This chapter deals with planning for the improvement of forest resources in Nepal. It describes problems in the forest resources sector, the government response to address these problems and the current institutional structure to support planned actions.
The traditional forest management planning system in Nepal emphasizes sustained yield of timber and not necessarily sustained forest management. The later system requires recognition of other resource values and uses, public participation, ecologically relevant spatial units of management, integration among the sub-sectors of forestry, and co-ordination with other sectors of the economy. Sustained forest management builds on consultative and participative dynamic planning process among all the stakeholders.
Commercial exploitation of Nepalese forests started in 1924 with export of sal sleepers for railways in India. The forests are still a source of revenue to the country (Appendix, Table 55 ). The revenues have not increased in proportion to the quantity sold by Department of Forests and the Forest Product Development Board (Appendix, Table 56) even when the price index shows a steady increase during this period (Appendix, Table 33).
With more than 80 percent of national area in fragile ecosystems and with low per-capita income, the main concerns of forestry in Nepal are the annual rate of deforestation (1.785 percent per annum), development and implementation of scientific management plans, extension of authority and control over forest resources and the unutilized potential of forest resources.
Nepal’s forests are facing stress because local requirements for timber, fuelwood and fodder are greater than the current production from nearby forest areas. The degree of scarcity varies by location and physiographic zones (Appendix, Table 57). In most localities, the deficit cannot be met from neighbouring forest areas due to lack of economical transportation.
His Majesty's Government of Nepal approved a new National Forest Policy (NFP) in 1989 (FP, 1989) that provides guidelines for legal, institutional, and operational improvements and development of the forestry sector to meet new challenges.
The Policy gives priority to the forest products that can best contribute to the basic needs of the people such as fuelwood for cooking, timber for housing, fodder for domestic animals and medicinal plants for health. It directs that forests near villages should be managed with the people's participation. The Policy suggests that promoting the establishment of permanent users as managers of the forest resource will gradually eliminate current uncontrolled use of the forests. The Policy directs that wood production on farms and commercial plantations, especially in suitable parts of the Terai, should be promoted to enhance wood supply to urban areas within the cash economy.
The Policy provides the macro-level framework for "ecological capability based long term forest planning" to conserve the forests, soil, water, flora, fauna and scenic beauty on a sustainable basis. It requires the preparation of an environmental impact evaluation before implementing any development program. At the local level, the Policy suggests decentralized planning with the active participation of users, communities and all stakeholders, with priority participation given to poorer sections of society.
Systematic forest planning in Nepal started in the early 1960s. Prior to 1956, few landlords owned major areas of forest and they planned and managed their forests in an ad hoc manner, mostly to produce railway sleepers. Nepal nationalized the forests in 1956 for their protection, conservation and sustainable management through enactment of the Forest Nationalization Act, 1957 (later modified to the Forest Act of 1961).
The forest planning strategy in Nepal is a multi-dimensional mix of strategies and is guided by the National Forest Policy. It includes reduction of consumption; increased production; effective harvesting, distribution, and utilization; improved pasture and livestock management; legal and institutional improvements; public education and extension in nature conservation and forestry. In addition, it focuses on decentralization by entrusting protection, management, and utilization of forests to the users and by providing livelihood to poor and landless people in forestry-related activities.
Forestry planning is oriented toward increasing production, generating employment and, ultimately, alleviating poverty to meet urgent social and economic needs of the country. Forest planning is guided by the general direction for economic development. This includes high-priority strategies to reduce the rate of unemployment from about 5 percent to 3 percent and underemployment from 47 percent to 10 percent while maintaining a regional balance between the demand and the supply of labour. The long-term objective of developmental planning is to increase national income by providing more employment opportunities and at the same time ensure the welfare and social security of workers. Nepal is slowly emphasizing the role of the private sector to increase investment in both the production and service sectors.
Forest planning is also attempting to reduce regional imbalance in economic development. Most of the mountainous and high altitude regions, including the Mid-Western and Far-Western development regions are lagging behind in economic development. During the Ninth Five Year Plan, efforts are being made to narrow these regional imbalances by empowering local people, promoting decentralized and participatory development processes and by diverting investment to comparatively backward regions in Nepal.
Regular forest planning in Nepal started with nationalization of the forests in 1957 and the formulation of the first five year plan (1956-1961) that emphasized infrastructure development. The main objective was to increase agricultural production, generate more revenue from forests and to implement resettlement programs. The USAID program provided necessary support to the forestry sector for demarcation of boundaries and development of roads, fire lines and other infrastructure.
Forest planning during second five year plan period (1963-1965) was focussed more on increasing production. Large-scale plantation activity in forested areas started during this time. This plan helped with a survey of natural resources, preparation of forest management plans for selected districts, forest demarcation, construction of fire-lines and forest roads and the promotion of forest-based industries.
