated negative change of forest cover from 1987 to 1997 (Table-2) despite efforts of plantations and afforestation undertaken on extensive scale on forests and non-forestlands presents a disturbing scenario. It poses a serious challenge to cope with, in the years to come, both for foresters and policy makers. To arrest the negative growth trends in forest cover and productivity is crucial for sustainable management and use of forests.
Table 2. Forest cover as estimated by the FSI from 1987 to 1997 (sq km)
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Cycle Year of publication Forest cover Percentage of total area |
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First 1987 640,819 19.49 Second 1989 638,804 19.43 Third 1991 639.364 19.45 Fourth 1993 639,386 19.45 Fifth 1995 638,879 19.43 |
Moreover, per capita forestlands in India (0.08 ha) are lowest in the world as against average of 0.5 ha for developing countries and 0.64 ha for the world, due to exponential increase in population and decrease in area under forest cover (Table-3). The situation calls for intensive and scientific management of forest resources as well as extension of forests in non-forests tracts available for afforestation and plantations to meet the needs of the people.
Though, the adoption of scientific forest management benefited the country in consolidation of area under forests, yet, the forests suffered depletion and degradation due to lack of people involvement in protection and regeneration of forests resources in the traditional forest areas as well as in non-forest areas. The depletion of natural forest cover due to excess and unsustainable removal resulted in spiraling effect, causing degradation of other natural resources, such as, land, air, water, watersheds and biodiversity. The cumulative effect of degradation of natural ecosystems lead to environmental instability and ecological imbalance, adversely, affecting the quality of life of the people as well as sustaining capacity of land.
Table 3. Per capita Forest Land in Asia-Pacific region, 1990
Country Per Capita Forest (ha) Per capita GNP(US$) |
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India 0.08 360 Sri Lanka 0.11 470 Indonesia 0.64 560 Malaysia 1.02 2330 Fiji 1.17 1780 Tropical Asia 0.21 475 Total Asia-Pacific 0.17 602 Total Developing Countries 0.50 763 |
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Total World 0.64 4063 |
Source: FAO (1995)
2.3 Land uses and ecological attributes of the watersheds
The land use pattern of the country has undergone tremendous change, since independence. There has been increase in net sown area, area under forest and area under urban and other developmental uses. A sharp decline in area under un-culturable wasteland, miscellaneous tree crops and fallow lands was absorbed since 1950 (Table-4). It is pertinent to note that area under forest has been increased tremendously, over the years, while, the forest cover and its density has suffered a serious set back during this period.
Table 4. Land use Pattern from 1950-51 to 1991-92 (Area in million ha)
Source: NFAP (1999)
The National Land Use Policy was formulated in 1988, which sets forth basic objectives and prescribes for coordination of forest management policies with policies of allied sectors, within the overall framework of this policy. However, the provisions of policy could not put in practice due to lack of political will and ineffectiveness of the State Land Use Boards.
Furthermore, around 175 million ha (53.24 percent) of land area suffers degradation of different types (Table-5). The type and extent of land degradation by different agents provides an indication to the severity of the problem and challenge ahead for the foresters and other land use managers.
Table 5. Types of Land Degradation
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S. N. |
Type of Degradation |
(million ha) |
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. |
Subject to wind and water erosion Water-logged areas Alkali soils Saline soils Ravines and deep gullies Shifting cultivation Riverine land |
146.77 8.53 2.50 5.50 3.97 5.00 2.73 |
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Total |
175.00 |
Source: NFAP (1999)
Besides, India has about 93 million ha under ecologically fragile (hills) areas, widely, distributed throughout its length and breadth, supporting rich flora, fauna and endemic biodiversity (Table-6). The table indicates ecologically sensitive and fragile hills and mountains, which require special focus, safeguards and treatment for their stability, conservation and development.
Table 6. Types of Ecologically Fragile Areas
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S N |
Hills |
(in million ha) |
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. |
Himalayan Range Vindhya and Aravalli Ranges Western Ghats Eastern Ghats Satpura Range |
51.43 9.27 7.74 18.02 6.60 |
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Total |
93.06 |
In addition, the pattern of degradation of land identified by National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) under ‘National Waste Land Identification Project’ of MOEF, covering 229 districts reveals that out of the total 341580.81 sq km about 90 percent area can be brought under productive use through proper soil and water conservation, technological interventions and planting of suitable species.
Moreover, these days, watershed management has emerged as prime strategy of natural resource management. Watershed is a geo-hydrological natural unit and is an ideal unit for holistic development of natural resources with site-specific focus. The Planning Commission has recognized the Integrated Watershed Management Approach as basic strategy for holistic treatment of natural resources. A comprehensive set of guidelines for implementation of programmes under DPAP, DDP, IWDP and EAP has been issued in 1995 for basing all development programmes on watershed strategy. Subsequently, Integrated Watershed Approach was adopted for development schemes under HADP and WGDP. This approach has also been extended to development schemes and programmes undertaken in the forestry sector. The efforts are on to integrate watershed management strategy with the management planning of forest resources by dovetailing micro-plans with forest management plans (Working Plans) for providing holistic and site-specific treatment to forest resources.
2.4 Different Sub-sectors of forestry
The forestry sector comprises of, following, main sub-sectors, which are complementary in nature and autonomous in functioning and have carved a distinct space and niche in the overall evolution and development of forestry sector.
2.4.1 Management of traditional Forest areas by Forest Department
India has a rich and long history of forest management which extent back to the middle of 19th century. Over the years, the extensive area under forests was brought management through legislation and adoption of scientific management in forestry. However, the management of forests by the State Forest Departments (SFDs) remained confined to traditional forest areas in the control of forest departments. The forest resources in non-forest tracts under other government departments, community and private ownership were not brought under scientific management. As a result, forests on community and private ownership, suffered severely leading to ecological arrest and regression. The process of ecological regression, however, focused attention on non-forest tracts leading to initiatives for bringing community and private wastelands under forest / tree cover through massive afforestation programme under Social Forestry.
Despite scientific forest management and plantation initiatives the natural forest ecosystems suffered due to unsustainable use, lack of adequate investment and inability of department to evolve suitable modes and techniques. The productivity of Indian forests is far lower (1.3 cu m per ha per year) than the world standard as well as the potential productivity (4 to 5 cu m per ha per year). In addition, demand of forest produce is 2 to 3 times higher than the current and potential productivity. Lack of private initiatives and lukewarm public response may be cited as causes of poor performance.
In view of this disturbing scenario, the NFP 1988, enunciated, alike, the previous policy 1/3 of geographical area under forest cover as goal, by conserving the existing natural forest ecosystems and increasing their productivity through intensive scientific management and bringing non forest area under forest or tree cover through afforestation and eco-restoration by active involvement and cooperation of people. In order to achieve these objectives, the department and its management approach require suitable orientation and change. The recent focus on professionalism, information technology, holistic and site-specific focus, biodiversity conservation and Joint Forest Management (JFM) seem to be a step in this direction. The churning in the sector at the moment will help crystallize modes suiting to resource conditions, people needs and environment concerns and will show way to sustainable forestry.
As a response to the increasing needs of people for small timber, fuel, fodder and industrial requirements, the Social Forestry was undertaken on government and community non-forest lands on the recommendation of NCA (1976). Need based, fast growing species were planted on extensive scale under various programmes and schemes under Five Year Plans. About 70-80 percent of grant allocations under plan were spent on Social Forestry resulting in drying of funds for natural forest ecosystems. The idea was to regenerate non-forest wastelands through people’s involvement for meeting their needs of fuel, fodder and small timber. The department was entrusted the responsibility to provide requisite technical know-how, in this regard. In reality, however, very few Panchayats came forward to undertake this responsibility. Thus, the entire responsibility fell upon the newly created Social Forestry institutions manned by forest officials. As a consequence, it was termed as another programme of the government, by the people and Social Forestry lost its very essence as people’s forestry and, subsequently, the cooperation and support of the people. Thus, the objective of meeting the need of people and industry out side the traditional forest areas remained unfulfilled. Nevertheless, Social Forestry proved helpful in raising plantations on non-forest tracts (Table-12) that set trends for innovation and private initiatives in forestry.
The plantation of valuable species had been an integral constituent of scientific forestry, since 1840, when teak plantations in Nilambur (Kerala) were undertaken to compensate the removal of teak from natural forests. Initially the plantations were confined to small scale with high value species such as teak, rosewood, mahogany, toon, sal, etc. Later on, however, it was extended to large scale in 1950s to meet the needs of industry. In total 3.55 m ha were planted up to 1980, when massive afforestation programme under Social Forestry was launched. Annual target of plantations for sustainability was fixed, as 3 to 5 m. ha. However, about 1.2 m ha per year actual plantations were carried out amounting to the total as 28.38 m ha up to 1997-98 (Appendix- 3). Programmes and schemes, which incorporated the component of tree planting, are given as under.
MoEF Programmes
20 points programme, NAEB / MoEF.
Integrated afforestation and eco-development projects.
Area oriented fuel wood and fodder production scheme.
Plantation of non-wood forest species, including, medicinal plants.
Grants-in-aid to voluntary agencies.
Externally assisted social forestry projects.
Association of scheduled tribes & rural poor in regeneration of degraded forests on usufruct sharing basis.
Programmes of other Ministries
Integrated wasteland development scheme.
Desert development programme.
Grants-in-aid scheme of Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment.
Programmes of the Department of Poverty Alleviation and Rural Employment.
Soil conservation, Watershed management and other integrated programmes of the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation.
Evaluation of plantations undertaken reveals that most of the species selected for plantations were fast growing species, primarily, raised for fuel, pulp, veneer and small timber. The proportion of Eucalyptus, Acacia nilotica and teak was more than other species planted in the Programme. The MAI of plantation taken under social forestry programme is estimated approximately 4.0 cu m per ha per year which is 2 ½ time lower than the minimum norm of MAI for fast growing species (10 cu. m. per ha per year). There is need to have an introspective look into the reasons for low survival and low productivity of plantations undertaken under various programmes Plans.
2.4.3 Joint Forest Management (JFM)
The National Forest Policy 1988 provided the impetus for initiation of JFM in the forestry sector. It was launched with Central Government guidelines of 1st June 1990 to the States, regarding developing mechanism and institutional arrangement for ensuring participation of local people for forest protection and regeneration. It is in fact a part of the democratic decentralization willed by the nation by 73rd Constitutional Amendment in 1993 by according constitutional status to PRIs. In pursuance these guidelines, 21 States have established around 35,000 VFPCs, covering forest area over 7 million ha (Appendix- 6) Over the last ten years it has emerged as a vital sub-sector in the forestry. Many success stories have been emerged from different part of the country, showing its feasibility and relevance in the present day forestry. It is being vigorously pursued by some of the states, alike, Andhra, MP, Orissa and West Bengal. The success of JFM approach indicates that democracy is reaching to its root in the forestry. However, issues of sustainability and institutionalization of JFM, sharing mechanism, equity and gender are some of the areas, which require focus for their satisfactory resolution. Moreover, JFM micro-plans require integration and incorporation in forest management planning process.
