Part II
COUNTRY BRIEFS ¹

(RESUMES PAR PAYS)

ABBREVIATIONS

Categories of natural woody vegetation and of plantations and volume concepts used are indicated by symbols in the tables and corresponding comments of each country brief. They are explained in detail in chapter II of part I of this report. Their simplified definition is recalled below.

Natural woody vegetation

Equivalent categories of coniferous, bamboo and closed forests (all together) have similar symbols in which NHC is replaced by NS, NHB and N. respectively.

Plantations

Concepts of volume

¹ In area tables, the symbol “ε” (greek letter epsilon) is used to indicate negligible or relatively small areas.

¹ Each brief is presented in the official language of communication with FAO of the corresponding country.

(Chaque résumé est présenté dans la langue officielle de communication avec la FAO du pays correspondant).

BANGLADESH

Bangladesh covers an area of 144 000 km² between latitudes 21° and 27°N and longitudes 88° and 93°E, at the confluence of two major rivers, the Ganga and the Brahamaputra. It is surrounded by India on the western, northern and eastern sides, by Burma on the southeast and the Bay of Bengal on the south. It can be divided into three main geographic zones:

• the hills cover about ten percent of the total area in the east (at the border with Assam) and the southeast. The Chittagong Hill Tracts consist of a series of parallel ridges in a NNW-SSE direction. The ridges rise to an elevation of over 1 000 m. The land between the ridges exhibits sharp edged, irregular lower hills (250 m elevation). The major river, Karnafuli, cuts across the main ridges but all its principal tributaries follow the inter ridge valleys;

• the delta formed by the confluence of the Ganga and the Brahamaputra at Bay of Bengal occupy the southern and southwestern parts. The zone extends about 80 km inland from the Bay of Bengal at the mouth of the river Ganga, west to the Hooghly river and accross the Indian frontier. The maximum ground elevation is 1.5 m and the land is flooded during the monsoon tides (mid-June to mid-September). The land on either side of the main rivers is cut up by a network of channels which varies in width from a few metres to over a kilometre;

• the plains occupy most of the country consisting of generally level alluvium; this is the most fertile and heavily populated area.

The climate of the whole country is tropical. Average annual rainfall varies from 1 500 mm to 5 000 mm out of which a large part falls during the monsoon season. In the hills it varies from 2 150 to 5 000 mm whereas in the deltaic region it remains within the interval 1 650–1 800 mm. Humidity is high during the monsoon months while the period from November to February is usually dry and relatively cool.

The soils of the Chittagong Hill Tracts are generally coarse, acidic and non saline, varying in depth and texture. In the deltaic region the soil is a clayey loam lying over alternate layers of clay and sand. In the plain it consists of sandy loam over a thousand metre deep.

Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries of the world with an average of 608 inhabitants per square kilometre. According to (13) the present population stands at 87.6 million with an annual growth rate of 2.6 percent per year during the period 1961–1974 (4). 91 percent of the population lives in rural areas and the mainstay of the economy is agriculture. A population of about 60 000 families in the Chittagong Hill Tracts practise shifting cultivation. In this system forest land is cleared for 2–3 years of rice cultivation and then abandoned. Soils generally need 7 to 10 years to recover but because of population pressure fallow period has been shortened to 2–3 years (6).

1. Present situation

1.1 Natural woody vegetation

1.1.1 Description of the vegetation types

The vegetation follows the physiographic division of the country. The description below is based mainly on documents (1),(7),(8),(9),(11) and (16) and is presented within the broad categories of this study.

Closed broadleaved forests (NHC)

Nearly all the remaining forests belong to this category. The following types are distinguished:

• the tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests are located in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (Chittagong and Sylhet districts of Chittagong division). They are also referred to as “hill forests”. They are closed multistoreyed high forests with trees of diameters up to 1.5 m and heights varying from 30 to 60 m. The species considered to be merchantable are: garjan (Dipterocarpus spp.), civit (Swintonia floribunda), chundul (Tetrameles nudiflora), narikeli (Sterculia alata), boilam (Anisoptera glabra), tilsul (Hopea odorata), etc. Garjan is an excellent construction timber and civit is good for pulpwood, packaging and plywood. Garjan oil is in demand for lighting, paint and protection of boat bottoms. Several other species are favoured for boat building, house posts and other special uses. Bamboos, mainly muli (Melocanna bambusoides) occur as undergrowth. Other bamboos of commercial importance are mitenga (Bambusa tulda), dalloo (Teinostachyum dulloa) and orah (Dendrocalamus longispathus). These forests are heavily encroached on by shifting cultivation, which is the major cause of deforestation;

• the tropical moist deciduous forests, also known as “inland sal forests”, cover relatively small areas distributed over the inland plain area. They are predominantly composed of sal (Shorea robusta) occurring in pure patches, sometimes associated with korai (Albizia spp.) in the canopy and kumbhi (Careya arborea) in in the lower storey. More than half of these forests are located in the Mymensingh forestry division and 30 percent in the Dacca division, the rest being scattered through the northern area of the country. They have been subjected to considerable illicit fellings and encroachments due to their location in densely populated area. They suffered considerable damage during the Independence war in 1971;