During the third five year plan period (1965-70), the watershed was adopted as the boundary for forest planning and development. During this plan, the emphasis in the forestry sector was placed on resettlement in Terai forest areas to reduce population pressure in the Hill region and surveys of forest and land to assess natural resources for planning.
The prime thrust of the Fourth Plan (1970-75) was to mobilize internal resources and embrace the concept of regional development. The forest-related activities during this period included delineation of major agricultural areas, reclamation of land for agriculture, increase in revenue from the forestry sector and surveys for soil and land use.
During the Fifth Plan period (1975-80), forest planning became more strategic both at the micro as well as the macro level with development of a National Forestry Plan (1976), the National Forest Policy Act of 1976, establishment of a Forest Products Development board, reorganization of forestry administration and preparation of working plans. This five year plan introduced the concept of ecological balance and economic development. It also stated land use and water resource development policies and supported women’s participation in forestry and other natural resource development activities.
The Sixth Plan (1980-85) gave emphasis to the theme of “conservation” in the implementation of development programs. The main thrust was on maintaining balance in land use and environment protection. This plan included programs such as population control, soil conservation and watershed management, surveys of endangered flora and fauna species, reduction of over dependence on agriculture, environment impact assessments (EIA) of development projects and a review of environmental management in urban areas.
The Seventh Plan (1985-90) took a major leap by initiating an integrated approach to forest planning though consideration of both development and environmental concerns. Detailed exercises were done in the areas of setting plan objectives and policy goals and the necessary strategies to achieve those objective and policy goals. A Master Plan for the Forestry Sector was developed with the help of the Asian Development Bank and a new National Forest Policy (NFP) was promulgated in 1989. A National Conservation Strategy (NCS) was also finalized during this plan period.
The Eighth Plan (1992-97) gave consideration to the environment and treated it as a separate sector. Formulation of environment acts and rules to effectively implement the environmental strategies and policy goals were the main achievements. The EIA guidelines were officially gazetted. The Nepal Environment Policy and Action Plan (1993) was developed by integrating environment and development concerns in response to Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992.
The Ninth Plan (1997-2001) is currently following the basic conceptual principles, objectives and policy goals that are more or less in line with the previous five year plan, giving continuity to planning and strengthening conservation efforts.
For management purposes, the forests of Nepal are classified as "private" or "national" based on ownership of the land on which the trees are growing. Under the current Forest Act, private forest owners need to register their forests with the Community Forestry Division of the Department of Forests. Until June 1998 only 1,500 ha of private forest had been registered. This figure seems to be low as the Central Statistical Organization reports more than 9,000 ha in private forests.
The national forests are classified into five categories (protection forests, community forests, lease-hold forests, religious forests and government managed forests). The last category (government managed forests) includes those national forests that do not fall under any other category. This category covers more than 90 percent of the forests in the country. The Department of Forests has not classified any forests as protection forests. All types of national forests are required to be managed under a management plan. The Department of Forests (DOF) has responsibility for sustainable management of all forest resources, including government managed forests.
About 7,072 forestry action plans have been developed for managing community forests that have been transferred to forest user groups. About ten percent of the forests fall under this category and about 300,000 ha of forest land has been transferred to 5,316 user groups. Often the transferred forest areas are degraded forests. Most of the community forests are in the Hill Region. The Terai Region has comparatively very few community forests. Table 58 at Appendix provides information on forest types and areas of community forests at the time they were handed over to communities. The area of forest given to each user group is highest in Eastern region (98.7 ha) and lowest in the Western region (44.0 ha). The maximum participation of households in community forestry is in the Western Development Region (Appendix, Table 59). The condition of most of the community forests is reported to be good with adequate regeneration. (Appendix, Table 60)
Progress in management of leasehold forest has been negligible because few forest areas have been given to poor or corporate bodies for their management. However, this program is slowly catching up (Appendix, Table 61).
There is no management plan for the category of the religious forests because the Department of Forests has so far not registered any forests under this category. These are the forests that are being given by the Department to religious groups for their use.
Many management and operational plans have been developed for the category of government forests. However, the Department of Forests has not yet been able to implement any of them. During last decade, forest management strategies in Nepal have become more conservative. For example, the 19 operational forest management plans (OFMP) prepared for 19 Districts to manage 628,301 hectares of government forests allocate about 50 percent of the forests for protection purposes.
The Nepal government pays special attention to management of protected areas through legislation, management plans and special institutions to meet their needs. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) co-ordinates and implements all activities related to wildlife management in national parks, wildlife reserves and conservation areas. The DNPWC is the national centre for two international conventions – the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
Apart from DNPWC various other government departments and non-government organizations, are involved in both in-situ and ex-situ research and conservation of biological resources. Many NGOs are playing an important role in developing better linkage between conservation and community development. Some of the international NGOs in the field of biodiversity conservation, such as the World-wide Fund for Nature and the Mountain Institute, have either opened or are in the process of opening country program offices in Nepal.