2.4.4 Forest Development Corporations
Alike, the Social Forestry, the Forest Development Corporations emerged out of the recommendations of NCA (1976) with a view to instill the spirit and culture of corporate functioning in the forestry production. The prime productive areas were earmarked to the corporations for harvesting and regeneration by valuable commercial species to increase production per unit area. It initiated well and took shape of an autonomous public sector enterprise. However, after an initial phase of euphoria, it began to show symptoms of a sinking enterprise. With the enunciation of new National Forest Policy in 1988 and moratorium on green felling by many states, the production activities declined drastically leading to low production and consequent losses. At present, most of the Forest Corporations are surviving on government assistance and are functioning, like, institutions of the department in nature and spirit. The concepts and culture of autonomous corporate functioning could not established its roots. At present, the corporations have been assigned the task of regeneration of degraded forest tracts. Nevertheless, forest corporations, in some states, did a commendable job by creating successful plantation of valuable species. It is worth noting that forest officials, at higher ranks, manned the forest corporations. Thus, instead of corporate culture, the corporations functioned in the same manner as a forest circle in the department (NFAP 1999). However, some corporations in the field of NWFPs and eco-tourism are working well in some states. The change of attitude and approach as well as relaxation of rules and procedure is the key to such successful ventures.
2.4.5 Wildlife and Protected Area
The depletion and degradation of forests and other natural ecosystems had its impact on biodiversity, leading to endangering the existence of many species. However, it led to initiation of efforts for conservation of wildlife and other natural resources. The Wildlife Protection Act (1972) and Forest Conservation Act (1980) were enacted which focused attention and efforts on the conservation and protection of wildlife and biodiversity of natural forest ecosystems. These efforts also focused attention on the intrinsic value of natural forest ecosystems and their basic role as saviours of humanity.
Due to diverse physiography and climatic conditions, India has a rich biodiversity. It falls in three major biographic realms namely, Indo-Malaya, Eurasia and Afro-tropical. It is one of the twelve-mega diversity countries in the world and out of 18 unique biodiversity hot spots 2 are located in India viz. North Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. It comprises of ten bio-geographic zones, namely, Trans-Himalayan, Himalayan, Indian deserts, Semi-arid areas, Western Ghats, Deccan peninsula, Gangetic plain, Northeast India, Islands and Coasts. Furthermore, the entire country is divided into 8 distinct floristic regions, namely, Western Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas, Assam and Northeast, the Gangetic plain, Indus plain, Deccan, Malabar and Andaman. There are 45,000 species of plants, including, 15,000 flowering plants of which 5,150 are endemic, out of which 1,500 are facing threats of varying degree. Moreover, there are 81,250 species of fauna out of which, 44 mammal, 42 birds, 164 reptilas, 121 amphibians and 435 fish species are endemic (Botanical and Zoological Survey of India report, 1995).
The Wildlife and Protected Areas management Network have emerged as a significant sub sector in the forestry since 1970s. The emphasis to biodiversity conservation in NFP 1988, further focused efforts and initiatives for in-situ and ex-situ protection and conservation of biodiversity and wildlife. At present, it comprises 80 National Parks and 441 Sanctuaries and extends over to 14.8 m. ha of protected area amounting to 4.5% of total geographical area and 14% of forest area of the country (Appendix-5). Protected Areas, in fact, present a resemblance to the oasis in the vast desert of degraded forest tracts, as repositories of gene pool for present and future generations.
2.5. Allied sub-sectors of forestry
2.5.1 Agro forestry
Agro forestry is an important component of social forestry undertaken on non forest- lands of the country. It provides judicious mix of trees and farm crops for productivity and sustainable use of lands. It is practiced throughout the country and is popular with farmers of Punjab, Haryana, UP, W Bengal, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra. Different models of agro-forestry are practiced by different states. More focus is needed on site-specific models, tree-crop interaction, product marketing and economics. Keeping in view, the land-use pattern of this country a large chunk of areas are available for implementation of projects and schemes under agro-forestry on non-forest community and private lands.
Trees in homesteads form an integral part of socio-cultural and economic life of the people in rural areas of moist tropical regions. There is about 105.29 million operational holding, covering 165.6 million ha with an average of 1.7 ha in this country. The species raised in homesteads, includes, Albizzia spp, Salmalia malabaricum, Samania saman, Tamrix indica, Mangifera indica, Sweatenia mahogany Artocarpus spp, Alstonia scholalris, Azadirachta indica and Syzygium spp. etc. (NFAP 1999). It is estimated that 1 ha of home garden if planned carefully provides return over Rs.50,000 annually for fruit trees, coconut, pepper, coffee and timber. A survey conducted by KFRI, in Kerala, shows that there is an estimated growing stock of around 90 cu m per ha. The people raise trees in their homesteads primarily for self-consumption and extra income. The establishment of rural processing centers will help the farmers in value addition of their products for better returns.
The Farm forestry is practiced on the farmlands along with other farm crops, in form of, windbreaks, shelterbelts and block planting. The farmers prefer the species of better economic returns, which provide raw material to forest base industry. More than 33 percent of seedlings planted under afforestation programmes were served to farm forestry. Farm forestry has a great scope in India. However, farmers having the large land holdings have ventured to practice it. The benefit of farm forestry has not reached to small and marginal farmers. There is need to focus attention on this aspect so as all category of farmers may benefit out of the technological advancements and incentives, extended by the government.
2.5.4 Horticulture Plantations
The forestry has links with horticulture plantations undertaken in various hill states and coastal regions. The apple orchards in HP and JK, chikkoo and coconut plantations on the coastal belts have transformed the economy of these areas. Keeping in view, the climatic and soil variations, in various parts of the country, there is vast scope of raising horticulture plantations in the private and community lands for improving the nutritious and economic status of the people. Various fruit species such as mango, oranges, grapes, litchis, apples, coconuts, chikkoos, pineapple etc. are suitable and may be tried in various agro-climatic regions of the country. The transfer of forestlands for plantation of horticulture species shall be strictly prohibited. However, the local horticulture species may be integrated with plantation programmes undertaken on the forest tracts. The use of wood for preparing packing cases for horticulture products shall be strictly avoided. Other alternatives for this purpose may be explored and put to use. As the horticulture plantations add to the forest cover of the nation, their clearance and removal shall be regulated by a suitable mechanism without encroaching the freedom of the farmers.
The land use pattern of the country reveals around 142.5 m ha area under agriculture and 76.5 m ha under forests. Traditionally, the forests have been managed to serve agriculture as its foster mother. The forests provide ecological stability to the agriculture lands by conserving soil and water and maintaining climatic conditions for better agricultural production. They also support a large chunk of livestock and provide wood and small timber for various agricultural operations. The National Forest Policy 1988, envisages that 1/3 of geographical area under forest cover for hydrological-nutritional balance of the country. Moreover, keeping in view the need of increasing population there is need of more food production from the land under cultivation. In view to this, the care should be taken that productive agricultural lands shall not be brought under forestry and principle of complementary and balanced land use shall be adhered to, for harmonious progress and development of the nation.
2.5.6 Livestock
As per 1987 livestock census, there were around 445 million livestock in India. The present estimated population is 500 million. The forests have been an important source of grazing and fodder for about 60 percent (270 million) of livestock of the nation. A sample survey by FSI indicates impact of grazing on 78 percent of Indian forests. Besides, grazing also occurs in Protected Areas. The forests have suffered a lot due to uncontrolled and unsustainable grazing by the livestock. A large chunk of forest areas have become devoid of regeneration and have been degraded in the process. The issue is very serious for protection and conservation of forest ecosystems. There is need to have a comprehensive grazing policy by involving other sectors to resolve this issue which is eating the vitals of forest conservation efforts undertaken by the nation. The grazing, in no case, shall accede the carrying capacity of the forests. The measures to control and regulate livestock population and to improve its quality and productivity through technological means shall be initiated on priority basis. The possibility of availability of fodder from non-forest areas shall be explored and quantified to determine the gap between demand and supply as well as pressure on natural forest areas.
2.5.7 Forest Based Industries
More than 90% of India’s wood based products are manufactured in private sector. At present, however, the forest industry in India is not well organized and suffers from inefficient technology and equipment. Moreover, the raw material demand exceeds the supply by 15 million cu m per year and the gap is expected to grow in coming years. The industry has enjoyed protection against competition, which has marred their innovation and efficiency.
The National Forest Policy 1998 envisages supply of raw materials from areas other than the natural forests and indicates that forest based industry should motivate the farmers to get their raw material requirements through agro-forestry, farm forestry and high value commercial plantations. A few industries, for instance, WIMCO, Andhra Paper Mills, ITC Bhadrachalam and Kitply have taken innovative initiatives, in this regard. Keeping in view, the nature and composition of India’s forests, the quantum and varieties of NWFPs available in different forests, there is a great scope for processing and value addition industrial enterprises, in the forestry sector. In conformity with the liberalized economic scenario, a private sector shall be encouraged to fill the space in development, service and forest products areas of the forestry.
The important wood based industries in the country are saw-milling, pulp and paper industries, veneer and plywood industries, particle board and fiberboard industries, furniture, textiles, sports goods, pencils, toys, vehicle body buildings, bamboo boards and rattan works etc. Some of the non-wood based industries are pulp and paper (recycled), bidis, lac, tassar, resins and gums, katha, tans and dyes, essential oils, fibers and flosses and medicinal plants, etc. (NFAP, 1999)
Traditionally, the production of timber and other raw forest products, including, NWFPs had been the responsibility of forest departments. Whereas, the processing of raw material for production of finished products as well as their marketing has primarily been in the private sector. Thus, there were no direct links between production of raw material and the consumption of finished products. There is need to bridge this glaring gap. The forestry production shall have linkages with the demand-supply scenario and interplay of market forces. There is need to delineate the functional responsibility between public and private sector for the future balanced and harmonious growth of forest industry.
2.6 The cultural Environment
India is a democratic, sovereign republic, comprising of, 26 states and 6 union territories. It is federal structure, but unitary in nature. It has a constitution that empowers and guides the Centre and the States governments in governing the country. The constitution also provides fundamental rights to citizens for a dignified living. The States share the power and responsibilities with Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).
India is unique in cultural and ethnic diversity. Many religious communities and tribes live and co-exist in India, in peace and harmony. The cultural milieu of the country, embodies, the spirit of co-existence and assimilation. The richness and contrast in ethnic and socio-cultural diversity portrays a striking resemblance with mix natural forest ecosystems.
2.6.2 Demographic
India constitutes 2.5 percent of world’s geographic area but supports 16 per cent of world’s population. As per 1991 census, it supports 846 million people, resulting in average density of 278 persons per sq. km. It adds 17 million people each year at rate of 2.1 percent. The estimated population at this rate of increase will be 1140 million in 2011, while current estimated population is 1000 million. About 70 percent of population lives in villages and about half of them are illiterate (literacy ratio 40 per cent) and lack basic minimum facilities for a dignified living. The exponential increase in population is one of the major challenge and constraint for the sustainable management of forests.
2.6.3 Economic
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian economy, adding upto 30 percent to the GDP and 65 percent of employment in the rural areas. It grows at a slow pace (3.5 percent per annum). The total area under operation land holding is 165.60 million ha. About 60 percent of land holdings are small of average size 4 ha, whereas 1.6 percent are large holding of average size 17.33 ha. Any development strategy has to take these hard facts into consideration for proposing further strides on way of progress and development.
The liberalization of economy and simplification of rules and procedures has made a positive impact towards opening up of the economy to the global market, since Eighth Five Year Plan. Ninth Five-year Planhas taken the liberalization process a step forward by relaxing tariffs and restrictions on import-exports as well as by opening the development and service sectors for private investments. In order to have faster development in all key sectors there is need to intensify efforts to attract investments. The flow of foreign investment in the country in the last few years has shown a steep increase, which is an encouraging sign for the economy. However, as per World Economic Outlook (IMF), per capita increase, in India, is 1.5 percent and rate of convergence with advanced economies is 0.1 percent. At this rate India will take 112 years to close half the gap in average per capita income between India and advanced countries (NFAP, 1999).
It is an issue of concern that the forest department has not evolved and opened up with the changing scenario to provide space to private sector and to share the responsibility. In fact, it tried to lay hands at every thing that, consequently, lead to its failure in almost all the fronts. The professionalism demands redefining the role of department functionaries to provide a space for private sectors and proven NGOs to achieve the common goal and objectives.
