There are close to 3 million full-time and part-time fishermen in the ASEAN Region of which about two-thirds or 2 million are full-time (Table 4). Most of these fishermen live along the coast; they use simple traditional gear; in sites far from marketing centers and other social services found in population centers. Most of these communities are in depressed economic states and do not seem to be improving with the passing years. If they have access to population centers, they have become so many that competition in catching a limited resource may have considerably reduced such resource to near state of depletion. In remote areas, the resources may still be abundant but distance from market and lack of infrastructure for easy transport and marketing of available commodities do not contribute to the betterment of fishermen's economic condition.
As previously mentioned there are some developed seafarming industries in the region. Of the total estimated world aquaculture production (FAO, 1983) of 10.2 million mt about 5.6 million mt or 55 percent is produced through mariculture. The ASEAN Region with a production of about 420 000 mt produce about 8 percent of the total world production. These consist of finfish and crustaceans produced in marine cages; and molluscs and seaweeds cultured in open marine waters.
Seafarming has been identified as a possible alternative of declining catch from fishing to replace or augment the fishermen's income. By its method of production from exploitative to reproductive system it can also help conserve and perpetuate valuable resources that may be in the verge of disappearance due to over-exploitation or destructive fishing. The possibilities of the continued existence and revival of these resources through seafarming may be realized.
A recent survey of the different countries in the region reveals the status and diversity of practices in these countries.
Brunei has an area of 5 765 km2 and population of 221 000 (1985) (Table 1) growing at 3.3 percent annually. The climate is tropical, humid and rainy seasonally but is typhoon-free. The country's economy is based on its rich oil resources so that it has a very high GNP US$4.4 billion (1983); per capita income equivalent to $22 150.
Fisheries as part of the national development sector is given high priority but this industry is young and its development is overshadowed by extensive development of the oil resources. Local production fluctuated from year to year from 1 400 to 3 400 mt per year in 1973 to 1985 (Table 6). Fisheries consumption in Brunei fluctuated but in general gradually increased from a low of 2 700 mt in 1976 to 5 600 mt in 1985 including finfish, crustaceans and molluscs. Additional imports of processed fishery commodities (frozen, canned, processed, etc.) of fluctuating amount is also being made each year to complete total consumption needs. These mentioned commodities amounted to about 2 600 mt in 1985 making total fish consumption for that year of 8 200 mt (1985).
Capture fisheries is run by some 2 000 fishermen of which only 500 are full-time while 1 500 are part-time. Gears are simple and traditional and mainly fish in coastal shallow waters and in estuarine and riverine waters. Initial assessment of the fisheries potential of the country (Fisheries Department, Brunei, 1986) gives a total of about 55 000 mt per year for maximum sustainable yield which is distributed as follows: (a) inshore (5 000 mt), (b) offshore demersal (14 000 mt) and (c) off-shore pelagic (36 000 mt). Properly utilized and managed this fishery sector may perhaps be able to provide for present country needs.
There are, however, some difficult constraints which may prevent the attainment of self-sufficiency in fish. The major one is manpower that is trained and adequate to carry out the fish production programme. Under present circumstances the existing fishermen, both full-time and part-time are few and inadequate. It is even predicted that this number may gradually decline in the coming years unless the government conducts positive fisheries programmes that can offer incentives to the fishery sector. The reason for the declining number of fishermen is that their earning power is much lower than those in government jobs or those involved in the oil industry work force. Hence many of those who used to be fishermen as well as their children tend to flock to the urban areas for the desired government or oil company jobs.
Improving the efficiency of the small-scale fishermen may improve his income. But this may require incentive and some know-how and there is limited or no source of training and extension in this sector. The other alternative which can make the fisherman more fully employed as well as improve his income is to engage in aquaculture. For the farmer in inland areas, he can go into fresh-water pond culture. The government has a demonstration and training station for this aspect.
In the case of the small-scale full-time or part-time coastal fisherman, he can go into seafarming. Cage culture of valuable species of marine finfish such as groupers, seabass and snappers which have already established local market can greatly bolster his income. Open water culture of molluscs including mussels and oysters is another possibility. A private commercial venture on mussel which was started only in 1985 has indicated technical feasibility of this aquaculture activity. Other cultivable marine resources such as seaweeds, the blood cockle and others also need to be studied. This will require countrywide surveys to find sources of fish seeds for the cultivable species (grouper, seabass, snapper fry and juveniles/shellfish seeding areas) and more importantly the identification of suitable sites for these various types of aquaculture practice. Government demonstration not only in the grow-out phase but also in the post harvest handling, processing and marketing will also be needed. Specific action programmes or projects for Brunei are described (Section 4.2 and Appendix 6).