• the tidal forests are essentially mangroves occurring in the deltaic zone. Most of them are flooded during the monsoon. The bulk of these forests are located in Sunderbans (southwestern part of the deltaic region) around khulna, the rest being found in the district of Chittagong in the southeast part of the country. The predominant tree species are sundri (Heritiera minor), gewa (Excoecaria agallocha), less frequent ones being passur (Carapa moluccensis var. gangetica), goran (Ceriops roxburghii), kankra (Bruguiera gymnorhiza), keora (Sonneratia apetala), baen (Avicennia officinalis), etc. They are closed forests with a dense canopy. The trees can reach a maximum height of 25 to 30 m but are usually 8 to 15 m high. Tree diameters range between 10 to 20 cm though 45 cm can be reached in favourable conditions. The wood is primarily used for fuel though demand for wood industries is also increasing. A newsprint mill based on gewa wood started functioning in Khulna in 1959. Main transportation ways in these forests are rivers and channels (locally called “khals”).

Open broadleaved forests(NHc/NHO)

Open deciduous forests occur on dry exposed southern slopes in the Chittagong Hill Tracks consisting of large trees scattered in a dense undergrowth of evergreen species. Their total area is considered to be very small.

Scrub formations(nH)

There is no instance of typical scrub formation, except those formations resulting from excessive biotic interference, mainly shifting cultivation (which has been included within the forest fallow class (NHCa) for the purposes of this study).

1.1.2 Present situation of the woody vegetation

Present areas

The hill forests under the control of the Department of Forests cover an area of 610 000 ha (3) (4) (15), of which 86 000 ha have been converted into plantations (7) and 33 000 ha have been illegally encroached (3) (15). Another 8 000 ha of forest area have been released for the rehabilitation of 16 000 families affected by the construction of the Karnafuli reservoir in 1963 (6). Therefore the forests presently under the control of the Department of Forests cover an area of 483 000 ha including 21 000 ha of “vested” and “acquired” forests (see below under “legal status and management”) which are heavily exploited in the absence of intensive management, half of which bearing only secondary vegetation. In addition there are 1 041 000 ha of forest land under the control of District Administration, but most of them bear only secondary vegetation.

Estimates of mangrove area very between 400 000 ha (4) (16) and 600 000 ha (7). Their total area evaluated in 1958–59 was 407 000 ha by interpretation of serial photographs (1). Soils being unsuitable for cultivation, encroachment by agriculture has been insignificant (only 297 ha till 1973 according to (3)). The recent estimate of 405 000 ha given by (11) seems therefore to be the most realistic.

Area of inland moist deciduous forests has been reported as 88 000 ha in (16) and 134 000 ha in (11). Out of the estimate of 110 000 ha given in the official documents (3), (5) and (15) and which is used here as a base, 28 000 ha had been encroached upon by 1973, and 1 400 ha more annually since then, resulting in a total reduction of 38 000 ha. In addition about 20 000 ha of these forests have been converted into plantations, leaving only 52 000 ha. It must be realized, however, that the impact of the war of Independence on these forests has not been assessed and a precise estimate can only be provided by a proper inventory.

Taking into account the above considerations the following estimates have been arrived at:

Areas of natural woody vegetation estimated at end 1980
(in thousand ha)

Some explanations are useful for the interpretation of this table:

• unclassed state forests and “khas” land in the hills (see below under “legal status and management”) are mostly denuded due to shifting cultivation; however one third of these lands are believed to be abandoned and have reverted back to secondary vegetation (NHCa);

• about half of the acquired and vested forests in the hills are heavily logged over in the absence of intensive management and the rest are covered with scrub vegetation of secondary origin (NHCa);

• there are small pockets of presently inaccessible tropical evergreen forests in the hills which have not been commercially exploited, but are not entirely free from human interference. This interference is of little magnitude and does not affect the physiognomy of these forests. Their area has been estimated at about ten percent of the total area of productive forests and they have been classified as unmanaged productive closed broadleaved virgin forests (NHCf1uv);

• the moist deciduous forests were subjected to heavy damage during the war of Independence and commercial exploitation from these forests has been prohibited in 1972. These forests therefore have been classified as closed broadleaved forests unproductive for legal reasons (NHCf2r);

• some of the mangrove forests are unproductive for physical reasons only (NHCf2i);

• bamboo occurs mainly as an understorey or mixed with other species. Pure bamboo forests therefore have been assumed to cover insignificant areas (no NHB stands).

Ownership

According to the State Acquisition Act of 1957, no forest land can be held by an individual. All forests are under the ownership of the state which exercises its control through either the Department of Forests or the District Administration.

Legal status and management

The following legal categories are recognised:

• reserved forests are under the management of the Department of Forests and are subject to the highest degree of control. They are properly demarcated and notified as such under the Forest Act and are generally free from local rights though concessions are granted;

• protected forests are also demarcated and notified under the Forest Act. They are managed by the Department of Forests which excercises a lower degree of control. Certain rights of the local population are recognised;

• vested and acquired forests are formerly private forests taken over by the Department of Forests for proper management. They have been subjected to very heavy exploitation during the past and most of them are still in degraded form;

• unclassed state forests and “khas” forest lands are situated in the hilly region and have been subjected to widespread shifting cultivation. They are under the control and management of District Administration. Most of them are in denuded form; those abandoned by shifting cultivation revert to scrub vegetation.