Table 10. Comparison of Productivity Levels, 1990
Details India Tropical Asia-Pacific Developing World |
|
Growing stock in natural forests (cu. m/ha) 47 140 125 113 114 Biomass in natural forests (t/ha) 93 181 171 169 131 Per capita volume of growing stock (cu. m) 2.85 28.00 18.90 54.90 71.76 Per capita Available biomass (t) 5.63 36.27 25.76 81.73 82.37 |
Source: FAO (1995)
Moreover, growing stock and productivity of Indian forests per ha is among the lowest in the world, despite the favorable site and climatic factors (Table-10). The information in the table explains the productivity standard of India’s forests in comparison to other nations of the world. Due to deleterious impact of forest fires, unsustainable practices and uncontrolled grazing the productivity is far below the global standards which calls for innovative ways and modes to bring the productivity to the acceptable standards of 4 to 5 cu m per ha per year, if not the optimum, as per Paterson’s formula.
Table 11. Wood Production Trend in India’s from 1980 - 1994 (m cu. m)
|
Production of 1980 1983 1990 1994 |
|
Round Wood 212.1 237.7 273.7 294.0 Fuel Wood 192.4 215.6 249.3 269.2 Industrial Wood 19.7 22.1 24.4 24.8 Share of Sawn / Ply Logs 15.2 16.7 18.4 18.4 Share of Pulpwood/Particles 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 |
Source: NFAP (1999)
Moreover there are wide gaps between demand and supply of timber, fuel wood, fodder and other non-wood forest produces. Keeping in view, present productive capacity of the forests it is not possible to fulfill all the needs of the people from the traditional natural forests. Thus, there is no other way than to increase the productivity per unit area and to find alternative areas and modes to meet the same. The wood production trend (Table-11) shows increase in production since 1980, yet, far inadequate to fill the gap in demand and supply position in regard to timber, fuel and other industrial wood.
The unsustainable resource use has led to environmental degradation and ecological imbalance in the natural ecosystems. As a result, the regenerating capacity of the natural eco-systems has been seriously damaged leading to low productivity and unhealthy resource conditions. Despite, tremendous progress in the field of infrastructure and technical manpower development, in the last 50 years since independence, there are many gray areas yet to receive the fruit of industrial and economic development. A large section of population is still illiterate and under poverty line. The standard of education, health and other civic facilities is far lower than the advanced countries. The environmental degradation and pollution of natural commons, such as air, water, land and natural eco-systems has affected the quality of life of every citizen.
Despite, rich in natural and human resources evolution of management principles and practices is not up to the mark to enhance productivity and utility to the optimum potential. The forestry has been found lacking in evolution with time and situation. The establishment and consolidation of forestry sector achieved over 100 years is now under serious stress and strain due to increase in biotic pressure, change in life style of the people and, due to the pressure of developing economy. Increase in human and livestock population, growth in unemployed labour force and disparity in economic well being coupled with social inequalities and historical injustices present a disturbing scenario in the country. These gray areas need to be tackled holistically by multi-pronged strategy to provide equal and just environment and opportunity for every citizen of the country, as enshrined in the Constitution of India. The forestry sector can play a significant role in this direction by creating opportunities of employment and by keeping the environment clean and green for dignified living.
2.7 Level and Nature of participation of stakeholders in forestry Planning
The concept of people participation in forestry received, worldwide, acceptance at the Eighth World Forestry Congress held in Jakarta, Indonesia in 1978 on the theme forest for people. The concept now has been enshrined in National Forest Policy 1988 and made operational through Government of India guidelines issued on 1st June 1990. In accordance with, guidelines State Forest Departments (SFDs) have initiated the process of involvement of people in forestry sector through a strategy known as Joint Forest Management (JFM), explained earlier. The process of democratic decentralization initiated through 73rd Constitutional Amendment has been incorporated in functioning of forestry sector through this strategy. For the purpose of management of area assigned for JFM, the powers regarding preparation and approval of management plans have been delegated to the division level. Members of (VFPCs) and functionaries of PRIs are associated at various levels for identification of problems, assessment of needs, selection of species and beneficiaries, and preparation and implementation of JFM micro-plans as well as for sharing the usufructs.
In the traditional forest management, the involvement of stakeholders was up to the level of casual labourers and utilization of forest produces that too on the mercy of forest officials. Nevertheless, people were engaged in carrying out various forestry operations, including, plantations since the inception of forest department. Their direct involvement in the forestry planning, however, was very insignificant. The forest plans were considered as professional documents meant to be prepared by qualified forest officials only. However, the forest officials in consultation with the leaders of the forest communities and functionaries of village Panchayats assessed the needs of people and nistar privileges and facilities entitled to the forest communities. The initiation of Joint Forest Management has lead to involvement of people and interested NGOs at local, regional and national level for fixing the management priorities and sharing the usufructs.
2.8 Process of priority setting for choosing alternatives for planning
The forestry planning process was confined to preparation of working plans and annual plans for budgetary supports. The Working Plan Code provides framework and guidelines for writing working plans. The format is comprehensive, comprising, chapters on assessment of forest resources as well as socio-economic potential and constraints. It also provides for growth and analysis of the growing stock and productivity norms for a given forest area on the basis of sustained yield approach and differential treatment on the basis of nature and composition of forests and climatic factors. There was no mathematical model or defined set of guidelines, to choose the alternatives except the valued judgement and methods of sustained yield management approach. The principles of scientific forestry and priorities and objectives set forth by the national forest policy also provide for setting priorities and taking suitable decision in the interest of the country and the people. There is need to evolve comprehensive criteria for setting priorities and choosing alternatives.
2.9 Use of Remote Sensing and GIS techniques in forest planning
The planning of forest resources involves extensive efforts on the part of Working Plan Officer (WPO) and associated staff for collection, arrangement and analysis of data and other relevant information. It requires realistic assessment of resources along with constraints and priorities. It is a voluminous exercise involving staff and officials of different sub-sectors of forestry and allied sectors for discussion, consultation, data collection and setting priorities. Use of modern tools and techniques, of data collection, processing and interpretation facilitates decision making for preparation, review and monitoring of Working Plans as well their integration with development plans.
In the recent times, Information Technology has swept the functioning of each sector, world over. The role of computers, GIS, remote sensing technology aerial photography, visual and digital interpretation as well as database management system has been appreciated in the forestry sector as well. This capacity and facility is now available in various forestry institutions, in the country. However, it has not yet been operationalized in preparation and implementation of forestry plans. Keeping in view, the pace of information technology in forestry sector, it is hoped that, in the near future, it will be used for preparation and monitoring of management plans and development plans for the forestry sector.
Despite policy emphasis, investment in the forestry sector remained disproportional to the forestry assets and withdrawal from them for public use. The allocations to forestry and wildlife in the successive Five Year Plans reveal the priority and emphasis accorded to forestry sector in the socio-economic development of the nation (Table-9). The information reveals that about Rs 85 billion were spent till Eighth Plan in forestry sector. Though, financial allocation to forestry sector has increased from Rs 76 million in First Plan to Rs 40820 million in Eighth Plan, yet, the extent of allocation have remained less than 1 percent of total Plan outlay of the country, except in the Seventh Plan when it was 1.09 percent. It reveals, priority accorded to the forestry sector in the socio-economic development of the nation.
Table 9. Forestry Investment under Five-Year Plans- 1951-2002 (Rs in million)
|
Plan/Years Total Forest and Wildlife Forest outlays Outlay Actuals Outlay Actuals (% of) total |
|
First Plan (1951-56) 23,780 19,600 76 85 0.32 Second Plan (1956-1961) 45,000 46,720 212 212 0.47 Third Plan (1961-1966) 75,000 8,577 458 459 0.61 Annual Plans (1966-1969) 66,250 66,225 419 421 0.63 Fourth Plans (1969-1974) 159,020 157,790 894 938 0.56 Fifth Plan (1974-1979) 393,220 394,260 2,088 2,088 0.53 Annual Plan (1979-1980) 126,010 121,760 683 683 0.54 Sixth Plan (1980-1985) 975,000 1,092,920 6,924 NA 0.71 Seventh Plan (1985-1990) 1,800,00 2,187,300 18,591 19,759 1.09 Annual Plan (1990-1991) 647,170 583,690 6,299 5,764 0.97 Annual Plan (1991-1992) 723,170 647,500 7,831 7,153 1.08 Eight Plan (1992-1997) 4,341,000 3,805,240 40,820 39,930 0.94 Ninth Plan (1997-2002) 8,592,000 - 68,228 - 0.79 |
Source: NFAP (1999)
In the Ninth-Plan a provision of Rs.68 million (an average Rs.13. 6 million per annum) has been made for forestry sector. The average annual plan outlay in the Eighth Plan was about Rs 8.16 billion whereas estimated withdrawal from forests was of Rs 300 billions amounting to 36 times more than the Plan Investment (NFAP, 1999).
Table 10. Investment Estimates for 20 years by programme (Rs. in million)
|
Programme State Sector Central Sector Total Area regenerated |
|
Protected Existing Resources 170058.6 44313.6 214372.2 Improve Forest Productivity 391479.9 21437.6 412917.5 26.43 Reduce Demand 15492.4 12246.1 27738.5 Policy and Institutional Framework 249684.8 22595.7 272280.5 Expand Forest Area 405605.5 6113.6 411719.1 21.80 |
|
Total 1232321.2 106706.6 1339027.8 48.23 |
Source: NFAP (1999)
Moreover, National Forestry Action Programme (1999) launched by MOEF has proposed investment to the tune of Rs.1339027.8 millions for a period of 20 years (Rs.66, 951.4 million per annum) in order to translate the objectives of National Forest Policy 1988 (Table-10). Improvements of forest productivity for 26.43 m ha of degraded forests and expansion of forest cover on 21.80 m ha of non-forest areas have been proposed under this programme for a period of 20 years.
Over the years, forestry has evolved as a professional and academic discipline while the forestry sector as a progressive, diversified and dynamic sector in the process of socio-economic development of the nation. The forestry has grown as a mature tree with deep and strong roots to anchor it for future development and growth. However, it has developed a distinct niche of its own leading to its isolation in various areas in the overall process of administration, planning and development. Thus, for overall and harmonious development of forestry, there is a dire need to integrate forestry development process to the overall socio-development process of the nation.
In view of the above objective, the forestry sector require evolution and change at each level (local, state and national) to harmonize it with the other sectors and politico-administrative set up of the country. In the recent years, process of democratic decentralization has been enhanced through institutionalization of Panchayati Raj System. This process also requires rooting and integration in the forestry sector for seeking active and willing cooperation and support of people in the management of its affairs. The present study is a step in this direction.
The objective of the study, as mentioned in Chapter 1, is to propose an integrated and coordinated forestry-planning model to integrate the forestry planning with the overall national planning and development process. However, every new approach has its beginning in the existing one. In view to this, an insight into the current forestry planning process and framework has been explained, in following paras.
3.2 Objectives and Strategy of planned development
After independence, India adopted planned development approach for its socio-economic development. In order to, initiate the process of development planning; Planning Commission was constituted to carry out the job for the entire country. Over the years, India has framed nine Five Years Plans and a few Annual Plans to take the process of planning and development forward on the predetermined direction. The experience of over last 50 years in development planning reveals that it has developed deep roots in the psyche of the people as well as in the socio-economic set up of the nation.
