by Aida M. Librero
Socio-Economics Research Department
Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development
Los Banos, Laguna, The Philippines
1. INTRODUCTION
The output of cultured aquatic species has continued to increase, especially in Asia. At a level greater than 10 million tonnes, aquaculture production accounts for over 11 percent of the total world harvest of fish and shellfish. The annual growth rate of aquaculture output during the period 1975-80 was over 77, compared with about 2% for the aggregate growth rate for all food producing sectors. Furthermore, output of world aquaculture production is predicted to increase at approximately 5.5% per year between 1985 and 2010.
Realization of this development potential will not take place, however, without considerable capital investment. Private investment will have to be greatly reinforced by financial investment from the rural banks through the traditional mechanisms of credit and grants. Aquaculture development has potential to advance the role of women in rural communities. This paper examines the role and status of women in aquaculture at the present time, and focuses on credit and institutions.
The role which women play in fisheries is less reported at the national level than their role in agriculture, in spite of abundant studies available. This is true in Ghana and the Philippines, for example, where there are as many women as men involved in the fishing industry (FAO, 1986c).
In small-scale aquaculture, women are involved in all stages of fish production, processing, and distribution. Yap (1980a) states that a wife looks after the pond, feeds the fish, and prepares the feeds, but her involvement declines as fishfarm size increases and male labour is usually hired. In the Philippines, however, there are large ponds managed by women and women labour is hired. According to the President of the Philippine Fishfarmers Technical Assistance Foundation, Inc., women are hired because they are more efficient for certain activities.
2. ACTIVITIES IN ASIA
In Bangladesh it is estimated that about 30% of women in rural coastal areas are directly or indirectly engaged in small-scale fishing activities. Among fishing families, all female members are engaged on a part-time or a full-time basis. These activities extend to all aspects and sectors of the industry (Drewes, 1980). Of more recent origin, undertaken to a large extent by women in rural areas, is the farming of freshwater fish.
The government policy in Bangladesh is to employ more women in public institutions and organizations. Ten percent of positions in government agencies are set aside for women; however, this quota hardly gets filled.
There are women's cooperatives in Bangladesh. Their purpose is to enable women to pursue economically profitable activities through group association and discipline, to provide training in productive skills, and to provide mechanisms for disseminating information about health, nutrition, family planning, and literacy. However, it is only among landed families where females are engaged in income-generating activities within the family farm (Westergaard, 1982).
A voluntary agency, the Village Education Resource Center (VERC) , gives women training in budgeting and suggests a savings plan after studying the fisherfolk's status, incomes, and savings. VERC also provides loans to women on a trial basis. About 38 loans of Takas 100-200 have been given to the women for fish marketing, and five loans of Takas 300 to 500 for fish drying. The women repay in small installments whenever they can. The proceeds provide a 'revolving fund' to finance a community hall in the village, and to buy twine or tyre cord to keep women gainfully employed.
In India, in the State of Tamil Nadu, fish drying and curing, and fish marketing are the two main activities in which women are involved in both marine and inland fisheries. In brackishwater aquaculture women are engaged in prawn seed collection from estuaries and backwaters. To a lesser extent women are involved in shrimp processing.
In a few places along the coast of the State of Andhra Pradesh, women are seasonally engaged in collecting molluscs and shells. A number of cooperatives have been established to organize women for handbraiding of fishing nets, supply of twine, etc. These groups are given financial support by the Cooperative Central Bank. Commercial banks also provide loans to women who are engaged in fish marketing. Repayment of such loans has been exceptionally good. In rural coastal areas there is much scope for further development of women in such fields as brackishwater and freshwater aquaculture.
Current activities in Andhra Pradesh vary from fish curing, seed collection for aquaculture, organized fish transportation, and institutional credit to increase women's working capital for fish marketing. Few banks have experimented on small-scale loans to fisherwomen to increase fish marketing or establish petty shops. Initiated in 1976, the Grameen Bank Project has aimed at extending banking facilities to poor men and women. A proposal for pilot fisherwomen extension activities in Andhra Pradesh has been prepared whereby the Department of Fisheries assigns two extension officers to implement the proposed activities, and banks institute new loan procedures to increase repayment rates and to enlarge women's economic base for income-earning activities.
In Malaysia women are involved only in shore-based small-scale fishery activities, the most important of which is the processing of fishery products. Few programmes or organizations in the country deal specifically with improving the role of women in fishing communities. There are several extension programmes which include training courses in improved fish processing and freshwater fish culture directed at women. The Rural Community Development Authority conducts courses in home economics for rural areas which also reach women in fishing communities. The number of women officers in the fisheries administration of Malaysia is very limited. There are only four women officers concerned with research and extension.