In size, Indonesia is the largest country in ASEAN with an area of 1.9 million km2. Besides, it is an archipelagic country composed of 13 000 islands, with an aggregate coastline of 80 000 km. The country's population is estimated to be 161 million (Table 1)
Fisheries production in Indonesia is the largest in the region having attained 2 260 989 mt in 1984. These consist of:
| Production sector | (mt) |
| Marine capture fisheries | 1 712 804 |
| Inland capture fisheries | 548 185 |
| Aquaculture | 278 804 |
| Total | 2 260 989 |
The initial abundance of marine coastal resources which could be utilized by simple gathering or capture has delayed the development of seafarming in Indonesia.
Production from capture fisheries of cultivable marine species in Indonesia, 1984
| Species | Production (mt) |
| 1. Grouper | 9 285 |
| 2. Giant seaperch (seabass) | 12 609 |
| 3. Red snapper | 26 275 |
| 4. Mud crab | 1 894 |
| 5. Food oyster | 1 198 |
| 6. Blood cockles | 48 926 |
| 7. Seaweeds | 9 087 |
| Total | 109 274 |
Source: Fisheries statistics of Indonesia. No. 14, 1984
However, the resources near population centers have now declined to a point where other means of production would be necessary. Also, Indonesia has a very large fishermen population of 1.7 million, most of whom are small-scale coastal fishermen with very depressed economic conditions so that this sector urgently needs help. Due to conflict in the use of coastal fishery resources commercial trawling was banned since 1982. Although this is designed to protect and allow recovery of these resources, it is adversely affecting the livelihood of the coastal fishermen if no alternative source of income is offered. These conditions are stimulating factors at the moment which tend to promote and accelerate the development of seafarming.
The long coastline and wide island shelves serve as potential sites for mariculture development. The climate characterized by absence of typhoons is also favourable for this type of development. In terms of resources or species amenable for culture, Indonesia abounds with suitable finfish, mollusc, crustacean and seaweed species which are cultivable and of high economic value.
The advent of the FAO/UNDP-assisted Seafarming Development Project (INS/81/008) is indeed very welcome at this time. The groundwork previously laid down by consultancies from a regional Project (RAS/74/013) and the preparatory phase of the national project (INS/80/005) and the initial phase of this Project are serving as highly useful basis for a national programme in seafarming.
The Project (INS/81/008) assisted in establishing a National Seafarming Development Center at Tanjungkarang, Lampung province, Sumatra island., Indonesia. This center will assist in establishing three regional seafarming subcenters at: (1) Tanjung Pinang, Riau province; (2) Lombok, West Nusatenggara; and (3) Ambon, Mollucas. Further, it is also planned to establish additional nine pilot seafarms which together with the national center and the regional subcenters will be widely and strategically distributed in selected sites throughout the country. The nine pilot seafarms are proposed to be located at: (1) Tanjung Balai, North Sumatra province; (2) Sibolga, North Sumatra; (3) Tanjung Pinang, Riau; (4) Grajagan, East Java; (5) Lombok, West Nusatenggara; (6) Tablolong, East Nusatenggara; (7) Sangihe, North Sulawesi; (8) Ambon, Moluccas; and (9) Sorong, Irian Jaya. Locations of the national center, regional subcenters, and pilot seafarms are shown (Figure 3).
The assisted national project has identified three major lines of seafarming development namely (1) netcage culture of finfish, (2) culture of molluscs in open marine waters, and (3) culture of seaweeds in open marine waters.
In netcage culture some 17 species belonging to five families have been identified for trial culture. These include species of groupers (Epinephelidae), snappers (Lutjanidae), seabass (Latidae), carangids (Carangidae) and rabbit-fishes (Siganidae). Likewise 12 potential sites covering an estimated area of 2 900 ha where this type of mariculture can be tested have also been identified. The list of potential species and sites are included in Appendix 3.
In mollusc culture in open marine waters, Indonesia also has very high potentials. Here cockles, mussels, food oysters and pearl oysters have been identified with good prospects. The names and approximate hectarages available of prospective sites for the culture of these molluscan resources are detailed in Appendix 4 (Tiensongrusmee, Ponjoprawiro and Soedjarwo, 1986f). The estimated areas for development for the different cultivable molluscs are as follows:
| Kind | Area (ha) |
| Cockle | 19 400 |
| Mussel | 19 700 |
| Food oyster | 7 500 |
| Pearl oyster | 2 200 |
| Total | 48 800 |
The estimate of possible production with full development of the listed sites is difficult to calculate at the present time although previous culture trials in the country showed the following results: for cockle, 5 mt/ha/year; mussel 160–1 150 mt/ha/year;, and food oyster (raft method). 2–5 mt/ha/year.