The National Development Council (NDC) approves the objectives of each Five Year Plan. The objectives represent the shared vision of the people of the nation in regard to their socio economic development. It comprises developmental goals, strategy, policies, and thematic issues and sectorial programs to achieve the objectives set for economic development of the nation. Each Plan focuses emphasis on specific issues and priorities for the nation. The focus of the Ninth Plan, for instance, is “Growth with Social Justice and equity”. It also lays emphasis on specific areas of common concern, which require immediate address through Special Action Plans (Ninth Plan, 1997-2002).
In the early stages of development planning, the government was viewed as principal actor in socio economic development, exercising control over private investment and ensuring dominant role in public sector in almost all-important industries. The Trade Policy was given inward orientation by exercising tight control over imports and imposing high tariff rates. These policies reduced the efficiency, competitiveness and growth of the economy. The government was over-active in industry but under-active in social and infrastructure development. The impact of these policies and approach began to realize by the end of 1970s, which led to reforms in economy and bureaucratic control in the subsequent decades.
Through, some steps were undertaken to reform system in 1980s but wide ranging reforms aiming at decontrolling and de-bureaucratizing economy was initiated in 1991, which were pursued by the successive governments and enjoy broad-based support from various political sections. The Indian economy responded well to the reforms that lead to increase of growth rate from 5.8% in Seventh Plan to 6.8% in Eighth Plan. Despite successes in some areas, there are many areas where the progress is far lower than the expectation. For instance, the following areas warrant immediate focus and attention to address the long-standing problems in these sectors.
The reforms involve reorientation of role of state from controller to facilitator of private sector having more focus on social and welfare sectors. It has been realized that a vigorous private sector operating under free market norms is better suited to encourage efficient use of scarce resources and ensure rapid growth.
The agriculture sector continues to have special focus, in planning as it involves both private efforts and public support for its progress and development. The role of public sector as producer of goods and services need to be reviewed, in the context of, emerging realities in Indian and world economy. Except the strategic areas, where national security is involved, there is no need to keep government share in public sector units beyond, a reasonable limit (up to 26 per cent), is the current thinking in the government.
3.3 The Procedure and Methodology of Development planning
In federal system, the task of planning is, to evolve shared vision and commitment to national objectives and development strategy, in the government and other agents of economic development. Each plan has been build up on the successes of previous Plan and by tackling the problems that has emerged during the course. The Five Year Plans have been traditionally embedded in 15-20 years Perspective Plans. It is prepared in two volumes. The first volume indicates plan objectives, development perspectives and macro economic policy framework and employment perspectives. Whereas, the second volume comprises, the detailed programmes, policies and issues in various sectors of the economy.
The Five-year Plan initiates with preparation of paper on “Approach to the Plan”. In order to prepare Approach Paper, Steering Committees/Working Groups are set up for reviewing the progress of current plan and making recommendations, regarding programmes, projects, schemes and policies as well as on outlays and targets, both, physically and financial for each sector and sub-sector of the economy. The Steering Committees are formed by drawing members / officials from Planning Commission, Central Ministries / Departments, Institutions, State Governments and experts in respective fields. The Approach Paper is prepared on the basis of the following.
A preliminary exercise undertaken by Planning Commission, projecting growth profile of the economy over a period of 15-20 years.
The papers of sectorial divisions bringing out issues to be tackled in their sectors.
Past projected requirements and availability of resources.
Recommendations of Steering Committees / Working groups.
Views of Central Ministries, State Governments, consultative committees of MPs, panel of economists, experts and cross section of public.
The Plan objectives, strategy, policies and programmes, thrust areas and overall growth rate of the economy are enunciated in the Approach Paper. After being considered and approved by Planning Commission and the Cabinet, it is presented to NDC for approval. Thereafter, it is placed before the parliament.
After approval of Approach Paper by NDC, the Planning Commission addresses Central Ministries and State Governments for undertaking proposals for plan formulation and also issues guidelines for the purpose. While, initiating work on Approach Paper at national level, State Governments were also advised to prepare their Approach Paper and set up Working Groups, if necessary. Simultaneously, the Planning Commission requests the State Governments to furnish forecast of their resources for the Plan. The Working Group for State Resources prepares estimates for the State Plan. The Steering Committee / Working Group, comprising, members from Planning Commission, Ministry of Finance and Reserve Bank of India, prepare the estimate for Centre Resources.
The State Plan Adviser, who also takes views of State and Central Officers, considers the recommendations of Working Groups. He prepares reports covering programmes, targets and outlays, which serve as basis for discussion between Planning Commission and State Chief Minister for finalizing the plan of State concerned. The final position regarding State’s own resources, Central assistance and programme contents are determined after discussion.
For Central Plan, the Division concerned prepares the background paper on the basis of guidelines of Approach Paper, recommendation of Working Groups, Ministries proposal and Division’s own assessment. The paper forms the basis of discussion between Planning Commission and Secretaries of Central Ministries and Departments. In view of this discussion and available resources for Central Plan, Commission determines the total outlay and programme for each Ministry.
The Central and State Plans, together with Schemes of Financing are incorporated in draft Five Year Plan. After approval of Commission and Cabinet, the Plan is presented to NDC for approval. Thereafter, it is laid on the tables of both the Houses of Parliament.
In the process of finalizing plan wide range of consultations with MPs, representatives of organized groups of industrialists, labour leaders, agriculturists, other experts and NGOs are done to seek their views and involvement.
The process of formulation of Annual Plans is same as that of Five Year Plan. The Planning Commission has introduced a positive modification, since formulation of 1993-1994 Annual Plan. As per this modification, the resource evaluation was made first, and on that basis size of the plan was decided in discussion between Deputy Chairman and Chief Ministers. The sectorial allocations were worked out, thereafter. Moreover, the States have been provided flexibility by limiting the earmarking of funds around 50 percent of total outlay in the sectorial allocations in State Plan to meet local demands and contingencies.
In case of the Central Plan, estimates of Center’s resources are called from Finance Ministry and finalized in consultation with it. In the series of meeting between Ministry of Finance, Central Ministries and Planning Commissions, the Internal and External Budgetary Resources (IEBR) for public sector undertaking and draft proposals of Plan are finalized.
The Five Year Plans are formulated keeping in view the ever-changing socio economic fabric of the nation. Each of the Plans aimed at achievement of some specific objective arising out of specific socio economic situation prevailing in the country during that point of time. For instance, the current Five Years Plan (Ninth Plan) contains the development goals set by the government and the strategies and policies the government proposes to use for the achievement of goals as well as thematic and sectorial programs chalked out for achievement of socio-economic upliftment of the country. Some specific areas within the broad objectives of the Plan as laid down by NDC have been selected for special focus. For these areas Special Action Plans have been evolved in order to provide actionable time-bound targets with adequate resources.
3.4 Structural Framework of development planning
India has, over the years, evolved a comprehensive framework of development planning by creating planning institutions at Centre, State and District levels. These institutions have been empowered and ensured autonomy through delegation of administrative and financial powers. They have been assigned functions and responsibilities through legislative means. The comprehensive guidelines, procedure and methodology of planning have been evolved to have extensive consultation and participation at each level. The existing institutions of planning and framework, in vogue, are explained in the, following, paras.
3.4.1 National Planning Commission (NPC)
The Planning Commission was constituted in March 1950 by a resolution of Government of India. It works under the overall guidance of the National Development Council. It consults the Central Ministries and the State Governments while formulating Five Year Plans and also oversees their implementation. It has been assigned the following functions:
• Assessment of material, capital and human resources of the country.
• Formulate plans for most effective and balanced utilization of resources.
• Determine priorities and propose allocation of resources.
• Indicate factors tending to retard economic development.
• Determine the nature of machinery for successfully implementation of each stage.
• Make recommendations to Central and State Governments.
Indian economy, over the years, is gradually moving from a highly centralized planning system towards indicative planning where the Planning Commission will concern with building up of a long term strategic vision of the future and decide on priorities of nation. It will work out sectorial targets and provide stimulus to the economy to grow in desired direction. It will also play an integrative role in the development of a holistic approach to the policy formulation in critical areas of human and economic development (Ninth Plan).
3.4.2 State Planning Commissions or Boards (SPBs)
Alike, the National Planning Commission at the Centre the responsibility of developmental planning has been entrusted to State Planning Commissions or Boards duly constituted by the States. The State Planning Commissions prepares the State Plans as per the guidelines issued by the National Planning Commission. They also issue guidelines to lower units for preparation of Plans as well evaluate and appraise the plans receive from them foe inclusion in State Plan.
3.4.3 District Planning Commissions or Committees (DPCs)
In tune with the process of democratic decentralization, the DPCs have been entrusted the responsibility of preparing the District Plans, on bases of guidelines, issued by the National Planning Commission and the State Planning Boards. In view of the delegation of powers and responsibility of planning to the PRIs by 73rd Constitutional Amendment, there is need to decentralize the process of development planning to the Village level. The DPCs are expected to play a role of guide and facilitator for the lower constituents units of planning. A few states have already initiated the process, in this regard, while other states are yet to make the beginning.
The framework of existing socio-economic development planning and its interface with forestry planning is exhibited in the diagram-1. The framework indicates the top-down and interactive nature of the planning process. It is highly technical and regimental in nature and approach. In the light of emerging scenario in the forestry and overall socio-economic development of the country, it requires further evolution and strengthening to make it truly democratic and participative.
Diagram-1 The Existing Planning Framework for Forestry Planning
NPC - National Planning Commission
SPC - State Planning Commission
DPDC- District Planning and Development Council
DPC - District Planning Committee or Board
The planning in India drives its objectives and social premises form Directive Principles of state policy, enshrined in the Constitution. National Development Council (NDC) sets the objectives, while the task of translating the objectives into an appropriate strategy has been entrusted to the National Planning Commission (NPC). The Planning Commission plans the economy, develops goals, strategy and policies for each Five Year Plan. It also assists in evaluation of projects for inclusion in the plan and helps in monitoring and appraisal of programs and suggests corrections, at the time of implementation.
The National plan document outlines policy comprising of long-term perspective and short-term objectives to achieve national goal. The long-term perspective is prepared for a period of 15 years. Thereafter, precise objectives and policy framework of the Plan is decided. The long-term perspective is divided into period of 5 years and detailed plans for each sector of the economy is prepared. There is mid-term appraisal of five-year plan, in addition to, annual appraisal to fill the gaps in the subsequent period and plans. On the basis of Five Year Plan, annual plans are prepared for each sector by the concerned ministry of Central Government. The ministry is advised by its own consultative committee comprising of legislatures, planners and administrators about the size and nature of its plan. No new scheme is, normally, included in the annual plans. The States make their own plans and specific schemes and send them to the Planning Commission for consideration and incorporation in the Plan proposal. The rate and pattern of growth for each sector is decided to achieve the overall growth rate of the economy. The data for preparation of forestry plans is collected from following sources.
The Planning Commission examines and appraises schemes and projects received from the Centre and the States. It also assesses the resources available for the Plan in consultation with the Ministry of Finance. After the approval of the Plan, allocations to various Sectors and States are made on year-to-year basis, in accordance with, approved financial outlays. The schemes formulated, in accordance with, the national directives and policies are fully funded by the Center. State Governments cannot make changes in outlays and targets for schemes fully funded by the Central Government. While in other cases, the states have the discretion to change the allocations between the sub sectors.
It is important to note that investment in forestry with reasonable accuracy can be assessed only if long-term future requirements are known. Due to long gestation period the forest produce supply is slow in response to the investment changes. Little efforts have been done to assess the long-term needs of the forestry sector leading to inadequate investment in forestry sector (Nautiyal and Chowdhary, 1982). National Forestry Action Programme (NFAP 1999) is a commendable step in this direction.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) formulates the Plan proposals for forestry sector. There is no standard criteria or methodology, evolved by the Ministry and the State Forest Departments (SFDs), for inclusion of projects in the Plan except the Cost-Benefit Analysis and Environment Impact Assessment. Moreover, the Planning Commission uses the same criteria for forestry projects as used for projects from Industrial and Irrigation projects (Desai and Seth, 1976). The distinct and timely nature of forestry activities calls for evolution of standard criteria for evaluation of forestry projects and schemes by the States and the Ministry for the purpose of inclusion in the Plan proposals.
