There are a number of problems and constraints which are obstacles to the growth of seafarming industries in ASEAN. The problem areas involve the following categories:
(a) Technology. — Some specific types of technology are available in some countries in the region, but these may be absent in other areas even where there are resources or sites that are available and suitable for the practice of seafarming. Technologies exist in specific sites within ASEAN for (1) netcage culture of marine finfish, (2) culture of specific type of molluscs (mussels, oysters, cockles), (3) culture of specific types of seaweeds (Eucheuma spp, Caulerpa sp). There is no technology available for the culture and propagation of disappearing species of high value clams, other species of economic seaweeds (Gracilaria, Porphyra, Gelidium, etc.). Technology is particularly very inadequate in the production of seeds for the cultivable species either from the wild or by controlled propagation in hatcheries except perhaps that of the seabass, Lates calcarifer. The existing stocks for cultivation such as for seaweeds have shown signs of deterioration yet technology is not available to revive the vigor of cultured stocks. For the developed technologies there is need to disperse them through extension and training, while for other required technologies, cooperative research effort need to be established.
In the case of netcage culture there is need of developing better sources of feed in order to avoid undue strain in trash fish some of which are actually juveniles of valuable species. Also, some diseases, which needs control, are starting to be encountered in fish reared in cages.
(b) Seed supply. — Propagation under controlled conditions for mass culture of fry has not been achieved for grouper, snappers and carangids that are used in cage culture. Collection from the wild is still the source of stock for these species. In the case of wild sources of fry or even juveniles to be used for culture, there is limited knowledge on the natural occurrence and seasonal abundance of the cultured species. While there are speculations that natural sources of fry can still adequately supply culture needs, there is lack of information on this matter so that extensive fish seed resource surveys will be required to assess the amount of natural fry stocks. Continuing research for the hatchery propagation of cultured marine finfish should be pursued. Likewise the declining quality of seeding stocks of Eucheuma seaweed used in culture should be investigated so that stocks with vigor can be utilized for this industry.
All cultured marine molluscs in the region are derived by seeding from natural waters. The seed gathering process under this system usually gives very variable and uncertain results so that the aquaculturist cannot plan his operation ahead of time. In order to cater to future growth and development of mollusc culture as a stable seafarming industry, hatchery propagation of the cultured species should be conducted, initially with research and subsequently as a commercial undertaking. Technologies developed from countries outside the region can perhaps be adapted in the region to achieve this objective.
(c) Destructive exploitation. — Being usually of high market value, the cultured marine species are among the first coastal species to suffer decline if not depletion. If this decline is caused by legitimate collecting or capture methods and depletion is brought about because the number of fishermen is beyond what the fishery can support then this can be managed through regulation in number of fishermen. But in many instances the decline or depletion is being accelerated through destructive methods of fishing such as the use of nets or gears with very fine meshes, gears that result in destruction of the natural habitat of the resource, and illegal use of explosives and fish poisons. Efficient regulation and management of these harmful ways of exploitation will be necessary.
(d) Market. — Development of seafarming for a specific resource is dictated by the availability of market for said resource. There are many sites which are suitable for the culture of certain resource but such areas may be so remote that the product cannot be marketed with profit. In some cases there are no market facilities for these commodities.
(e) Infrastructure facilities. — Related to market and marketing is the need for infra structure facilities. Absence of roads, marketing centers, boat routes or land transport facilities, iceplants, cold storages and fish landings in areas where these are needed can delay or prevent growth of prospective seafarming industry in a given area or region.
(f) Quality control. — The seafarmed product need to be of such quality that it is in good consummable form. In some cases especially for shellfish sanitary condition of the product is affected by conditions in the culture site. Shellfish from sewage polluted areas are always dangerous to eat for health reasons. Particularly if the products are for foreign markets very strict sanitary quality control will be required as a number of rejections due to inferior quality can easily ruin an export industry. In this instance, local processing facilities including depuration plants for shell fish need to be made available if warranted. Also, the processing of seafarmed crops being new in the market is still not widely known so that investigations along this line can help promote the industry.
(g) Financing /credit. — To increase income of the seafarmer so that his level of existence can be raised above poverty line, he needs some amount of financing through easy term credit. This will enable the seafarmer to improve the technology of his production so that he can produce more for his. effort. Very often such credit are not available to him so that in some cases he has to resort to loans from various sources at high interest rates which will affect his earnings and profits.
(h) Calamities. — Hazards from inclement weather and other calamities can greatly affect the seafarmers. Sometimes with available credit he may be able to put up stronger structures needed for his culture operations. However., ordinarily he uses makeshift installations which can be easily destroyed under extreme conditions of calamity such as typhoons. Good site selection and improved culture structures and techniques may help minimize the effects of calamities. The practice of seafarming can be more favourable in certain areas of ASEAN, a factor which can be considered in case of regional development.
Another disaster which can adversely affect the smooth development of seafarming in the region especially in mollusc culture (mussels, oysters) is the sudden occurrence of red tides in focal areas where molluscs are collected or cultured. This has been attributed to the planktonic dinoflagellate, Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressa which can cause fatal paralytic shellfish poisoning to consumers of shellfish affected by it. This occurrence can cause not only the complete or near complete decimation of shellfish stocks in a given production site but also human deaths and certainly a great scare for consumers of these products. It is also observed that it takes quite sometime even after such event for the marketing of crops from affected areas to return to normal. Over 40 occurrences of red tides have been recorded in the Indo-Pacific Region from 1972–1984 of which at least 20 occurred in ASEAN countries.
(i) Legal base. — The sites for the practice of seafarming are usually looked upon as communal areas that are taken for granted as belonging to the government or to the public. Once a particular site has been pinpointed and selected for development the practitioner or aquaculturist is often in a dilemma as to what office to go to obtain license or permit to enable him to have a legal right to operate without disturbance the practice of aquaculture. Very few governments have any laws, rules or regulations that specify the definite government office which can issue permit or grant right for the practice of certain production acts such as seafarming. Unless this is specified by an statute or law or granted by an order by the proper authority to grant such right there will remain some problems in the legal occupancy and development of sites for seafarming production.
A unique example of the existence of government legal basis for the practice of mariculture is that of Hong Kong which approved the Ordinance for Marine Fish Culture of 1980 and revised in 1983 with implementing Marine Fish Culture Regulations. Through this ordinance and regulations, the procedure for granting sites for seafarming and a zoning map of Hong Kong marine areas have emerged.
In other countries where no laws or administrative orders and regulations are available, no protection for the practice of seafarming exists so that this can be a constraint for development.
(j) Security. — In remote and isolated areas, the possibility of the chances of poaching of the crop exists. Physical presence and secured guarding will be helpful. Peace and order may also pose a problem in certain parts of some countries in ASEAN. In such places even with the presence of suitable resources and sites for the practice of seafarming one can be prevented in the development of the industry. However, such conditions are man-produced and can be temporary in nature; development can proceed as soon as conditions become favourable.
During the recent field survey conducted by this consultant in the participating countries, a number of specific projects and programmes for the development of seafarming as alternative to small-scale coastal fishing have been discussed. The following enumeration attempts to list these projects/activity ideas. Project summaries where required are detailed in Appendix 6.