Current conservation strategy in Nepal emphasizes on close co-ordination with all the stakeholders and various line agencies and strengthening of local institutions, such as forest users groups, mothers groups, women’s groups and others so that local institutions can assume their responsibilities for conservation and management of local natural resources and wildlife.
The Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC) is the policy-making body for forests and wildlife management. The Ministry has recently restructured (Fig. 30) the forestry organizations by establishing five mutually independent departments to work under its supervision and defined their responsibilities and working areas. Within itself the Ministry has three divisions (Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation and Administration). Two sections (Policy and Coordination and Law) assist the Secretary in policy and legal matters. An officer of the rank of Director General heads each of the five major departments under the ministry. Following provides a brief description of these five major departments.
Fig. 30. Governance and administration of forests
The Department of Forests (DOF) is responsible for the scientific management, demarcation, control and conservation of forest areas outside the protected area network. It conserves and uses forest resources without disturbing the environmental balance by employing a stable approach to management of endangered and economically important wildlife and plants.
The DOF focuses its activities on conservation and utilization of different types of forest. The Community and Private Forestry Division of DOF carries out forest development, management, and utilization work on community and private forests, introduces agro-forestry activities, and identifies seed sources and uses them to improve the quality of trees. The Planning and Training Division of DOF formulates plans and programs for the conservation and promotion of Nepal’s forests and their rational utilization. The Training Section conducts training programs, primarily in-service training in different forest conservation-related activities, while the Extension Section provides information, including research findings and technologies, for the conservation of forest resources. Fog 31 provides the organization lay out for DOF.
Fig. 31. Organization of the Department of Forests
The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) co-ordinates and implements all activities related to wildlife management in national parks, wildlife reserves, and conservation areas. The department has two divisions – the Planning and Conservation Division and the Parks and Reserves’ Division. The Planning Section is mandated to prepare the management plan(s) for the national parks and wildlife reserves and to review them periodically.
The Department is the national point of contact for two international conventions – the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The Department is fully involved in biodiversity conservation within the protected area system, enforcing the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973) and the implementing rules. The government has entrusted this department with implementing biodiversity conservation activities through policy and legal instruments.
This department was established in 1974 as the Department of Soil and Water Conservation to increase awareness of soil conservation. The Department uses watershed boundaries for planning and execution. Its activities include conservation plantations, water source protection and land-use studies support soil and biodiversity conservation in specific areas.
This Department conducts research activities in the areas of afforestation, natural growth rates, silvicultural methods, use of forest resources, agro-forestry technology and tree improvement. Research findings are published. It also carries out forest inventory, analysis of remote sensing information and biomass studies to assess forest resources and identify patterns of change in area and growing stock.
This Department is a research-based institution responsible for carrying out activities related to conservation, promotion, and utilization of plant resources and their scientific and practical study. It also assists in scientific and technical research studies of herbs/medicinal plants and other related activities.
Under the Plant Research Division, various sections are responsible for the collection and classification of plants; development of germplasm collections; conservation and promotion of endangered and threatened plant species and development of arboreta and gardens in order to conserve various species, including orchids, rhododendrons, and other endangered plants. The Plant Breeding and Propagation section develops hybrid species and techniques for reproduction. The Herbs section operates the germplasm centre through commercial cultivation of medicinal plants and their technological development. The Higher Plant section is mandated to publish the “Flora of Nepal”.
Some activities related to forest management have also been entrusted to public corporate bodies. For example, the Timber Corporation of Nepal (TCN) has the sole right to harvest, transport and market government timber. Similarly, the Forest Products Development Board (FPDB) works in plantation areas under different guidelines.
Some bio-diversity conservation activities have been given to NGOs and public corporate bodies. For example, the King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (KMTNC) is non-profit organization that has successfully undertaken projects in the field of nature conservation, biodiversity conservation and sustainable rural development. It carries out various work related to afforestation, soil and water conservation, conservation of national parks and wildlife, public awareness on nature conservation, and scientific research on wildlife and other natural resources.
The National Forest Policy (1989) and the Master Plan for the Forestry Sector (1988) provide a comprehensive framework for planning and management of Nepal’s forests (including protected areas). The National Forest Policy identifies priority actions, provides strategies to implement programs and projects. A number of management plans have been developed based on these guidelines and strategies, but due to institutional constraints, none of them have yet been implemented. The issues are multidimensional and interrelated, and calls for an early holistic approach to translate government policies into management actions.