Forest area according to legal classification (7)

¹ irrespective of vegetation cover

Scientific forest management is more than 50 years old in Bangladesh. Working plans were first introduced in the Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts and Cox's Bazar forest divisions. Presently the inland sal or moist deciduous forests are excluded from production to recover from the damage during the Independence war. The hill forests or tropical evergreen forests are being worked under various working plans (14). Three working circles are distinguished: long rotation, short rotation and bamboo. The silviculture system in the former two is clearfelling with artificial regeneration by taungya or departmental working. In the Chittagong, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Cox's Bazar, divisions, conversion periods of 30 and 60 years have been prescribed as short and long rotations respectively. For Sylhet division these periods are 40 and 80 years. The long rotation working circle is constituted of areas of better site quality capable of growing economically valuable timber species to large sizes. Distance to utilization centres is not considered a constraint since the high value per volume unit of the species raised in this circle is expected to absorbe easily the cost of transportation. The species selected for regeneration are jarul (Lagerstromia specioma), garjan, chaplash (Artecarpas chanlaeba), dhakijam (Syaygium grandis), etc. Those areas where timber can be grown economically only on comparatively short rotation are allotted to the short rotation working circle. The species selected in this case are obtian (Alstonia scholaris), kainjal (Bischefia javanica), kadam (Anthocephalus cadamba), gamari (Gmelina arborea) and minjri (Cassia siamea). The cutting cycle for bamboo is 3 years, except in Sylhet where it is 4 years. In the Chittagong Hill Tracts predominantly bamboo bearing areas have been alletted to bamboo working circle, in other divisions it overlaps on the two other working circles.

The mangrove forests are covered by working plans based on the forest inventory carried out in 1960 (1). Three working circles, namely gewa, sundri and keora, are constituted. Silvicultural systems followed are selection and selection cum improvement fellings. Minimum exploitable diameter from 12 cm to 30 cm have been prescribed depending on species and felling series. The felling cycle is 20 years. By now they have passed through three regular felling cycles.

Forest utilisation

Log harvesting

Logging operations are generally restricted to the dry months from November to February, particularly in the hill forests although the working period may extend up to May depending on the weather. Logging is carried out by private contractors and by the state owned Forest Industries Development Corporation (FIDC). Private contractors with small capital are confined to more accessible areas and to the vicinity of permanent transportation ways whereas most inaccessible areas are allocated to FIDC for mechanized logging (with tractors, cranes and logging tructs). The felling operation is generally carried out by axe and cross cutting by axe and saw. The private contractors usually convert the log into square sizes by hand saw and then transport them manually up to the river bank or the road side. Some contractors also employ elephants to drag the logs up to the river side. Due to mostly manual logging methods and extraction of woods of only known commercial value, about 50 percent of the timber is left at the felling site.

In the mangroves extraction is done through a large number of navigable rivers and creeks always close to the felling site. The rate of recovery is consequently much higher than in the hills.

Recorded removal of timber from forests (under the control of Department of Forests) and estimated timber production from homestead complexes is given hereunder:

Production of sawlogs and veneer logs (3) (8) (12)
(in thousand m³)

Some timber is removed from the forests by concessionaires and right holders that goes unrecorded but represents a small fraction of the recorded annual production from the forests.

Other forest products

Fuelwood is the most important source of domestic energy. People living in and around the forests collect it directly from the forests on payment of usual royalty. According to legislation they are permitted to collect dry fallen material and logging waste from the forests but they often collect other categories of wood. Population living away from the forests depend on homestaeds. For meeting the domestic energy needs, fuelwood is supplemented by agricultural waste and cow dung.

Both the Forest Department and an Energy Study Group have found that fuelwood consumption has fallen since the 60's (15). The Energy Study Group estimated it at 0.0114 m³/inhabitant/year in 1975, while it was more than twice higher in 1956–66 (0.023 m³/inhabitant/year). This reduction is compensated by a more intensive use of agricultural residues and waste for fuel, particularly in the rural areas (8). However it must be noted that though these trends are probably correct, the consumption figures appear too low, even if full account is taken of the serious deficit situation of the country in this field. Other estimates of fuelwood consumption for the whole country are 2.02 million m³ in 1980 (i.e. 0.023 m³/inhabitant/year) in (15) and 9.46 million m³ in 1979 (i.e. 0.110 m³/inhabitant/year) in the 1979 FAO Yearbook of Forest Products.

Bamboo is another important produce mostly used by the pulp and paper industry and also for building in the rural areas where bamboo houses thatched with grass are quite common. It has been estimated that bamboo production from homestead complexes is four to five times higher than that of the forests.

Estimated production of bamboo (8)
(1976/77)

Many other forest products are extracted. Production for some of them as recorded by the Forest Department is given in the following table.

Estimated production of minor forest products
(1976/77)

¹ leaves of Nypa fruticans

1.1.3 Present situation of the growing stock

For the mangrove forests of Sunderbans and the Kassalong and Rainkheong reserve forests of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the inventories carried out in the late fifties and early sixties are the only basis. Working plans prepared by the Department of Forests provides the growing stock around 1970 for Sangoo and Matamuhari reserve forests. No estimates are available for other forests. Douglas has tried recently (1980) to analyze the available information on growing stock and yield (16). According to his analysis the growing stock of mangrove forests has not changed over a period of two decades and the average growing stock figure (down to 11.7 cm DBH) of 54.9 m³/ha remains valid. For hill forests an average growing stock of 133 m³/ha has been worked out but has been reduced subsequently to 100 m³/ha on the basis of the general opinion of experienced foresters. It is this last figure which has been adopted conservatively in this study for the hill (evergreen broadleaved) forests. For other forests which are mainly inland sal or moist deciduous forests a conservative estimate of 35 m³/ha has been used taking into consideration the severe damage suffered by them. In case of unmanaged virgin closed broadleaved forests (NHCf1uv) the growing stock may be estimated at 20 percent more than the one discussed above and for logged over forests (NHCf1uc) 40 percent less.