3.5.2 Planning at the State level
The State Planning Boards under the chairmanship of Chief Ministers formulate and approve Plan at the State level. The sectorial targets are received from central government and the feedback is taken from local level. The State Boards finalize the targets and action programme to achieve the targets for various sectors within the confines of Approach paper approved by NDC. The size of the plan, priorities of the nation and overall growth rate of the economy are decided at the time of discussion between the Chairman of the NPC and Chief Ministers of the States. States decides the sectorial growth, layouts and priorities. The programmes and schemes are classified, as follows.
Intensive discussions and exchange of opinion and information about the proposed programs between the State & Central planning and finance authorities; and the Planning Commission, determine the inclusion or exclusion of the programs in the Plan. The State Plans for the forestry sector is prepared by the State Forest Departments (SFDs) on the basis of proposal submitted by the lower functionaries of the department. The proposals of forestry sector after evaluation and appraisal are incorporated in the State Plan and, finally, in the National Plan proposals. Alike the Central Plan, there are no standard criteria to evaluate programmes, schemes and projects for the purpose of inclusion in the State Plan.
3.5.3 Planning at District level
District Boards or Committees are responsible for formulation of the District Plans. The State government determines the targets for each sector. The action programs to meet these targets are prepared in three categories as mentioned under State level planning. The working plans and resources survey data provide the basis for formulation of specific schemes and projects. After appraisal and evaluation, District Plans are included in the State Plan, which are further appraised for inclusion in the National Plan.
It is pertinent to note here that there is no direct link between the District plans and the Forest Management Plans, prepared for a forest division. The forest management plans are prepared for the period of 10 to 20 years, in accordance with, the objectives and priorities outlined in the National Forest Policy and framework proposed in Working Plan Code. Despite a long and successful history of forest management planning, a very little efforts were undertaken to integrate forest management plans with development plans at the District, State or Centre levels. As a consequence, the flow of development funds from Plan could not be fully taped for forestry operations and other development activities in the forestry sector. There is need to plug this gap in order to integrate forestry development and planning with the overall development and planning of the nation. Nevertheless, the scarcity of financial resources experienced in the forestry sector, specially in management of natural forest ecosystems, will find a harmonious solution by integrating forest management plans with the socio-economic development plans. Moreover, in view of devolution of power and responsibility to PRIs through constitutional amendment, there is a need to decentralize forestry planning at Block and Village level as well.
The processes of forestry management planning and developmental planning are highly technical, complex and time as well as efforts consuming. Despite being participative in nature and structure they have, inherent, top-down and professional bias. Considering, the present trend of democratic decentralization and empowering the local bodies through constitutional guarantee and safeguards as well as by instruments of participatory management of resources (JFM), there is a need to develop approach, which really grows from roots to top like a tree. Moreover, there is a need to develop a strategy to integrate forestry planning with the planning of other sectors at all levels, starting from root (Village) to top (Centre) through District and State. Moreover, the extent of rigidity and control by the State and the Center in the current process of planning questions its credentials as a true democratic process.
3.6 Allocation of Central Assistance to States
The Central assistance is an important component of State Plan. In view of historical inequalities, regional imbalances and national priorities the Central assistance to State Plans has been determined on the basis of Gadgil Formula, since 1969. Its present version of the formula is, as follows:
The above formula utilizes the following criteria:
The formula for allocation of central assistance to State Sector, embodies, the essence of balanced regional development (equity) and financial discipline and better economic performance (efficiency). The central assistance is given in the form of grant-loan component having 30 per cent as grant and 70 percent as loan component. However, the States are demanding the grant component up to 45 percent instead of 30 percent introduced in 1969. Whereas, the Special Category States are demanding 100 percent grant. The issue of allocation of Central assistance and proportion of grant-loan is a bone of contention between the States and the Centre and is, presently, under consideration of the NDC.
In order to ensure the compliance with national priorities the system of earmarking of outlays for crucial Sectors/Schemes/Projects have been initiated. At present, earmarking is restricted to 50 percent of plan outlay for Non-Special Category States, while it is higher in case of Special Category States. Under the existing guidelines earmarking of resources to Sectors/Schemes/Projects is done, as follows.
While allocating resources the Center has to keep a judicious balance between the decentralization as well as the intervention to protect the interests of weak and to provide space for autonomous decision making so as to sustain the faith of the States in philosophy of cooperative federalism (Ninth Plan).
The investment in forestry sector in the country is far lower than the contribution it gives to economy. The plan outlays (Chapter 2) in the successive plans reveal that it has rarely acceded 1 percent, except in the Seventh Plan. In order to ensure sustainable and harmonious growth of forestry sector the investment shall be comparable to the contribution it provides to the national economy (3 to 4 percent of total plan outlay) or a reasonable proportion of withdrawal from the forests (15-20 percent of annual withdrawal).
3.7 Gaps and challenges of forestry planning
There are wide gaps in various areas and sub-sectors of forestry that poses serious challenges for forest managers, planners and policy makers. The serious gaps in demand and supply as well as productive potential and actual realization has emerged in the sector, which require serious focus and attention at policy and execution level. For instance, there is a wide gap between the estimated demand of timber, fuel-wood, fodder and other forest products and their supply from the forests and non-forest areas. The gaps, which require special focus in management and planning strategy of forestry sector, are given as follows.
3.7.1 The Gap in potential productivity and actual realization.
The potential productivity of forest as per Paterson’s Formula ranges from 1.35 cu m per ha per year in dry regions to 7.66 cu m in moist and wet regions. The productivity of forest as estimated by a FSI study is 1.3 cu m per ha per year as against 2.1 cu m per ha per year, the world average. The following figures sum up the gap in potential and actual productivity.
Moreover, in natural forests the availability of growing stock and biomass in comparison to other developing world is given as follows.
The FSI (1996) estimates put the total requirement of fuel wood as 201 million tons. The availability from forests is 103 million tons and balance 98 million tons from farm forestry and plantations on common lands. Whereas, FSI (1995) estimates, the incremental growth of India’s forests in term of fuel wood is 21 million tons of which only 17 million tons are available on sustainable basis. Thus, about 86 million tons of fuel wood is removed from forests and plantations every year in excess of the sustainable capacity. The following figures in the wood budget for the year 1996, sum up the scenario, regarding demand and supply position of timber, fuel wood and fodder in the country (NFAP, 1999).
S N Type of the produce Demand Supply Deficit
1. Fuel wood (in m. tons) 201 17 - Forests 86
98 - Non-forests
2. Timber (in m. cu. m.) 64 m. cu. m. 12 - Forests
31 - Non-forests 21
3. Fodder (in m. tons) Green 593 m. tons 170- m. tons 448
Dry 482 m. tons 145 - m. tons 312
About 30% of demand of fodder is obtained from forest areas. In order to, minimize the gap between the demand and the supply there is need of a huge investment in the field of forestry in traditional forests areas as well as on the non-forest areas.
As per State of Forest Report (1997), the total forest area is 76.5 m ha, whereas, the actual forest cover is 63.34 m ha (19.27% of GA), of which 26.13 m ha are degraded. There are 5.72 m ha scrub, in addition, thus, making total 31.85 m ha of forests as open or degraded in the country. Besides, there are woodlands in small blocks (less than 25 ha) on non-forest lands amounting to the extent of 17.5 m ha (at the rate of 6.6% of total non-forest land). Thus, the total forest area or tree cover amounts to 79.34 m ha (24.13%) which is less than 110 m ha (33 per cent of total Geographical Area), envisaged in the National Forest Policy 1988 (NFAP,1999). The gap of 31 m ha has been summed up, as follows.
Actual forest cover = 63.34 m. ha (19.27)
Small wood-lands ~ 16.00 m. ha
Total forest cover ~ 79.34 m ha (24.13%)
Target as per NFP, 1988 = 110.00 m. ha ( 33% of G A)
Gap in forest cover = 30.66 m ha ~ 31.00 m ha
In order to have 1/3rd geographical area under forest cover as aimed in National Forest Policy, the National Forestry Action Programme 1999 has identified the following areas for improvement of forest productivity in forest areas and forest cover in non-forest areas.
a) Improve forest cover density and productivity = about 31 m. ha
b) Plantation on non-forest and farmlands = about 29 m. ha
This will require an annual target of 3 m ha against the current target of 1.2 m ha leading to two and half fold more financial, human and institutional resources. The gap in plantation and afforestation targets is given, as follows.
Annual target of afforestation / plantation works is = 3 m. ha
Average current plantation achievement per annum = 1.2 m. ha
The gap in extent of plantation area per annum = 1.8 m. ha
3.7.4 Gap in investment
The entire forestry sector contributes 1.7% to GDP of the nation. The whole range of benefits accruing from forests is not counted while computing the contribution of forestry sector in the economy of the nation. As per an FAO study (1995) the total value of forest produce extracted annually is $ 15.22 billion, which comes out 5% of GDP of the nation. The forestry sector requires investment to the tune of the benefits given to the economy of the nation (i.e. 5 percent of the total investment in public sector). As per NFAP 1999 annual investment required in the forestry sector for a period of 20 years and the current investment and the required gap to filled is given as follows:
Annual Requirements of Funds for afforestation and regeneration = Rs. 52850 million
Average Annual availability in forestry and wildlife sectors = Rs. 8160 million
Total Annual availability of funds including different ministry = Rs. 16150 million
The gap in the require funds = Rs. 36700 million
Adding to the pathetic scenario of investment in forestry sector, about 70 - 80% per cent of plan budgetary allocation is earmarked for social forestry, thus, causing further drying of funds for regeneration of natural forest ecosystems. In order to plug the gaps shown above there is need of innovative approaches and initiatives as well as heightened investment efforts both in public and private sector to achieve the objectives of sustainable forest management, embodied, in the National Forest Policy.
3.7.5 Gap in training capacity and institutional arrangements
The research, training and human resource development aspects are considered as key areas for progress and development of any discipline or sector. Besides, research and training provide a sound basis for development and growth of a sector. In view of this, induction training for forestry personnel was considered essential since the inception of Forest Department. However, induction training was not given due emphasis in forestry, till the last decade. However, over the years, the traditional contents and modes of training and evaluation have lost much of its relevance in the present scenario. Thus, in order to ensure professional management of forest resources in a sustainable manner there is need to provide Induction and in-service training and exposure on basic forestry and allied areas as well as on emerging areas, themes and the latest developments in the field of forestry and allied disciplines.
In view of the human resource development, there is a potent need for determining the training need for each rank of forest officials and other functionaries in the forestry sector, in order to, provide them relevant and effective training to enable them to perform the assigned task up to the desired standard. The assessment of training need gap is essential for designing appropriate training modules and training material to fill the gap. The existing training capacity and modes of imparting training also require modification and updating, in the context of, present day scenario in the forestry sector. One of the key objectives of forestry planning is to gradually narrow down these glaring gaps and inadequacies in the process and framework so as to make the way to the goal, smooth and accessible.