Indonesia also has very high seafarming potential among the ASEAN countries in the culture of commercial seaweeds especially Eucheuma species (for carageenan) and agarophytes like Gracilaria, Gelidium, etc. At least 43 sites scattered throughout the Indonesian archipelago with estimated total area of over 20 000 ha have been identified as potential seaweed culture sites (Appendix 5).
Malaysia has an area of 330 000 km2, and a population of 15.07 million (1984) with coastline of 3 400 km. It consists of 13 states, 11 in Peninsular Malaysia and two, Sarawak and Sabah, in East Malaysia in the northern part of Borneo island (Table I, Figures 4 and 5).
Fisheries is important with an overall production of about 340 000 mt in 1970 it doubled to over 735 000 mt in 1980 and was over 740 000 mt in 1984. The coastal and marine resources are naturally rich but these gradually declined especially in shallow coastal areas near centers of population particularly in Peninsular Malaysia. Finfish, molluscs, crustaceans and seaweeds compose the major economic resources in the country's coastal waters.
In aquaculture. the culture of freshwater fish in ponds and in abandoned tin mining pools is an established industry while cage culture in freshwater is a recent development. There are some brackishwater fishponds for the culture of saltwater finfish and penaeid shrimps.
In seafarming, certain aspects are well established in the country. An example of this is the culture of the blood cockle, Anadara granosa, along the sandy muddy coastal flats in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Data on production of cultured cockle varied widely from year to year with very low 38 530 mt in 1983 to and all time high of 121 271 mt in 1980
(Table 7). The culture of other molluscs such as mussels, edible oysters and pearl oysters (for pearls) has likewise been initiated but there are no data available on production. Seaweed culture were also started near Penang island in West Malaysia for Gracilaria species and in Sabah in East Malaysia for Eucheuma species. No report of production from these sources has so far been made.
Netcage culture of marine finfish is a recent mariculture innovation in the country but is rapidly expanding. In 1980 the estimated production was 170 mt while in 1983 the production has attained 546 mt. The netcages and corresponding production are mainly located in the states of Johore (344 mt), as also in Perak (163 mt), Kedah (31 mt) and Selangor (8 mt). At present the grouper, seabass (giant seaperch), mangrove and red snapper are the major culture species (Table 8).
The Philippines has a land area of 300 000 km2with population estimated at 54 million. Due to the archipelagic nature of the country (7 000 islands) it has a long coastline estimated at 17 460 km (Table 1. Figure 6).
Fisheries is of major importance to the economy and protein food supply of the country. Fisheries production has been gradually rising from 1.03 million mt in 1970; this rose to 1.6 million mt in 1980 and 1.7 million mt in 1981. The fisheries production during recent five years was as follows:
| Year | Production (mt) |
| 1981 | 1 772 897 |
| 1982 | 1 896 983 |
| 1983 | 2 110 230 |
| 1984 | 2 080 439 |
| 1985 | 2 134 846 |
Aquaculture is highly regarded and has attained high state of development so that it supplies about 24 percent of the fisheries production with capture fisheries (both marine and inland) supplying about 76 percent. Aqua-culture production rose from 96 000 mt in 1970 to 511 000 mt in 1985 or a 430 percent increase in 16 years. Aquaculture, however, is very concentrated to specific types of system since its earlier years of development, i.e. mainly brackishwater pond culture for milkfish and penaeid shrimp.
The production from aquaculture during last five years were as follows:
| Year | Production (mt) |
| 1981 | 339 501 |
| 1982 | 392 348 |
| 1983 | 445 073 |
| 1984 | 447 887 |
| 1985 | 511 181 |
In mariculture the major resources presently under culture are oysters, mussels and seaweeds where there are established industries. The production for these commodities in 1985 were as follows:
| Resource | Production (mt) | |
| Mussels | 19 099 | |
| Oysters | 15 914 | |
| Seaweeds | 167 392 | (sun dried weight) |
| Total | 202 405 | |
It will be noted that there is no netcage culture of finfish practiced in the country except sporadic practice of holding and fattening of some high value species (groupers, seabass, snappers) for hotel trade and export market, but the amount is still negligible. Likewise, the production of oysters and mussels are quite limited although there may be good local as well as export market. Sanitation problem and maintenance of quality for cultured shell-fish has slowed down production of these products. Some attempt to diversify seaweed production by using local edible species like Caulerpa spp has been started but production is still very limited.