In the Philippines employment trends in fisheries are difficult to document because the data are compiled under the general heading of agriculture, fisheries, and forestry. The fishing industry employs approximately 900 000 workers, which is 10% of all agricultural workers and about 5% of the total work force. A majority, about 67%, are engaged in municipal fisheries, 5% in commercial fisheries, 22% in aquaculture and other inland fisheries, and 6% in fish processing. The distribution of employed persons in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting in 1983 was 29.8% female and 70.2% male. Using these proportions, out of the 198 000 workers in aquaculture, about 59 000 workers are women and 139 000 are men.
A nationwide survey of milkfish (the predominant fish cultured in the Philippines) pond operators and caretakers in the Philippines included a systematic random sample of 1 175 respondents (Librero, et. al., 1977). Of the 783 owners interviewed only 7% were females and of the 392 caretakers (caretakers were interviewed if owners were not available) only 1% were female. There was, however, an unequal female distribution among the eleven administration regions. The percentage of female owners ranged from zero to 19%. Indeed, there were female owners managing their own fishponds.
While women may not be the entrepreneurs in fishpond businesses managed by their husbands, they hold the purse and are instrumental in planning and budgeting. Certainly women participate in decision-making, not only in the house but also in the aquaculture business.
During the same year Nicolas et al.,(1976) undertook a socio-economic study of fishpen aquaculture. Out of 193 fishpen operators studied, 6 were women. A survey of mussel farms (Orduña and Librero, 1976) in Nacoor Bay, the biggest producer of mussels in the Philippines, showed that all operators were male. Women, however, do participate in processing and preparing mussels for the market. Similarly the oyster industry is dominated by the male sex. About 96% of the farm operators studied by Librero, et al., (1976) were male while only 4% were female. For tilapia freshwater ponds, 7% are operated by women and 93% by men (Tidon and Librero, 1978).
In the Philippines the rural banks, the Development Bank of the Philippines, the Philippine National Bank, commercial, and other banks, all provide credit for aquaculture regardless of sex of the borrower provided that the borrowers fulfil the requirements of the banks and provide collateral. Special credit programmes have been implemented for fisheries, for example, the Biyayang Dagat programme, but no special projects have yet been designed to encourage women to borrow for aquaculture purposes.
While several organizations in the Philippines have been reorganized as channels of technology and a conduit for credit and other services, few fishfarmers, whether male or female, join such associations. In 1975, a study (Librero, et al., 1977) on milkfish pond operators showed that only 11% were members of fisheries organizations. In 1981, another study (BFAR, 1981) reported that less than 30% of fishfarmers join organizations, and of these only about one-third joined fishfarmers' associations. Among the members almost one-half claimed to have derived no benefits from their organization. However, 22 (out of 134) did benefit by the fry allocation scheme. Seventeen reported that the organization assisted them in the procurement of fertilizers while 25 were given technical information, but few received any credit assistance.
In Thailand about 50% of the female working population live in the rural areas. More than one-half (54.4%) of the rural women workers are agricultural labourers who work for wages or as hired labourers. These women belong to the poorest section of rural society (Chandratat, 1983).
Specific studies on the condition of women in small-scale fishing communities have not been conducted in Thailand. However, it is estimated that in the majority of small fishing villages women are generally involved in all fishery activities rather than at any higher commercial level (Drewes, 1980).
The Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP), convinced that women groups in fishing communities did not receive adequate attention, launched its first action programme for women in fishing communities in Indonesia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam in 1984, with financial and technical assistance from the Government of Japan and FAO. The objectives of the programme are to improve the living and working conditions of rural women and their families in fishing communities and to provide necessary inputs and services to help meet their basic needs. One of the immediate tasks is to assist rural women in establishing their own economically-viable income generating activities.
Of the four country projects, those in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka involve marine fisheries, while that of Vietnam is for aquaculture, specifically shrimp culture. In Vietnam government loans have been previously provided on a long-term basis (3-5 years) and with very low interest, through cooperatives. CIRDAP funds for the credit scheme are being disbursed to women through cooperatives. The Vietnam National Sea Products Export Corporation (SEAPRODEX) implements the action programme. Selected widow beneficiaries are provided with loans and allocated land for shrimp cultivation. By phases, additional beneficiaries can be involved, and local authorities and beneficiaries are active in the programme. Accordingly, the local financial agency has created favourable conditions by providing loans with few procedural complications. A mid-term consultation held in Bangladesh in August 1986 found that the implementing agencies in the respective countries should focus not only on fishery-related activities but should also consider other income-generating schemes.