The above estimations are presented in the following table.

Growing stock estimated at end 1980
(totals in million m³)

1.2 Plantations

1.2.1 Introduction

Bangladesh like Burma, India and Pakistan was before 1947 part of erstwhile British India where scientific forest management and plantation started during the second part of the 19th century. In Bangladesh the first plantation of teak was raised in 1873 in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (7). Since then plantation forestry has become a part of the overall clearfelling management system. The clearfelled areas were planted with teak in consideration of its high value. However the plantation activity remained suspended during the period of 1892 to 1911 and again from 1913 to 1916. Until 1920 it remained confined to the Chittagong Hill Tracts. In 1921 it was expanded to the Chittagong, Cox's bazar and Sylhet divisions. Total annual plantation rate never exceeded 400 ha. Teak was the main species planted. Other species were also tried. Gmelina arborea was introduced in 1923 but it became infested with Loranthus sp. and remaining plants had to be girdled (12). Artocarpus integrifolia was planted in 1939 in a mixture of other species including Dipterocarpus turbinatus to study the suitable plantation technique and growth rates (10) All plantations till 1950, except those raised for research purposes, were of teak. Later on other species were also used mainly sal (Shorea robusta), garjan (Dipterocarpus turbinatus), jarul (Lagerstroemia speciosa), chaplash (Artocarpus chaplasha), chatian (Alstonia scholaris), dhakijam (Syzygium grandis) etc. Most of these plantations are raised by taungya system.

Under a separate project afforestation started in 1966 along the shore of Bay of Bengal with the dual objective of protection from cyclones and of increasing wood production. Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha), sundri (Heritiera minor), keora (Sonneratia apetala), goran (Ceriops roxburghii) are the most important species. In 1974 the Department of Forests initiated a project to establish fast-growing species, mostly kadam (Anthocephalus cadamba), gamar (Gmelina arborea) and Eucalyptus spp. in the Kaptai area of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The main objective was to increase the raw material base for the Karnafuli paper mill.

1.2.2 Areas of established plantations

Industrial plantations

Nearly all plantations in compact blocks have been raised for industrial purposes. The main species planted in the hills and plains are teak (about 70% of total planted area) and sal. Other species planted are garjan (Dipterocarpus turbinatus), jarul (Lagerstroemia speciosa) chaplash (Artocarpus chaplasha), chatian (Alstonia scholaris) dhakijam (Syzygium grandis) etc. Since 1974 fast-growing hardwood species (PHH 1) are being planted such as gamar (Gmelina arborea), kadam (Anthocephalus cadamba) and various species of Eucalyptus. In coastal afforestation, the species used are keora (Sonneratia apetala), baen (Avicennia officinalis), kankra (Bruguiera gymnorhiza), goran (Ceriops roxburghii), gewa (Excoecaria agallocha), sundri (Heritiera minor), etc (PHL 1).

It is not known what proportion of the areas planted can be considered as successfully established since failure in the early stages is common and mortality in later stages is usually high. However since the plantations are intensively managed 70 percent of the planted areas can be assumed to have been successfully raised. Based on this, areas of plantations (7) are given in the following table.

Areas of established (industrial) plantations estimated at end 1980
(in thousand ha)

Other plantations

They correspond essentially to the tree planting carried out in the homesteads by individuals. They consist of scattered trees, trees in line, compact blocks of very small dimensions planted for fuelwood and small non-industrial timber. Their area cannot be estimated as for the industrial plantations. However a survey, based on aerial photographs during 1974–75 shows that the total area of the crowns would be about 266 000 ha, distributed as follows (4):

Area covered by crowns in the village homestead complexes
(1974/75)

1.2.3 Plantation characteristics

(8) estimates the total growing stock of all plantations at maturity at 17 million m³. For teak (10) provides some yield tables based on 72 plots established in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Cox's Bazar and Sylhet divisions. Volume and yield data extracted from these tables are reproduced below (11):

Volume and yield data (Tectona grandis) ¹

¹ SI: site index C.A.I.: current annual increment M.A.I. mean annual increment. The actual distribution of site indices in the hill plantations is not known.

2. Present trends

2.1 Natural woody vegetation

2.1.1 Deforestation

The main causes of deforestation are shifting cultivation and illegal extension of agriculture on forest lands. About 60 000 families are engaged in shifting cultivation in the Chittagong Hills. Assuming 0.5 hectare of land cultivated by one family for three years the area cleared annually for shifting cultivation works out to about 10 000 ha of which we can assume that half is taken from secondary vegetation (NHCa), resulting in an annual loss of 5 000 ha of forests. In addition to deforestation by shifting cultivation, there is illegal extension of agriculture. According to (3) encroachment on the forests from 1973 to 1976 was about 2 600 ha per year essentially in moist deciduous forests (presently under protection - NHCf2r).