India has a long and successful history of forest management planning since the establishment of scientific forest management in the latter half of 19th century. The Working Plan approach of forest management proved crucial in managing forests on the principles of scientific forest management and, providing, treatment, in accordance with, the silvicultural requirements of the prominent species of the forest ecosystems. The skill, acumen and sincerity required to prepare a working plan made it the Bible of forest management for over a century, till it began to loose its relevance in the recent decades due to its lack of evolution with time. Moreover, forest management planning continued to grow in isolation without developing any linkages with the socio-economic development planning adopted by the nation after independence. It also remained confined to traditional forest areas under the control of Forest Department. The strength, efficiency and weakness of forest planning have been summarized in the following paragraphs with a view to dwell further on its strength and efficiency; and to minimize the gaps and fulfil inadequacies that have emerged over the years to make it effective and relevant to the present day forest management.
4.1 The Strength and Efficiency of Forestry Planning Process
4.1.1 Long and proved history of planning
India has a long and proved history of forest management planning extending over a period more than a hundred years. The forestry sector was probably the first one, in India, to initiate long term planning for a period of 20 to 30 years and with policy and legislative support. Over the years, it acquired acumen, skill and status as a basic instrument of scientific forest management. In addition, the nation also has undergone an experience of over 50 years in development planning which is the core of socio-economic development of the country. Both the planning processes have stood to the test of time and have proved significant in the progress and development of the nation. Such a rich experience provides strength and confidence in managing the complex nature of forest resources.
4.1.2 Institutional capability and facilities
Over the years, the forestry sector has evolved institutions and capability of preparation and implementation as well as monitoring and review of forest management plans. The institution of Working Plan Officer (WPO) has been well established in forestry sector to perform the task of preparation of Working Plan as per established procedure prescribed in Working Plan Code. It has the resources and qualified staff to prepare technical plans for forest resource management. Moreover, there is great evolution in planning capacity and facility in socio-economic development planning over the last 50 years. The institutions like the National Planning Commission, the State Planning Boards and District Planning Committees have got social recognition and constitutional sanctity. The capability of preparation of long-term Perspective Plans and medium term Five Years Plan have been developed at National, State and Local level. These institutions have the qualified manpower and latest technological equipment to facilitate the process of the development as well as the management planning. Moreover, comprehensive guidelines, procedure and framework have been evolved to ensure continuity and uniformity of planning process in the entire country.
In addition, the capacity and facility of development and management planning exist in both public and private sector, throughout the country. The information network such as Nicnet, VSNL and NRIS are available at Centre, State and District level along with technical & skilled manpower to provide database support for development as well as management planning.
4.1.3 The democratic ethos and norms
India has a long tradition and experience of democratic functioning. The entire politico- administrative set-up is based on democratic ethos and constitutional norms. In fact, democratic process, concepts and institutions have become an integral part of way of life of the Indian people. The process of democratic decentralization is on, since independence and gradually establishing its roots at village level. The democratic traditions and environment generate a congenial atmosphere for participative planning of natural resources and strengthen faith in democratic institutions. The existence of institutions of self-government and devolution of decision-making power, in the recent years, has provided impetus to the grass-root planning.
4.1.4 Flexibility in approach and process
The entire process of development and management planning is flexible and adaptive, to an extent, to change and modifications. There is a provision of deviation proposal in forest management plans, which provide flexibility to forest managers, to keep the prescriptions in abeyance, due to situational contingencies. Similarly, the Five Years Plans has devised a mechanism of Special Action Plans (SAPs) for focusing thrust on areas and issues of specific nature for immediate addressal. However, once the plans are approved, no major change or modification is permitted in the present process of planning.
4.1.5 A stable and progressive political and economic scenario
It is an accepted proposition that stability and continuity of political scenario provides a firm foundation for socio-economic development and progress of the nation. The last 50 years experience of India with democracy and development planning has given it recognition as a democratic and progressive nation. Moreover, the continuity of forest management planning has provided it authenticity and anchorage for sustenance in the long run.
4.2 Weaknesses of Forestry Planning Process
4.2.1 Highly centralized and regimental process.
The entire planning process is highly central and regimental in nature and approach. It is in fact a true version of top-down approach. The Centre decides the objectives, goals and strategy as well as policies and national priorities. The states and lower constitutional units (PRIs) are provided directions and guidelines to set their programmes, schemes and projects as well as their priorities with the confines of national priorities while formulating District and State plans. Though, the process of indicating planning has been initiated with Eight Plan, yet, it has not established roots in the process of development planning. Alike, the process of forest management planning is highly technical and methodical. It leaves a little scope for mid-way change and modification as well as application of mind by the field managers.
4.2.2. Lack of integration and coordinative efforts
Though the process of forest management planning and development planning was initiated a long time back yet its integration and coordination with each other and with other aspects of development has not been fully realized. There is lack of coordination with various sub-sectors of forestry as well as with other allied sectors. As a result the response of other sectors and people at large is not forthcoming leading to problems in implementation. Moreover, the process of management planning has not been extended to non-forest areas and forest areas under community and private control. The linkages of management planning of forest resources with the development planning are not well established at village, district and state level. There is need to evolve forest management planning further to enlarge its scope for non-forest areas as well as its integration with development plans at various levels. Inter and intra sector coordination and linkages are crucial effective and harmonious growth of forestry sector. Moreover, there is need to dovetail the site specific micro-plans with the management plans for holistic and site specific treatment of forest resources.
4.2.3 Rigid and methodological in nature and approach
A careful perusal of the process of development and management planning reveal that the process is rigid and methodological one. Though, it takes into consideration opinions and proposals of wide cross-section of the people and government functionaries. Yet, it is virtually impossible to make mid-term changes, once the plan is finalized causing problems in dealing with contingencies emerged during the process. It is inflexible in nature and incapable to incorporate change, as and when required, and has not grown beyond the sectorial realms
4.2.4 Highly skilled and professional
The process of planning is highly skilled and technical one. It, therefore, requires highly qualified and skilled personnel to perform the task in a satisfactory manner. Moreover, the planning is ever evolving process, which require regular updating of skill, infrastructure, capability of analysis and strategic resource management as well as tools and techniques of economic development planning. In view of this, it is difficult for the local level institutions (PRIs) to develop proficiency in management and development planning.
4.2.5 Lacks participative approach and methodology
The process of management planning in forestry lacks participating approach and methodology. In view of JFM, there is a vital need to bring suitable change in process and methodology of management planning to involve the stakeholders at various levels in a more direct way. The Village Protection Committees (VPCs) at PRIs level are required to be enabled and involved in forestry planning in order to ensure their willing participation and commitment at the time of implementation of these plans.
4.2.6 Lack watershed management and ecosystem functioning approach
The present process doesn’t incorporate the watershed management and ecosystem functioning approach in the strategy of forest resource management. There is crucial need to develop modes and framework to integrate micro planning and ecosystem functioning approach in management planning of forest resources. The Planning Commission has adopted the Integrated Watershed Development as a basic strategy for natural resource management and development. In view to get resources from plans on priority basis it is imperative to integrate watershed approach in the forestry planning and management.
4.2.7 Lacks use of modern tools and information technology
The present process lacks the latest tools and techniques of data collection, processing and management for use. The development of information tools, such as, GIS, MIS, Database management and Remote Sensing capability opens new areas and scopes in management as well as development planning for helping taking right decision at right time and to facilitate the process of plan preparation, implementation, monitoring and review.
4.2.8 Lacks Sectorial Perspective planning and Forest Resource Planning
Though the forestry planning has a long and rich history, yet, it has not evolved with time to the extent desired. The long-term perspective plans were neither prepared for the country nor for the States despite being recommended in the NCA, 1976. Moreover, process was not decentralized to prepare plans for lower units such as, Block and village. Similarly, task of preparing Forest Resource Plans was not undertaken, both, at the State level as well as at National level for seeking approval legislature concerned.
Keeping in view the above strengths and weaknesses, the existing environmental scenario in the forestry sector and the requirement of forestry sector in the coming years, it is necessary to change the forestry planning process by: a) capitalizing on its strength and efficiency; b) minimizing the gaps and weaknesses in the existing process. The planned development aims at filling the long-standing gaps inadequacies, which have emerged as a consequence of socio-economic development, over the years.
5.1 Proposed forestry planning process and framework
In view of the review of current forestry planning and its strengths and weaknesses in the forgoing chapters as well as issues and concerns outlined by National Forest Policy, National Forestry Action Programme and socio-economic development planning make it imperative to evolve the current forestry planning process, so as to make it effective to the present and the future scenarios in the forestry sector. The institutionalization of process of democratic decentralization through constitutional amendment has made Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) responsible for planned development at grass root level. Besides, the recent developments in forestry also call for a new strategy and innovative approach for planned development of forestry sector, in harmony with, overall development of the nation. All these emphases point towards a holistic and integral approach of forest resource planning, well coordinated with allied sectors and formulated with active participation of stakeholders at each level. Moreover, the mega systems and approaches do not stand in the long run. Only the micro-approaches and natural processes have the ingredients to sustain for long.
In view of the above, and to make the sustainable forest management a reality, the following changes and modifications have been proposed in the current planning process and framework to make it relevant to needs of time and forest resource conditions.
5.2 The Planning Process
5.2.1 Gross-root planning
The present process of development planning is highly centralized and technical one. It requires special skill and elaborate procedural jargons beyond the discerning capacity a layman. It is also inflexible and doesn’t respond to the contingencies. Yet, the process has proved its feasibility and reliability, over the last 50 years. It shows its strength and efficacy. Nevertheless, new concepts and approaches were tried in successive plans to make the process democratic and participative. For instance, in the Eighth Plan, the concept of indicative planning was mooted which was further pursued in the Ninth Plan. It, embodies, the essence that the Centre will play an indicative role of setting the broad course, direction and pace of economic development as well as to create facilitative environment for lower constituents to prepare, execute and monitor development plans to achieve the goal and objectives set out for socio-economic development of the nation.
In a democratic set up each citizen and institution is presumed capable of managing its own socio-economic affairs, including the natural resource management. The decision making power, in this regard, has been entrusted to the institutions of local self-government through 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1993, which conferred constitutional status to PRIs, ULBs and DPCs. Article 243G of Constitution, reads as
‘Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, the Legislature of a State may, by law, endow the Panchayats with such powers, authority and responsibilities necessary to enable them to function as institutions of self-government and such law may contain provisions for the devolution of powers and responsibilities upon Panchayats at the appropriate level, subject to such conditions as may be specified, therein, with respect to -
(a) The preparation of plans for economic development and social justice;
(b) The implementation of schemes for economic development and social justice, including, those in relation to the matters listed in the Eleventh Schedule (Appendix ).
Thus, these institutions have the responsibility and authority to decide the policy and planning of resource planning, development and its use.
In view of these developments, the grass root planning (bottom-up approach) has been proposed for the forestry planning and management. It envisages planning to initiate at the village level, the lowest unit in the hierarchy. The village projects, schemes and plans are to be appraised, evaluated and consolidated to form Block Plan and Block Plans in turn are to be incorporated to formulate District Plan, which subsequently to be integrated in State Plan and ultimate in the National Plan for approval of National Development Council. At present, however, there is a little capability and facility for development planning at grass-root level. The nation has to wait for sometime to see gross-root planning to develop roots and take shape as development planning process.
5.2.2 Planning Capacity and facility
For the purpose of translation of the essence of grass root planning in the planning process, there is a constitutional obligation to develop the planning capacity and institutional facility for preparation, implementation and monitoring of development plans at the Village, Block and District level. The National Planning Commission (NPC) and State Planning Commissions (SPCs) have the obligatory responsibility to issue guidelines and directions about the procedure and methodology of development planning at District, Block and Village level. Moreover, it is the obligatory duty of the Centre and States to activate National Finance Commission (NFC) and State Finance Commissions (SFCs) for devolution of financial resources and powers to enable PRIs as autonomous units of self-government.
