Part I
REGIONAL SYNTHESIS (continued)

Chapter III
FOREST RESOURCES OF TROPICAL ASIA (continued)

2. PRESENT TRENDS (continued)

TABLE 8b - Areas of established plantations estimated at end 1985 (projections)
Non-industrial plantations
(in thousand ha)

TABLE 8c - Areas of established plantations estimated at end 1985 (projections)
All plantations
(in thousand ha)

During the period 1981–85, the relative importance of industrial plantations is likely to decline keeping in tune with the trend observed in the years immediately preceding 1980. During 1976–80, industrial plantations accounted for some 60% of the total effort; the corresponding proportion during 1981–85 would be only 53%. There will be a decrease in absolute terms of newly established plantations from 1 211 000 ha (1976–80) to 1 168 000 ha (1981–85). In some countries, however, notably in Malaysia, a substantial increase in industrial plantations is foreseen.

There is likely to be an increased emphasis on non-industrial plantations during 1981–85 which reflects the importance attached to meeting growing fuelwood needs of rural populations. Out of about 1 million ha of fuelwood plantations to be raised in the region during 1981–85 (compared with 884 000 ha in 1976–80) 58% would be in insular southeast Asia countries and 26% in south Asia. The two countries making concerted efforts in this direction are likely to be Indonesia (392 000 ha) and India (210 000 ha). It is foreseen that the effort to be made in Indonesia would be of the same order as in 1976–80; in India it would be marginally greater.

Regarding species, plantations of softwood species (mainly pines) are expected to be established in Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines. The composition of hardwood species for industrial and other purposes is, by and large, likely to be the same as during 1976–80 (see section 1.2.2).

The following observations can be additionally made in this context:

• timber species with longer rotations (60 years and over) are likely to be less favoured. It is anticipated that as opposed to some 626 000 ha of such plantations (PHL) during 1976–80 only 449 000 ha would be planted in 1981–85;

• there will be an increase in industrial plantations of high yielding hardwood species with short rotations (PHH 1) - essentially for production of pulpwood - from 348 000 ha (1976–80) to 477 000 ha (1981–85). Similar increases in plantations of high yielding species for non-industrial plantations are foreseen;

• plantations of softwood species, mainly to meet the long fibre needs of pulp and paper industry will receive marginally greater attention during 1981–85 than in the earlier period.

3. CONCLUSIONS

- The largest formations of natural woody vegetation are the closed forests (N.f): in 1980 they covered 305.5 million ha or 69% of the total area under natural woody vegetation, of which closed broadleaved forests accounted for 292 million ha. Nearly 49% of these are in insular southeast Asia, 21% in continental southeast Asia (including centrally planned countries), 18% in south Asia and the rest in Papua New Guinea. Out of 292 million ha only 192 million ha (66%) are considered productive and the rest unproductive, either because of inacessibility or due to statutory reasons (e.g. national parks). Six countries - Indonesia, India, Burma, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea and Philippines - account for some 90% of the productive closed broadleaved forest area (NHCf1) of the region.

Productive closed broadleaved forests not intensively managed, which have been logged over but have not been converted to non-forestry uses after the first “creaming” cover a total area of 58 million ha (about one fifth of the total closed broadleaved forest area). Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines account for 75% of this area. They are part of the “concession” areas which supply the bulk of tropical logs to international markets and domestic processing.

Open broadleaved forests in the region amount to 31 million ha and predominate in Thailand, India, Lao, Kampuchea and Papua New Guinea.

The total area covered in 1980 by coniferous forests is small (8.4 million ha); about two thirds of these forests are considered productive and are essentially confined to the Himalayan belt in south Asia.

In addition to the above the region has some 5 million ha under bamboo mainly in India, Viet Nam, Thailand and Burma; 73 millon ha of forest fallows; and about 36 million ha of shrub formations.

- In the region as a whole between 80 to 90% of the forest area is state owned and under the control of the forest departments. In some countries of the region the ownership of small areas of forests is vested in local bodies. Forests of Papua New Guinea are not owned by the government but by the clans and tribes, as in most countries of the Pacific. Relatively small areas of privately owned forests still exist, often scattered and in the process of conversion to other forms of land use.