Average annual deforestation
(in thousand ha)

2.1.2 Degradation

Illicit cutting and lopping of trees for timber, fuelwood and fodder by the local inhabitants is difficult to control. This results in a direct depletion of the growing stock. Grazing by livestock beyong the carrying capacity is another major cause of degradation through trampling of soil and loss of natural regeneration. This is further aggravated by the frequent fires in the plain and hill forests. No data are available to assess quantitatively the extent of degradation caused by these various factors.

2.1.3 Trends in forest utilisation

The present management plans of the Department of Forests provide for a potential production of 1.3 million m³ of timber. In the hill forests it is planned to increase the annual exploitation area from 5 000 ha to about 10 000 ha by 1985 resulting in an annual timber production increased to 250 000 m³ (17). This additional quantity of timber can be accomodated by the unutilised capacity of the existing forest industries. After 1985 it is proposed to reduce the maximum conversion period in the hills from 60 to 40 years which will considerably increase the timber output and require some planning for its utilisation (17). Updating and extending the inventory of forest resources have been provided for in the draft of the second five year plan. In the case of the homestead forests the survey is carried out within the framework of the UNDP/FAO/Bangladesh Village Forest Inventory project.

The per capita fuelwood consumption rate should continue to decrease as during the 60's and 70's (17). This may be explained by the short supply and the resulting price increase. According to present working plans the production potential from the hill forests will increase by about 312 000 m³. However, by that time, the population would have increased by about 12 million inhabitants and it will be difficult to narrow down the gap between demand and supply.

2.1.4 Areas and growing stock at end 1985

The indications given in the previous sections used in combination with the area and volume estimates at end 1980, lead to the following projections for 1985.

Area of natural woody vegetation estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)

Growing stock estimated at end 1985
(in million m³)

2.2 Plantations

In the second five year plan, plantation has been given high priority. Replanting of 38 000 ha of exploited hill forests is envisaged during the plan period. Afforestation of 40 000 ha of coastal area and of 40 000 ha of unclassed state forests should also be carried out (including 20 000 ha with pulpwood species (17)). There is also provision for plantation of non-wood species such as bamboo, cane and oil palm over an area of 19 000 ha during this period which are not accounted for in the following table. The estimated total area of successfully established plantations during the next 5-year period has been estimated at 70% approximately of the sum of the targets indicated above, or 85 000 ha, i.e. almost twice the successfully planted area during 1976–80.

Areas of established industrial plantations estimated at end 1985 (in thousand ha)

Bibliography

(1) Ray, R.G. 1971 “Six Forest Inventories in the Tropics - No. 3 and 4 - Pakistan” -in collaboration with Canadian International Development Agency - Ottawa

(2) Department of Films and Publications 1977 “Forestry Resources and Industries of Bangladesh”-Ministry of Information and Broadcasting - Dacca

(3) FAO 1977 “Forestry Statistics of Bangladesh” - by Md Amin Uddin Sarkar - Policy and Planning Service - Forestry Department - Rome

(4) Department of Forests 1978 “Country Report for the Eight World Forestry Congress 1978, Jakarta, Indonesia October 16–28, 1978” - Dacca

(5) FAO 1978 “Plan for Permanent Forest Inventory - I Plantations”- prepared by B. Kingston - UNDP/FAO Project BDG/72/005 - Working Document No. 1 - Rome

(6) FAO 1978 “Country Report on Forestry Communities Practising Shifting Cultivation in Bangladesh” - UNFPA/FAO project - Bangkok

(7) FAO 1978 “Forest Inventory and Aerial Photogrammetry” - by J.S. SIavicky - UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005 - Field document No. 5 - Rome

(8) Aliff International Ltd. 1979 “A Study on Forestry” - prepared for General Economics and Evaluation Division, Planning Commission - Dacca

(9) FAO 1979 “Growth and Yield Studies in the Forests of Bangladesh by Permanent Forest Inventory Methods - Part III - Sunderbans” - by B. Kingston - UNDP/FAO Project BGB/72/005 - Field Document No. 6 - Forest Research Institute - Chittagong

(10) FAO 1979 “A Compendium of Mensuration Statistics” - by B. Kingston - UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005 - Field Document No. 7 - Forest Research Institute - Chittagong

(11) FAO 1979 “Draft Project Terminal Report of Project BGD/72/005”- prepared by K.J. White - Chittagong

(12) Forests Directorate 1979 “Annual Progress Report of Forests Administration in Bangladesh for the Year 1975–76” - Dacca

(13) Government of Bangladesh 1979 “Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh - 1979” - Dacca

(14) Khattak, G.M. 1979 “History of Forest Management in Bangladesh” - in The Pakistan Journal of Forestry - July 1979

(15) Department of Forest 1980 “Progress Report 1973–79” - prepared for Eleventh Commonwealth Forestry Conference, 1980 - Dacca

(16) FAO 1980 “Government Forest Resources and Management in Bangladesh” - by J.J. Douglas UNDP/FAO Forestry Consumption and Sector Planning Project (BGD/78/010) - Planning Commission, Forestry Section - Dacca

(17) Planning Commission 1980 “Forestry Section - Second Five Year Plan” - note - Dacca