Accordingly, each sector / department, working at PRIs level, has to develop planning capacity and institutional facility for preparation of development plans for its sector for incorporation in the development plan of respective unit. In some States, the devolution of administrative and financial powers to PRIs has taken a concrete shape. While in other states, it has yet to initiate the process. However, the direction of the process is clear and points towards the goal of democratic decentralization and grass-root democracy.
In view of the proposed indicative planning and the grass-root process there is urgent need of strengthening and evolution of planning infrastructure and capacity at various level in the development planning as well as in the forestry sector planning. In conformity with the proposed process and approach, following, changes and modifications have been proposed in the existing set up and institutions of forestry planning.
A. Strengthening of existing planning institutions
The capacity and facility of planning exists at the Center and the State levels for overall planning as well as planning for forestry sector. Moreover, planning facility also exists at District level for overall planning. However, the decentralized and indicative planning calls for a new and oriented role on the part of these institutions. It is, thus, proposed that existing planning institutions at Center, State and PRIs levels shall be appropriately strengthened with qualified manpower and information technology. There is need to strengthened State Planning Commission or Boards (SPCs) and District Planning Committees or Board (DPCs) with adequate technical manpower and facilities, including, the database for each unit at least down to District level.
In case of forestry sector there is need to strengthen the Planning Cells in Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) at the Centre and in State Forest Departments (SFDs) headquarters at State level with adequate technical manpower from different fields of forestry and development planning as well as with requisite tools and techniques of planning and database management.
B. Creation of planning capacity and facilities
In view of the proposed process and decentralization of democracy through constitutional amendment, it is proposed to have adequately equipped planning institutions with qualified manpower and basic know-how of planning at PRIs level. It is proposed to further evolve the District Planning Committees as District Planning Commissions or Boards and creation of Block Planning Committees (BPCs) and Planning Officer (PO) at Block and focal village (catering to 10-15 villages) level to assist the preparation, monitoring and review of plans at Village, Block and District level.
In case of forestry sector, capacity of forestry planning at District level requires re-orientation and re-vitalization. There is an institute of working plan officer at each Forest Circle level for preparing working plans for forest resources. Keeping in view the intensity and quantum of work to meet the challenges of forestry in a harmonious manner with other sectors of development this institution needs further evolution as District Forest Planning Officer (DFPO) for forestry resources for preparing Forest Developing Plans and Forest Management Plans for the district. He shall be provided with adequate staff and qualified personnel in the field of developmental and management planning. He may be entrusted with, following, functions and responsibilities to strengthen the forestry planning, monitoring and review for integrated and coordinated development of forest resources.
In addition, it is also proposed that the institutions of Assistant Conservator of Forests (ACFs) and Round Officer (RO) in the grass-root hierarchy of the department, who are comparatively less burdened with responsibilities, shall be made responsible for preparation and integration of forestry development plans at Block and focal village level, respectively. The above institutions are also proposed to the provided with qualified manpower and planning facility in order to facilitate the process to forestry development planning and its subsequent integration with overall development plans at PRI levels.
5.2.3 Forest Resource Management Planning
In view of the proposed process and framework and to integrate forest management planning with the development planning process at different level, it is proposed to develop the existing forest management planning approach to make it a holistic strategy, comprising, of inter and intra sectorial requirements and concerns. The detailed process and framework of holistic management planning approach for forest management is given in (Appendix no.). The holistic approach embodies as well as provides for, following components as its integral constituents:
• Perspective Plan for a period of 20 years with periodic break up (5 years) and consolidation to match with ensuing Five Year Plans.
• Management Plan, comprising, framework and sequence of operations for a period of 10 years with periodic break up (5 years), coinciding, with two successive Five Year Plans period.
• A comprehensive set of guidelines and formats for preparation of micro-plans and development plans for a period of 5 years.
• Creation, maintenance and regular updating of comprehensive forestry database, including, MIS and GIS for the entire district.
In order to, facilitate integration with development plans the unit of management plan is proposed the same as unit of development plans i.e District, Block and Village.
For the purpose of integration of forestry planning with the overall development planning, the forestry works and operations are proposed for classified into following categories:
• Maintenance of forest resources and assets
• Development of forest resources and institutional capacity.
The activities and operations under maintenance category are the exclusive responsibility of the state governments and financial requirements are to be met from non-plan budgetary allocation of forestry sector. Whereas, strengthening of existing assets and institutional capability may be proposed under Plan schemes. The activities and operations such as, harvesting, logging, transportation, processing and silvicultural treatment for regeneration and resource enhancement, qualify under development category. Thus, schemes and programmes may be formulated to secure required funds under plan allocation for activities and operations under development category by integrating them with District or State Plans. For the purpose of facilitation of integration and coordination with District Plans, the proposed development works, schemes and programmes require sequencing and periodic consolidation to match successive plans. Further, the development works shall be classified into following categories for facilitation of integration in District Plan and Sectorial Plan of the State or Centre:
• Intra-sectorial works may be incorporated in Sectorial plan and schemes.
• Inter-sectorial activities shall be incorporated in District Plans and /or Plans of the lower units.
• The Plans are proposed to classify schemes and projects under the following heads to facilitate consolidation and integration with District, State or National Plans.
• Programmes, schemes and projects fully funded by PRIs.
• Programmes, schemes and projects assisted / sponsored by States.
• Programmes, schemes and projects funded and assisted by Centre.
The share of States and Local Bodies in the revenue (resource allocation) shall be known to each level well in advance to make realize plans within the confines of resources available during the period. Besides, the public funding other sources of funding, such as, corporate sector borrowing, banks and external funding agencies may also be explored.
The proposed holistic planning approach will integrate the activities of various sub-sectors such as social forestry, wildlife and Forest Development Corporations as well as will facilitate co-ordination with allied and associated sectors, institutions and people. It will also provide for dovetailing of micro-plans with working plans and, subsequently, management planning with development planning process. It proposes two phases planning, which implies, overall planning for the District unit and Site-specific planning for the micro units on the basis of ecosystem function and watershed management approach. The site-specific plans for micro units, preferably, for a period of 5 years, are proposed to include mainly following operations.
1st year - Demarcation, enumeration, marking, stock mapping, resource assessment, assessment of needs and constraints; and preparation of treatment maps and plan, etc.
2nd year- Silvicultural operations and treatment, in accordance with, site quality, nature and condition of crop as well as needs and concerns people and livestock. Raising planting stock, soil & moisture conservation works and PPO & PYO activities.
3rd year - Assisted natural regeneration / plantations, weeding tending and protection operations.
4-5th year- Maintenance, tending and monitoring growth statistics.
In order to give a definite direction to forestry development initiatives, it proposed to prepare Perspective Plans for 20 years with periodic break up and matching with the ensuing development plans for States and the Centre with provision of review, updating at periodic interval and extension for further period. It is also proposed to prepare Forest Resource Planning document at regular interval of 10 years, at Center and State level and placed before the Parliament by MOEF and State legislature by the SFD concerned, in order to keep informed the decision makers as well as to ensure accountability of forestry sector evolution, growth and change.
The concept of Approach paper followed by the Centre for preparation of National Plan shall be followed at the State and the District level as well, for preparation of the State Plan and the District Plans.
It is also proposed to establish and make available database for development and forest planning to all agencies, institutes and stakeholders involved in the process of developmental and forest planning at Center, State and District level. Moreover, the scarce resources and growing demands call for developing criteria for allocation of resources at various levels and for prioritization of schemes / projects for each sector.
In view of dynamic nature of process of evolution of each community and the State, it is difficult to gauge their aspirations and resource needs with same standards. However, inter sector allocation is proposed to be done on sound and just footing, on the basis of a criteria acceptable to the Centre, States and Local Bodies. The evolution of a long-standing institution (family) reveals that a genuine and long standing participation is feasible only on principle of equal footing i.e. 50:50 basis. Thus, to develop a firm rooting to the process of decentralization and indicative planning, devolution of funds and resources from Centre to States and from the State to PRIs on equal footing are proposed. Each Plan is a holistic document comprises of both public and private initiatives and resources as well as ways of their best use for better growth and development of all so as the benefit will reach to every one on equitable basis (Justice, Equity and dignity). There is a need to open the entire sector to private initiatives and endeavours so as more skill and resources may be put to use to develop the forestry sector in conformity with the economic liberalization process and free economy. The forests, as such, are a resource of national significance with international dimensions. In view to this and scenario described earlier, the role and participation of Government, Community and Private initiatives is proposed more or less on the principal of equal footing (Government: Community: Private: 40: 30: 30 ratio).
5.2.4 The proposed Planning framework
In view of grass root approach proposed above, there is need to evolve a suitable framework to translate the process of decentralized and indicated planning, into reality. To this end, the proposed framework, comprising, the planning units, authorities and institutions for overall development planning as well as for forestry sector planning has been proposed (Diagram-1).
In conformity to democratic decentralization, there is an increasing demand to further decentralize the resource development planning from District to Block and Village level. At present, there is a little or no planning capacity and infrastructure facilities for developmental planning at Block and Village level. The planning facility and capacity also do not exist at lower units of administration in the forestry sector, such as, Sub-division, Range, Round and Beat level. The planning capacity and institutional support is essentially required at Block and Village level units of PRIs as well as at corresponding levels in the forest organization to integrate the grass root planning process with development planning. It will facilitate dovetailing micro-plans with forest management plans and, that in turn, with the development plans. The existing institutions and manpower resources at District and State level also require updating and strengthening.
Diagram-1 The proposed Framework for Forestry Planning
NPC - National Planning Commission
SPC - State Planning Commission
DPDC- District Planning And Development Council
DPC - District Planning Commission or Board
BPC - Block Planning Board or Committee
VPO - Village Planning Officer
In the Forest organization, every successive rank is considered unnecessary and redundant due to lack of well-defined role, responsibilities and jurisdiction in the organization structure. The institutions of Forester and ACF ranks are considered unnecessary due to their overlapping supervisory role. Whereas, the Forest Guards and the Rangers, having burdened with protection and execution works cannot be spared for the job without adversely affecting their efficiency. The experience and expertise of Foresters and ACFs may be, meaningfully, utilized to develop capability of development planning, monitoring, evaluation at Sub-divisional and Round level to correspond with Block and focal Village level planning along with their usual role. It is proposed that, in due course, units of forestry planning be so organized to become co-terminus with units of Panchayati Raj Institutions by suitable reorganization of Forest Department for integrated and coordinated administration and development.
At the Center, the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF), is proposed to strengthen the Planning Cell with qualified manpower from different disciplines of planning and undertake the following component of forest resource planning, on regular basis.
Long term Prospective Plan for forestry sector, for a period of about 20 years, on regular basis with provision of mid term appraisal.
Nation Forestry Action Programme, for a period of 20 years, for implementation of objectives and goals of National Forest Policy.
Forest Resources Plan for a period of 10 years for approval of Parliament.
Guidelines for preparation, monitoring and evaluation of plans at lower constituent levels.
At state level, it is proposed to strengthen the planning unit at SFD headquarters and to entrust it with forestry planning, in regard to, the following components of forestry planning.
Long-term Perspective plans for a period of 20 years with mid term appraisal.
State Forestry Action Programme for a period of 20 years.
Forest Resource Plans for a period of 10 years for approval of state legislature.
Guidelines for preparation, monitoring and evaluation of plans at lower constituent levels.
At local level (PRIs), it is proposed to strengthen and evolve and strengthen the existing institution of WPO to a new institution District Forestry Planning Officer (DFPO) and to assign the institute with the following responsibilities.
a. Long term Perspective plans for forest resources of entire district for 20 years.
b. Management plans for forest resources of entire district for 10-20 years.
c. Forestry sector development plans for 5 years.
d. Guidelines for preparing micro-plans and forestry plans at Block and Village level.