- Defining intensive management as controlled application of harvesting regulations complemented by appropriate silvicultural and protective measures designed to maintain the productivity of the forests, the study concluded that past experience in practising intensive management is limited to only a few countries in the region, notably, Burma, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Malaysia. Only a fifth of the productive closed broadleaved forests (NHCf1) of the region are intensively managed. The bulk of the forests under management are the moist deciduous and dry deciduous types where the forest system is not as complex as in tropical rain forests. The practice of intensive management in the tropical rain forests has to contend with several disadvantages: scientific knowledge on their ecology and dynamics is limited; commercial exploitation through concessions since late sixties has been largely guided by economic considerations and enforcement of prescribed silvicultural treatments has received little or no attention; and there is a dearth of trained manpower at the local echelons.

- The 300 million ha of closed broadleaved forests and coniferous forests in the region contain a standing volume (VOB) of some 45 thousand million m³ thus suggesting a regional average figure of 149 m³/ha. The hardwood resources in the virgin forests amount to some 21 thousand million m³ (47% of total growing stock) and those in the logged-over forests to some 6 600 million m³ (15% of the total growing stock). The total growing stock in the closed broadleaved forests of the region works out to some 43.5 thousand million m³,

Six countries of the region account for 88% of the standing volume of the region (including conifers): Indonesia (20 858 million m³ or 46%), Burma (4 538 million m³ or 10%), Malaysia (4 499 million m³ or 10%), Papua New Guinea (4 441 million m³ or 10%), India (3 478 million m³ or 8%) and Philippines (1 754 million m³ or 4%).

The nationwide averages of the “volume actually commercialized” (VAC) of undisturbed closed broadleaved forests (NHCf1uv), an index of production from the point of view of commercial exploitation, ranges from 15 m³/ha in Burma to 90 m³/ha in Sabah, i.e. from less than 10% to about 30% of the corresponding gross standing volume (VOB).

By 1985, as a result of the conversion of forests to other uses the area under closed forests (N.f) is expected to decrease from 305.5 million ha to 296.4 million ha, i.e. an annual deforestation rate of some 1.8 million ha, mostly of closed broadleaved forests (NHCf). There will be consequent reduction in the growing stock of closed broadleaved forests which could amount to more than 2 000 million m³ in a five year period.

- The cumulative area under plantations at the end of 1980 has been estimated at 5.1 million ha. Two countries, India and Indonesia, accounted for some 4 million ha or 78% of the region's total. Six other countries contributed nearly 1 million ha in total: Philippines (300 000 ha), Viet Nam (204 000 ha), Pakistan (160 000ha), Bangladesh (128 000 ha), Thailand (114 000 ha) and Sri Lanka (112 000 ha). The extent of plantations undertaken in Bhutan, Burma, Malaysia, Kampuchea, Lao and Papua New Guinea is still unsignificant at the regional level. Some 2.1 million ha (i.e. 41%) out of the cumulative total of 5.1 million ha have been raised during the period 1976–80; 42% of this were non-industrial plantations (P..2), compared with only 24% until 1976.

By far the most important industrial plantations species planted in the region was teak (Tectona grandis). The more important high yielding hardwood species raised were: Albizia falcataria, Calliandra calothyrsus, Eucalyptus spp., Gmelina arborea and Leucaena leucocephala. Among conifers Pinus merkusii was the chief plantation species.

An analysis of plantation policies, programmes and projects financed either through domestic or international funds indicate that during 1981–85, the magnitude of effort undertaken during 1976–80 will be maintained at about the same level. The total area planted is likely to be about 2.2 million ha. During 1976–80, industrial plantations accounted for some 58% of the total effort; the corresponding proportion during 1981–85 would be only 53%: there will be a slight decrease in absolute terms of areas of newly established industrial plantations from 1 284 000 ha (1976–80) to 1 168 000 ha (1981–85).