BHUTAN

Bhutan (Druk-yul or the Land of Dragons) is a landlocked country falling between longitudes 88°45' and 92°10' E and latitudes 26°45' and 28°30' N. It spans the foothills skirting the plains of India to the snow clad eastern Himalayas. It is bordered by Tibet to the north, west Bengal and Assam to the south, Arunachal Pradesh to the east and Tibet, Sikkim and Darjeeling district of west Bengal to the west. It has an area of 46 600 km² extending roughly 300 km from east to west and 150 km from north to south. The country is covered with high mountains and valleys with the exception of the lowlands in the southern and southeastern regions. The northern half of the country is formed by a series of valleys separated by mountain ranges which are accessible only through high passes. There are four main rivers (Torsa, Wong, Sankosh and Manas) which flow from the Himalayas to join the Brahamaputra river in India. Depending on altitude and location the country can broadly be divided into three zones:

• the northern zone is a belt of 30 km width running east to west with snowy tracts and extensive grasslands just below snowline between 4 300 to 4 600 m. The main backbone of mountains rises up to 7 320 m in the west and runs eastwards into two prominent peaks about 6 400 m high;

• the central zone is a belt of some 70 km width running from east to west between 1 000 to 3 000 m at the foothill of the high northern mountains with valleys at heights between 1 800 and 2 750 m. The most important mountain range separating the valleys reaches heights of 3 650 to 4 550 m. Punakha, Paro, Ha, Wangd uphodrang and Thimpu valleys are part of this zone, which is also often described as the Inner Himalaya or the Higher Himalaya. Manas is the mostimportant river, other important ones being Wong, Sankosh, Tongsa and Kuru, etc. This zone contains the most valuable forests of the country;

• the southern zone is about 50 km wide, consisting of low foothills covered with a dense tropical vegetation. All the rivers of the country flow down through this zone to meet the Brahamaputra river in India. The altitude ranges from about 900 m to 1 500 m;

The climat of Bhutan varies widely with the altitude, from tropical to temperate and alpine. Up to 1 500 m the climate is tropical/subtropical having monthly average temperatures varying from 4°C to 28°C. Between 1 500 and 4 000 m the annual rainfall is 1 000 mm and temperature varies from 0°C to 7°C. Above this altitude the climate is typically alpine. Snowline starts between 4 500 and 5 000 m.

The population of Bhutan was estimated at 1.27 million inhabitants in 1979 increasing at an annual rate of 2.3% (FAO Production Yearbook - 1979). It is mainly concentrated in the surrounding areas of important valleys and in the lowlands with fertile soils. Total work force in Bhutan has been estimated at 302 000 of which 95 percent are in agriculture.

1. Present situation

1.1 Natural woody vegetation

1.1.1 Description of the vegetation types

Though lying entirely in the subtropical region, elevation and rainfall has determined a variety of vegetation types ranging from tropical to alpine.

Closed broadleaved forests (NHC)

Tropical semi-evergreen forests corresponding to types 2B/Cla and b of Champion and Seth's classification (1) are found in a restricted way in the vicinity of the streams of foothills and the lower slopes of the hills. These are closed high forests largely evergreen including a variable proportion of deciduous species. The middle storey is dense with a varying undergrowth. The type is associated with heavy rainfall up to 5 000 mm but usually occurs on well drained slopes from the foot of the range up to about 760 m or more. Important species are: Phoebe hainesiana, Beilschmiedia sp., Eugenia spp., Castanopsis sp., Michelia, Elaeocarpus, Tetrameles nudiflora, Ailanthus grandis, Cinnamomum, Altingia, Quercus, Schima wallichii, etc....

Sal forests occur in the southern tract and correspond to types 3C/Cla and b of Champion and Seth's classification (1). They occur through the sub-Himalayan tract including lower slopes of the Himalayas. Rainfall is typically high from 2 000 mm up to about 5 000 mm. Sal (Shorea robusta) is predominant in gregarious form and canopy is 25–40 m high. Due to its fire hardy nature and coppicing power, it has retained its gregarious nature despite severe biotic interference. Sal generally constitutes 50 percent or more of the canopy. Other associates are: Schima wallichii, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Terminalia tomentosa, etc.

Lowland hardwood forests corresponding to type 3C/C3b of Champion and Seth's classification (1) occupy quite a large area between 500 and 650 m, near river beds and occur extensively in lower areas. A high rainfall over 2 500 mm, a short dry season, a drained porous soil and absence of frost are characteristic. They are more or less closed high forests in which individual trees often reach large size. Species are usually well mixed. There is an abundant undergrowth. Typical species are: Lagerstroemia parviflora, Sterculia villosa, Bombax ceiba, Schima wallichii, Careya arborea, Amoora sp. etc.. On the young alluvium of the large rivers an irregular forest occurs usually dominated by more and less deciduous species such as Terminalia myriocarpa and Lagerstroemia speciosa and with a predominantly evergreen underwood. Other species are Pterospermum acerifolium, Duabanga spp., Ailanthus grandis, Chukrasia tabularis etc. This type is viewed as the general seral type of the moist deciduous forest of Champion and Seth's classification (1).