5.2.5 Maintenance of Forestry Planning Database
The information technology plays a significant role to facilitate decision-making process for planning and management of forest resources as well as to assess growing stock and prevailing marketing trends. In view of recent advancements in information technology and its relevance in modern day management as well as need of database for forestry and allied sectors, it has become imperative to establish database at various levels for preparation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of management and developmental plans. The Department of Space (DOS) has designed Natural Resource Information System (NRIS) Network (Appendix- 5) at different level to facilitate planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of plans, programmes and schemes as well as to maintain a comprehensive updated database for use for various sectors to facilitate decision making. It will help improve efficiency and performance of each sector, including the forestry.
The NRIS is an integral component of National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) established by Department of Space to achieve the maximum utilization of existing natural resources to reduce regional imbalances, promote sustainable development and at the same time ensure the protection of the environment. The constituent components of NNRMS include the following as basic units (NRIS Action Plan, 1995).
Natural Resources Information System (NRIS)- It has two components, the Information Generation System (IGS) to generate resource information and the Spatial Information System (SIS) to spatially model the resource information to suggest spatial scenarios.
Management Information System (MIS)- To model management alternatives using the spatial scenarios and the socio economic data.
Decision making and Implementation System (DIS) - For formulation of policies and plans and their implementation based on the management alternatives.
The NRIS has been organized into, two hierarchies, for conversion of information and decisions to implementation plans as given below.
1. Centre-State-District- To cater to resources and sectors requiring integrated resource management and for preparing plans according to administrative units - District plans, State plans and Central plan. It has following nodes organized in hierarchy.
490+NRIS-District Nodes
26 NRIS-State Nodes
1 NRIS-Centre Node
2. Centre-Region-Project- In order to, cater to sectorial resource management needs, such as, water resources and forestry where the natural boundaries (forest compartment, watershed etc.) form the unit, the proposed network is.
182 NRIS-Project Nodes
42 NRIS-Regional Nodes
1 NRIS-Centre Node
The objective of NRIS is to have an operational natural resources database containing spatial and non-spatial data and oriented to planning in the spatial context and generating spatial plans for sustainable development of the country. The utilization of the NRIS nodes is envisaged, as follows.
a. NRIS-Central Node - for generating spatial plans for the entire country for preparation of annual plans, five-year plans and perspective plans as well as quickly assessing damages during natural calamities and monitoring the policies and programs.
b. NRIS State Node- to prepare state-level plans-annual plans, five-year plans, perspective plans and for damage assessment during calamities as well as to monitor and evaluate plans and programs by the States
c. NRIS District Node – To serve as database at the district level for preparation of District, Mandal and Panchayat Plans.
d. NRIS Regional Node- To provide for application needs of the specific sectors, such as, for preparing afforestation and Command Area development plans etc and to support monitoring and evaluation of the sectorial plans.
e. NRIS Project Node- to serve as database for the sector collected for a project area. It is best suited for management and exploitation of the specific resources in the area.
In view of the proposed forestry planning process and framework, the NRIS network fits well at each level viz. at Centre, State and District level, for overall development planning and forest resource planning.
It is, therefore, proposed to create and establish forestry database at MOEF (Centre), SFDs Headquarters (State) and DFPO (District) levels. The forestry databases at different level are proposed for networking through a suitable MIS system in the forestry sector. Moreover, direct linkage shall be established between forestry sector database system and NRIS framework at each level to facilitate exchange of information for forestry planning and to avoid duplication. The proposed database networking will help planning officials and institutions to prepare, monitor and review forest management and development plans in more better and efficient way. It will also assist decision making process and will promote inter and intra sectorial integration and coordination. Moreover, it will assist holistic planning with site-specific focus that, aptly, suits the forest ecosystems and watershed management approach adopted in programmes and schemes undertaken under Five Year Plans.
5.3 Investment In Forestry Sector
The Government of India has agreed to share 29 percent of total gross revenues from the entire Central taxes with states, since April 1996. In order to, improve the resources of the States and PRIs and to enable them to raise their resources for planned development, the Centre has to play a supportive role. It requires statutory devolution of funds from Centre to States through Finance Commission, and grants and loans through Planning Commission.
The 73rd amendment of constitution of India has made the PRIs as constitutional entities. However, to function as autonomous institutions, PRIs require both financial and functional autonomy. Simultaneously, measures are also required at State level, in regard to, devolution of administrative and financial powers to the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), in order to, enable them function as institutions of local self-government. This can be done by ensuring flow of fund from consolidated funds of the States and the Central Government via Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) as well as by endowing them with independent revenue raising power (Ninth Five Year Plan). Some of the states, for instance, West Bengal, Maharahstra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala and Tripura have taken pioneering steps, in this regard. However, many states have, yet, to make the beginning.
The share of the States in public sector expenditure has gone down, for instance, from 50 percent in Fifth Plan to 37 percent in Eighth Plan. The failure of states to mobilize resources for plan outlay (36.4 percent as against 41.5 percent in the Eighth’s Plan) due to increase of non-plan expenditure and losses incurred in electricity, irrigation, road transport, etc is cause of serious concern. Moreover, due to increased national and international emphasis and concern on environmental issues, the sustainability of socio-economic development process is to be seen in terms of environmental angle as well. In tune to the grass-root approach the states and the PRIs are destined to play vital role in the process of socio-economic development. Besides, devolution of power and responsibility, they are expected to explore new avenues to mobilize resources to play the role of main agent of socio-economic development.
Moreover, in order to have sustainable management and development of forest resources, it is necessary that the gross investment is made higher than the disinvestments. The current annual disinvestments (Rs 59,550 millions) is much higher than the gross investment (Rs 34,500, of which Rs 26,700 million in private sector) in forestry sector, thus, leaving a gap of Rs 25000 million as annual disinvestments. It calls for intensive efforts for fund mobilization from all potential sources, both, the public and the private. In order to avoid fluctuations and uncertainty of funds for forestry works it is advisable to establish a national / state forest fund to provide continuity and security to the timely forestry operations and development activities. The provision of ploughed back of part of revenue receipts (25%) (Maslekar Committee, 1997) for development of forest resources is a proposition worth considering.
In order to fulfill the objective of bringing 1/3 geographical area under forest cover, programme of annual afforestation and regeneration of 3 million ha is required. It will need and estimated annual budget Rs 52,850 million against the availability of Rs 8,160 million for forestry and wildlife and Rs 16,150 million, in total, including all forestry programmes, under other Ministries. In view of increase in productivity level of forest ecosystems to the extent of at least 4 to 5 cu m per ha per year as well as to extend the forest cover, the availability of funds is far less than the requirements in the forestry sector. Moreover, for the purpose of sustainable forest management and policy emphasis on environment issues and concerns there is a strong need to increase the plan outlay to the extent of 4 to 5 percent of the total plan outlay. This will help in extension of forest cover to the extent desired by the national forest policy as well as will help improve productivity per unit area along with improving the health and vitality of the forest ecosystems.
by
Mudit Kumar Singh
Assistant Director General
Indian Council of Forestry research and Education
Dehradun, UP India
1. Introduction
1.1 Local Area Network at ICFRE / FRI Campus
1.2 Indian Forestry Research Information System (IFRIS)
2. Future Policy and Planning
3. Conclusion
India has progressed in the field of Information Technology by leaps and bounds. In forestry and environment too lot of changes have taken place, which have brought a paradigm shift from manual information gathering and dissemination to the development and usage of software in this field.
Under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education holds the mandate to organize, direct and manage research and education in the fields of forestry. Forestry extension is an important component of ICFRE activities. ICFRE is also responsible for framing the overall forestry research policy of the country and ensure the best method of application of all sources of scientific knowledge to the solution of problems facing the forestry sector.
The Council presently has a cadre of 375 scientists and foresters besides supporting staff who is engaged in research for solutions to problems faced by the forestry sector.
The research Institutes and centers under the Council are:
1. Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (FRI),
2. Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore (IFG&TB).
3. Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore (IWS&T)
4. Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur (TFRI).
5. Institute of Rain and Moist Deciduous Forest Research, Jorhat (IR&MDFR).
6. Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur (AFRI).
7. Himalayan Forest Research Institute, Shimla (HFRI).
8. Institute of Forest Productivity, Ranchi (IFP).
9. Centre for Social Forestry & Eco-Rehabilitation, Allahabad
10. Forest Research Centre, Hyderabad.
11. Forestry Research and Human Resource Development Centre,
Chhindwara.
1.1 Local Area Network at ICFRE / FRI Campus
ICFRE has established a state of the art Networking Services. A high-speed 100 mbps Switched Ethernet fiber optic backbone is used. The services currently available are:
1. Electronic mail;
2. Access to CD-ROM bibliographic Database (Seven);
3. Access to Library database OPAC (On-Line public access catalogue) and
electronic access to Grey Literature Search
4. Internet;
5. Web site of ICFRE is globally visible on WWW.
The URL for this site is : http://www.icfre.up.nic.in
The logical connectivity diagram of the networking facilities at ICFRE is shown below:
ICFRE has enhanced its IT capability by developing IFRIS package. The details are as follows:
1.2 Indian Forestry Research Information System (IFRIS)
The automated Management Information System (MIS) will assist ICFRE to speed up the decision making process by ensuring timely availability of information and provide integrity and movement of information.
The methodology used for development of application software for Management Information System (MIS) is Case Application Development Methodology (CADM) using Designer 2000. The methodology has ten phases viz. Strategy, Pre-analysis, Analysis, Pre-Design, Database design, Application Design, Build, Test, Implementation and maintenance phase. Eight modules were identified for application development in subsequent phases viz.
Financial Accounting & Project Budgeting / Costing
Procurement and Inventory Management
Pension and GPF Management
Personal Information System and Payroll
Research Prioritization and Planning
Research Information System/ Monitoring and Evaluation
Grants – (Research/ Extension/ Education/ Fellowship)
Estate Management
All the ICFRE Institutes are having Wide Area Network connectivity in the form of 64 kbps leased circuit. Four main Institutes under ICFRE are establishing the campus wide network also. The plan is to have an ICFRE Intranet, the Intranet will be mainly used for CD-ROM based bibliographic databases access, MIS data transfer and to build a Union catalogue. Following services are proposed on the ICFRE Intranet:
a) Communications Services
Connectivity, gateway and relay services, and communications infrastructure (e-mail, file transfer etc.) that will provide the basis for other services.
b) Application Services
Information retrieval services (transparent user access to diverse resources, and communication between database applications as, for example, where one system interrogates another to establish local holdings).
Request services (standard ways managing request transactions).
Electronic Data Interchange (Communication of research finding / data).
Remote database access (Communication between Institutes researcher’s and library housekeeping system).
c) Data Interchange Services
Applications will need a common understanding of the representation of the information objects, which they exchange. We are beginning to exchange scanned page images, but the exchange of structure documents and multimedia and hypermedia objects will become more important.
Under the COUNTRY CAPACITY BUILDING PROJECT (GCP/RAS/162/JPN), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, (FAO - India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka) ICFRE has volunteered to be as a nodal center for IT activities under this project. In this regard the first activity planned is preparation of Website for the participating SAARC countries. The Web designing is complete with data of three countries now viz. Bangladesh, India and Nepal. The web site has domain name http://www.fao-ccb.icfre.up.nic.in
The second activity proposed is training the participants of the participating countries in Information Technology at Information Technology Cell, ICFRE, Dehra Dun.
The above experience proves the feasibility and usability of Networking in the forest based information system as has been successfully demonstrated by ICFRE, using ICFRE intranet. The concept of resource sharing through networking is very cost effective as well as helpful in retrieving data across the net. The MIS being used at ICFRE is an important tool to manage large setup organizations like ICFRE.