There is likely to be an increased emphasis on non-industrial plantations during 1981–85 which reflects the importance attached to meeting growing fuelwood needs of rural populations. Out of nearly 1 million ha of fuelwood plantation to be raised in the region during 1981–85 (compared with 884 000 ha in 1976–80) 58% would be in insular southeast Asia countries and 26% in south Asia.

During 1981–85 timber species with longer rotations (60 years and over) are likely to be less favoured. There will be an increase in industrial plantations of high yielding hardwood species with short rotations, essentially for pulpwood production. Similar increases in plantations of high yielding species for non-industrial plantations are foreseen. Plantations of softwood species, mainly to meet the long fibre needs of pulp and paper industry will received marginally greater attention during 1981–85 than in the earlier period.

- In the region as a whole, during the last decade recorded removals of roundwood registered an average annual rise close to 3% which is well above the world average. Quantity-wise fuelwood/charcoal constitute the bulk of the removals.

The most marked changes in the pattern of production and exports of logs were observed in Indonesia. Log production was multiplied more than sixfold from the period 1961–65 (4.1 million m³) to the period 1976–79 (25.9 million m³) and log exports during the same time grew from 125 000 m³ to 19 million m³. The share of Indonesia in the srubregion's log production has reached 48% and that in the subregion's log exports amounts to 51%. There has been also increased domestic processing - especially wood-based panels, as evidenced by a rise from 5 000 m³ in 1968 to 526 000 m³ in 1979. A feature of the 70's is, indeed, the emergence of Indonesia as the most important producer and exporter of tropical hardwoods in the region and in the world. There was a significant decline in log production during the last 10 years in the Philippines from 11 to 7 million m³; export of logs fell dramatically from 9 to 1.8 million m³ in 10 years. In Malaysia log production continued to rise, from 17 to 30 million m³ in a decade, this increase being mainly attributable to production in Sabah and Sarawak.

From a net exporter, with depletion of forest resources, ban on exports and growing domestic demand Thailand has emerged a net importer during 1977/79.

As regards prognosis for future, the production of wood for industry is expected to rise from 101 million m³ in 1979 to some 126 million m³ in 2000 registering an average annual growth of 1.06%. Out of 25 million m³ of increase in absolute terms expected during 1979–2000, south Asia would alone account for some 16 million m³ or 64% of the increase for the region as a whole. In continental southeast Asia the additional removals by the year 2000 would amount to nearly 5 million m³ per annum; nearly all of which are expected to emanate from Burma's forests. In the centrally planned countries increased removals could be expected only from Viet Nam, some 2 million m³ annually by the year 2000. The forests of insular southeast Asia which hitherto constituted an important resource with significant export surpluses may actually see a steady decline in overall removals after the year 1985. It is anticipated that annual removals will decrease from some 75 million m³ in 1985 to 70 million m³ by 2000. In Indonesia, Malaysia and Philippines the policy is to promote domestic processing of logs and cut down on log exports.

In 1979 fuelwood and charcoal removals in the region amounted to nearly 736 million m³ as opposed to some 101 million m³ of industrial wood; some 88% of total roundwood removals. The future supply situation, in the absence of any systematic forecasts, is best analysed in terms of emerging scarcities. Acute scarcity situations are foreseen in zones with high population, high level of needs, and low resources which are mainly in mountainous areas of northern India and hills of Nepal and in the major urban areas of the region. Deficit situations are foreseen mainly in the Indogangetic plains of Indian subcontinent, southern India, Bangladesh, central Thailand and Java in Indonesia. This category of situations is under marked deficit especially in the more densely populated areas. Existing resources are overexploited, forest and woody vegetation are destroyed and agricultural residues largely used. The forestry solutions include plantations, intensified management of existing resources and tree growing in rural areas. They can be effective because of good productivity under prevailing ecological conditions, but they will be insufficient for meeting the growing population needs. Prospective deficit situations cover a wide range of situations where available fuelwood supplies will fall short of current energy needs in year 2000: Pakistan, remaining regions of India and Thailand, Sumatra in Indonesia, etc. The only areas where satisfactory fuelwood situations exist are those parts of Bhutan, Burma, Lao, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and Philippines where an abundance of forest resources with low population density occur.