Subtropical wet hill forests corresponding to type 8B/Cl of Champion and Seth's classification (1) are stands of good height and density, the dominant species being mostly evergreen, though some large, briefly deciduous trees occur sometimes in pure consociations (e.g. Betula). The trees are 20–35 m high but rarely stand close together. A middle storey is generally recognisable composed of a variety of medium sized, mainly evergreen, trees. A shrubby undergrowth is always present. The type occupies the slopes from about 1 000 m to 2 000 m. Main species are: Betula, Castanopsis, Cedrela, Albizia procera, Schima wallichii, Alnus nepalensis, Engelhardtia spicata etc.

Upland hardwood are forests occuring beyong 2 000 m. Oaks (Quercus lamellosa, Q. pachyphylla) are found in patches of varying sizes between 2 000 and 3 000 m often mixed with maple (Acer spp.), Magnolia campbellii, Betula alnoides etc. Above 3 000 m these forests are found in larger patches of high density, usually free from grazing and fire. Typical species are Acer spp., Quercus spp., Machilus sp., Michelia sp., Altingia sp.. These forests correspond to 11B/Cl and 12/3a of Champion and Seth's classification (1).

Open broadleaved forests (NHc/NHO)

These forests are represented by the east Himalayan sub-alpine birch/fir forests (type 14/C2 of Champion and Seth's classification (1)) occurring above 3 000 m. The forests consist of an irregular stand of birch (Betula bhojpatra) and Rhododendron spp. with an overwood of Abies densa. Rhododendron mostly occurs as undergrowth. Trees are widely spaced except in some sheltered pockets where the canopy may be closed. The forest usually occupies the ridges and slopes where snow slides are not frequent. Undergrowth may consist of Juniperus wallichiana, Pyrus aucuparia etc. These forests have no commercial value, being inaccessible.

In addition, severely degraded forests of closed broadleaved types have acquired the character of open broadleaved forest except for floristic composition. For the purpose of this study they have been classified as closed broadleaved forests unproductive for physical reasons (NHCf2i).

Coniferous forests (NS)

Chir pine forests corresponding to type 9/Clb of Champion and Seth's classification (1) are generally found between 1 000 and 1 500 m, but descends to 500 m on cool aspect and may rise to 2 000 m depending upon the locality factors. Most of the forests have low to medium density with regeneration generally lacking as they are subjected to heavy grazing and frequent fires. Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) occurs usually in pure form with almost no other tree reaching the canopy. There is no understorey and even under-growth is rare. In eastern Bhutan an herbaceous layer of lemon grass is noticeable. Broadleaved species occur mixed with chir pine in hollows and depressions and along the streams. Main associates are Rhododendron spp., Quercus sp., Schima wallichii, Castanopsis sp., Kydia calycina, Phyllanthus emblica etc.

Blue pine forests generally stand between 2 500 and 3 500 m though the range of occurrence extends down to 1 500 m on cooler aspects. Blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) normally occurs in pure patches in shady locaties in the lower range of its area. In upper reaches it can be found on all aspects and is often found mixed with upland hardwoods and other conifers, particularly spruce (Picea spinulosa), Tsuga dumosa, maple (Acer spp.), oaks, birch etc.. The forests are generally high with a closed canopy, almost no understorey and a low undergrowth. They are subjected to heavy biotic interference, grazing and fires. Despite of this, regeneration is not a difficult problem. They correspond to type 12/DSl of Champion Seth's classification (1).

High level conifers are forests composed of various coniferous species among which fir (Abies densa) and spruce (Picea spinulosa) are predominant. Associates are junipers, hemlock (Tsuga dumosa), blae pine, larch (Larix griffithiana), maple, rhododendrons, etc. These forests are found in almost pure patches at elevations ranging from 3 000 to 4 000 metres. They are usually deficient in regeneration. The large grazing grounds for yak and other cattle are used during summer months and subject to fire hazards. Though the type is presently inaccessible it has great potential for commercial exploitation.

Scrub formations (nH)

The typical scrub formations are represented in Bhutan by the forests corresponding to groups 15 and 16 of Champion and Seth's classification. Alpine scrub forms a low, almost evergreen, Rhododendron forest mixed with some birch and other deciduous species at an altitude above 4 000 m. Trunks are short and branchy, rarely large sized. The main characteristic is an ample snowfall. Juniperus squamata is commonly found. In the inner valleys Myricaria and Hippophaë also occur.

Besides these typical formations, there are various degradation stages of the climax high forests described earlier resulting from excessive biotic interference. Such formations are limited in extent and occur only on areas with difficult climatic and edaphic conditions. For the purpose of this study these formations have been included in the “forest fallow” category (NHCa) as they result from shifting cultivation.

1.1.2 Present situation of the woody vegetation

Present areas

The forest constitute one of the major national resources of Bhutan. Forest land occupies about 68 percent of the total land area. 31 642 km² has been classified as forest land and is being surveyed by Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources (P.I.S.), an organisation of Government of India. The survey has been carried out in four phases. The aerial photographs available for interpretation correspond to years 1958–59. The land area falling outside the P.I.S project is mostly barren and snow covered except some areas in the northeastern corner. The report of phase I has been published (6) and for phases II and and III has been finalised (8) and is under publication. Data for phase IV are still under processing at the headquarters of P.I.S at Dehra Dun. On the basis of the findings of P.I.S., forest area has been projected to the land area below 5 000 m that has not been surveyed. During the last two decades the loss of forest area has been mainly due to the practice of shifting cultivation locally called “chari”. Though the practice is gradually declining, it can still be assumed that about 40 percent of rural population is engaged in this practice or 42 000 families. Each family clear about 0.5 ha of the forest for rice cultivation for 3–4 years and then abandon the field. They however return to it after 8–12 years. It is estimated that 63 000 ha of forest have been lost between 1958 and 1980 due to this practice. The findings of P.I.S have been interpreted within the framework of the classifications used in this study and taking into account these forest losses.