The country has a large number of fishermen estimated at about 800 000 many of whom are at the subsistence level of existence. Coastal marine resources which used to abound and were gathered or collected for the market or for home use have become scarce or have totally disappeared. The decline of these resources is further aggravated by destructive exploitation practices using explosives and fish poisons (e.g. cyanide). Seafarming for the generation of additional income and as supplement or alternative to coastal subsistence fishing should be promoted.
At present although there are some established practices in mariculture in the country, the over concentration to seaweed culture and only to certain species of molluscs (oyster and mussel) is not conducive for marketing of the crops. Besides in the case of the molluscs proper sanitary control of the product especially those cultured near population centers has continued as constraint to expansion. Appropriate technology to solve this problem needs to be introduced. Diversification to other seafarming means of production such as cage culture, culture of other molluscan species and culture of edible seaweeds can diversify the industry and augment local food supply.
Singapore has a land area of 616 km2, population of about 2.5 million and a coastline of 140 km (Table 1, Figure 7). Obviously the country has limited space for fish production both from capture as well as culture fisheries. Under this condition it has adopted an aquaculture policy to use species of high market value using high technology and intensive methods of production. Local production is short of the country's requirements so that whatever additional needs of fishery commodities can be supplied from imports from other countries.
The country has achieved well in its aqua-culture programme and particularly in seafarming. In 1985, production from mariculture as reported by the Changi Aquaculture Unit of the Primary Production Department was as follows:
| Kind | Production (mt) | |
| 1. | Netcage culture of grouper, seabass and golden snapper | 340 |
| 2. | Crabs/shrimps in cages | 252 |
| 3. | Off bottom culture of mussels | 618 |
| 1 210 | ||
There are other forms of aquaculture like freshwater cage culture in reservoirs and ponds, shrimp culture in ponds, and mass culture of ornamental fish for export. Recently the government has approved the putting up of land-based installations for aquaculture at two sites along the Strait of Johore. Because of her successful aquaculture operations, the country has ben serving as training area for specific aspects of mariculture (e.g. raft culture of mussels, cage culture of grouper).
Thailand has an area of 542 000 km and a population estimated at about 50 million (Table 1, Figure 8). A detailed estimate of the length of coastline of the 23 coastal provinces shows a total of 2 614.4 km of which 1 874.8 km are along the Gulf of Thailand (east coast) while 739.6 along the Andaman Sea (west coast) (Table 9).
Fisheries production of the country is high and attained a magnitude of over 2 million mt in 1984 (Table 2). Capture fisheries mainly from marine sources compose over 95 percent of the production while aquaculture with over 90 000 mt is about 4 percent of the total in 1984.
Thailand has about 80 000 fishermen, most of whom exist in the subsistence level of existence along coastal communities in the country. Fortunately the coastal areas of the country with total coastline of 2 600 km abound with rich resources of finfish, molluscs, crustaceans and seaweeds. Within recent years, however, especially near centers of population these resources have declined to very low level so that if their exploitation is not managed they could completely disappear in the future.
Certain aspects of aquaculture are well established in Thailand. Freshwater pond culture for carps, catfishes, and giant prawn has estimated production of over 50 000 mt in 1985; while brackishwater pond culture produce about 15 000 mt per year (mainly penaeid shrimps).
In mariculture open water culture of molluscs and netcage culture of finfish are practiced. It is estimated that a production of about 30 000 mt of molluscs (oysters, mussels) and 300 mt of caged finfish are produced annually (Table 4). Seaweed culture is at the initial stage of development.
The government has realized early the need to provide alternative source of income of the subsistence coastal fishermen and has within the last decade initiated externally-assisted pilot progammes to investivate the feasibility of using certain seafarming activities as alternative to fishing. In one pilot site where cage culture of finfish and mollusc culture (mussel, oyster and cockle) were tried it was found that all these activities were technically feasible, but cage culture of finfish came out as the most economically viable activity. Development along this line in other sites in the country is now being pursued.
To support the development of the above-named seafarming activities, the country has also implemented a programme for the production of fish seeds using hatcheries. Thailand has succeeded in hatchery production of seabass (Lates calcarifer) and is now able to mass produce fry of this species for local farmers as well as for export. Studies on the propagation of the grouper are underway.
In the case of mollusc culture, the culture of mussels (green and horse mussel) and oysters has been successful. However, certain valuable clam species like Meretrix lusoria (flame clam) is reported to be fast disappearing due to intense gathering done on this species. Conservation and culture would be necessary to remedy this situation.
Seaweed species of economic value have also significantly declined along coastal areas where these used to be abundant. The culture of Gracilaria seaweed has been initiated through an externally-assisted programme but it is felt that this activity should be expanded to include more species of economic importance (e.g. Eucheuma).