- The term deforestation, as distinct from degradation, is used in this study to designate transfer or alienation by clearing of forested areas to non-forestry purposes. During 1976–80 the total closed forest area deforested was more than 9 million ha, some 1 815 million ha every year. This is expected to level off in the next 5-year period (1 826 million ha per year or some 5 000 ha every day). If this trend is projected into the future, by the year 2000 some 36 million ha of closed forest area would have been converted to non-forestry uses. This represents a decrease in the closed forest area of the region from 306 million ha in 1980 to 270 million ha in 2000, a depletion of 12% of the closed forests. The average annual rate of deforestation of closed forests in the region is 0.60%.

Analysis of the absolute annual rate of deforestation by country shows that it is highest in Indonesia (more than half a million ha) and in Thailand (333 000 ha). The range is between 100 and 250 000 ha for Malaysia, India, Lao, Philippines and Burma. The least affected countries are Bangladesh (8 000 ha), Bhutan (2 000 ha) and Pakistan (7 000 ha).

Deforestation is most wide-spread in logged-over productive forests and is the least in unproductive closed forests. Traditional shifting cultivation which follows in the wake of logging is the major cause of deforestation. A collation of scattered data relating to countries where estimates are available shows that some 28 million people are dependent on shifting cultivation and that the extent of forest area affected by shifting cultivation is some 74 million ha. Unorganized and spontaneous encroachments, squatting, migration by lowlanders - all manifestation of increasing demand for cultivable land by landless and unemployed rural poor - are also accounting for considerable deforestation. Organized forms of settlement, generally government sponsored, are more common in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and to a small extent in Nepal.

Provision of alternatives to shifting cultivation, regulations restricting forest clearance for other uses, stoppage of encroachments through greater vigilance are some of the measures being taken in the region to counter the alarming trend of deforestation. The success attendent on these measures, so far, has been very limited.

- Some forest degradation is caused by logging operations in the dipterocarp forests of the insular southeast Asia subregion. The mechanized extraction of a high log outturn per hectare (higher than in any other mixed closed tropical broadleaved forests) is responsible in particular for the denudation of a significant porportion of the logged-over area which is not revegetated rapidly increasing erosion and landslide hazards.

Degradation of many of the forests in the region has also been brought about by inadequate attention paid hitherto to satisfying the spectrum of basic needs of rural people in a rational manner. In the absence of organized supply, rural populations resort to indiscriminate firewood collection, excessive lopping of trees and overgrazing which lead to depleted resources, sometimes beyond repair. Fires, pests, mining, and natural disasters have also contributed to a degradation of resources in the region.

Greater degree of control over logging operations, intensive management in the post-harvest period, increased scale of reforestation, agro-forestry, silvi-pasture and fuelwood plantations near populated areas, rationalization of forest grazing are some of the activities capable of arresting the process of degradation. However, the progress achieved in implementing such measures has been slow and little impact has been noted to date.

To summarize, the study shows that the region is faced with a decrease in its forest growing stock and a progressive reduction in its global export potential of tropical wood products. The combined effects of population and economic growth on needs for new agricultural land and for forest products will result in aggravated local shortages and the critical problem of scarcity of fuelwood in less forested areas will worsen. To some extent, the extractive resources can be renewed in quantitative terms after natural forests have been cleared or degraded. There is no evidence, however, to predict that the great variety of forest services and functions, such as harbouring of wildlife, stabilization of soil and of water and climatic regimes, can be reestablished in a foreseeable future.

Bibliography ¹

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Christensen, B. 1979 “Mangrove Forest Resources and their Management in Asia and the Far-East”-Draft - FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Far East - Bangkok

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¹ This short bibliography includes only documents of regional or global nature which served as permanent references for the drafting of the country briefs and of the regional synthesis. Those used for only one country are indicated in the bibliography of the corresponding country brief (see second part of this report).