Area of natural woody vegetation estimated at end 1980 ¹
(in thousand ha)

¹ Figures in parenthesis with the + sign corresponds to the additional estimated areas in the upland zone not covered by the P.I.S survey.

The following explanations are necessary for the interpretation of the above table:

• upland broadleaved indicates the broadleaved forests which generally occur above 2 000 m; lowland broadleaved indicates those generally below 2 000 m;

• the unmanaged virgin productive forests (N.f1uv) are subjected only to little population pressure; timber and fuelwood are removed only by villagers and nomads and this does not appreciably change the physionomy of these forests;

• unmanaged logged-over productive forests (N.f1uc) are those forests subjected to heavy population pressure and which are logged without management regulations;

• N.f2i stands for the forests which are unproductive for physical reasons alone;

• N.a corresponds to secondary woody vegetation types resulting from shifting cultivation.

No distinction is made (as for other countries) between closed and open formations for coniferous forests, and no scrub coniferous formations have been recognised.

Ownership

Almost all the forests of the country are owned by His Majesty's Royal Government of Bhutan. Some of the areas allotted to individuals for orchard purpose, still have forest growth. However as per Bhutan Forest Act of 1969, the government have reserved the right to the absolute ownership of tree timber and other forest produce on private land also. Extent of such land is not known but is considered insignificant.

Legal status and management

All the forests of the country are notified as government reserved forests which have been defined by Bhutan Forest Act of 1969 as land under forest on which no person has acquired a permanent, heritable and transferable right of use of occupancy. The demarcation of forest started in 1974 and by 1979 an area of 660 000 ha has been surveyed and boundaries demarcated (7). Under the Forest Act forest clearing for shifting cultivation is prohibited. Felling of trees and grazing come under the control of the Forest Department.

Protection of wildlife is an important activity of the Forest Department. Shooting is restricted. Nine wildlife sanctuaries spreading over 356 000 hectares have been constituted.

In 1974 the government declared a National Forest Policy dealing with various aspects of forest conservation, utilisation and management in a comprehensive manner. Two working plans had been formulated in the early sixties, for the present Sarbhang and Samdrup Jongkhar forest divisions which expired in the early seventies without being actually implemented. A dozen of management plans are being prepared since 1975 for small isolated pockets in western Bhutan for a period of 10 years. Some of these areas have prescribed selection-cum-improvement fellings as the silvicultural system with minimum exploitable diameters over bark ranging between 60 to 80 cm. A system using clearcut strips of varying width (30–60 m) running across the contours for about 600 m in fir and mixed coniferous forest of Dochula (covered by Changkaphu management plan) has been introduced. It is known as “corridor” felling/regeneration system. Alignment of the corridors depends on accessibility and convenience for introduction of skyline cranes. After extraction of the logs, the corridors are fenced to prevent grazing and encourage natural regeneration which is difficult. Efforts are being made to regenerate them artificially. It can reasonably be said that some form of forest management is confined to isolated pockets of southern and western Bhutan and that there is no significant area of intensively managed forests in the meaning used in this study (NHCf1m-NSf1m=ε).

Forest utilisation

Log harvesting

The Forest Department regulates exploitation by marking out trees allowed to be felled in specified/demarcated areas. Logs from forests are brought down to the market by road. The road system of Bhutan is connected to the one of India where there is attraotive market for Bhutanese timber; off-road transport in the hills is being carried out by cable cranes. Both gravity and powered skyline cranes are now being tried in the logging centres. At present five long distance and four short distance skyline cranes are working in the districts of Thimphu, Ha, Paro and Bumthang. Rivers are not used for the floating of logs.

The forest industry sector of Bhutan consists of 25 sawmills with a total capacity of 28 000 m³, one match factory (wood intake: 600 m³), 4 veneer plants-one of which also makes teachest plywood (wood intake: 9 000 m³)-and one teachest batten unit. Log supply for the wood based industries are mainly obtained through Bhutan Timber Corporation. All the sawmilling and forest contractors have a share in the Bhutan Timber Corporation.

Statistics of roundwood extraction (except fuelwood) are given below.

The production figures given above do not represent the actual situation as they do not include unrecorded collection of timber. For a population of 231 000 inhabitants over a total area of 796 000 ha (Phase I survey area) timber requirements for house construction and agriculture implements alone have been estimated at 38 000 m³(6).

Other forest products

The major source of domestic energy in the country continues to be fuelwood. Most of it is collected by the villagers from the neighbouring forests and goes unrecorded. Fuelwood is also obtained as a by-product of logging and sawmilling operations. According to a survey carried out by P.I.S., fuelwood consumption is relatively high, particularly in the hilly region (about 3 m³ per capita per annum or a total annual demand of about 4 million m³). A substantial portion however is obtained from non-forestry sources.

One resin and turpentine factory exists in Bhutan supplied by chir pine forests. Distillation of lemon grass is done in another plant.