Since 1981 the Bay of Bengal Programme (BOBP) has operated several pilot projects in which women from fishing communities constitute the target group. Promotional work was started in 1979 by conducting a workshop on Fisherwomen Extension Workers. The main objective of the programme is to improve the social status of women by enabling them to participate in developing and governing their communities. This attends to their interests and gives them opportunities to engage in economic activities. The BOBP's role is to demonstrate new technologies in pilot projects, hoping that results can be applied widely by the governments concerned. For fisherwomen the BOBP adopts three different strategies, one of which is to organize women in groups for different purposes (income generation, acquisition of consumer goods, provision of communal facilities, services, social activities, etc.). The choice for income-generating activities in the village is meagre and the remuneration low, yet the women continue to try to earn some money, and even save from the low incomes.
A BOBP project in Thailand is attempting to improve the living standard in a village through self-help stimulating community development, and the women are increasing their incomes by acquiring skills in handicraft and fish processing. Training courses have been held in handicrafts for younger women, and in processing, e.g., improving quality of shrimp paste, and making fish products such as fish sausages and shrimp biscuits, mainly for older women.
Women from fishing communities in Sri Lanka are improving their living conditions by engaging in economic activities such as coir making, garment manufacture, and handicrafts (Drewes, 1985). Incomes earned through these activities, although lower than those of their husbands, are high enough for the women to start participating in financial decision-making in the family. Only 8% of the women interviewed engaged in fisheries activities such as fish trade, fish handling and processing, net mending and repairing, or backwater fishing. The extent of women's participation in these activities varied according to the economic development of the region, level of technology applied, existing infrastructure, and cultural/religious backgrounds, as well as topographical conditions. In some northwestern coastal villages women engage in fish handling, processing and marketing. In the southwestern villages, however, with their well-developed infrastructure (roads, harbour, ice plants, larger motorized craft) most women, barring a few who are the sole earners in the family, rarely engage in any fishery-related activities. Changes in fisheries technology, such as net-making machines, imported machine-made nets, modern forms of fish handling and marketing, mechanized and motorized transport, have apparently induced withdrawal of women from fishery-related activities.
In three villages in Chittagong, Bangladesh, a BOBP project has undertaken to help traditional fisherwomen supplement their incomes by net-making, pond culture of carp, and animal husbandry. Women are supplied with twine to make nets and earn wages; they receive loans for fish marketing and purchase goats or poultry, and also initiate fishpond culture. The project is executed jointly by the BOBP and the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock with some initial assistance in the logistics of group organization by Ghashul, a voluntary agency. The fishponds are obtained on lease or a nominal rent of Takas 1 500 per year. Women are trained in fish husbandry and pond management. After harvest, costs of culture operations are deducted and net proceeds distributed among the women participants.
3. ACTIVITIES IN AFRICA
In most African countries the production of food has always been a major role played by women. It has been estimated that women perform 30 to 60% of the agricultural labour in Africa.
In addition to other economic activities, such as farming and trading, many women in Africa are engaged in fish-related activities on a seasonal basis (Dey, 1984). Men are responsible for all marine fishing and most inland fish production throughout the continent while women usually smoke, dry, and market the fish. In some countries, for example, in the Côte d'Ivoire, Togo, the United Republic of Cameroon, and Nigeria, fish processing and marketing are dominated by women, while in other countries, e.g. Madagascar, both men and women are involved in smoking and trading fish. Where women are involved in fish processing and marketing they generally work on their own account, keeping their financial affairs separate from their husband's. Sometimes fish for smoking are even purchased from the husband.
In a number of African countries, such as the Central African Republic, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Sierra Leone, Togo, the United Republic of Cameroon, and Zaire, women are traditionally engaged in harvesting fish in small streams, lakes, and swampy areas at the end of the dry season,
Fishfarming is being assimilated in many countries with women mainly involved in harvesting. Women also take part in the construction of ponds and fish feeding. In the Central African Republic, Cote d'Ivoire, and Zaire, some women own and manage fish ponds. Fishfarming is being promoted for women in Africa as it can be combined with other agricultural and domestic activities. Women's role in fish feeding complements their domestic work. Compound and village sweepings (dung and vegetable peelings) can be used for pond composting.
Often land is the required collateral for institutional loans. Non-ownership of land therefore inhibits both men and women from credit and borrowing. In Kenya, for example, few women have land registered in their names. This is in accord with the custom that women do not own land. Only all-male groups have been involved in implementing land reform which has left the positions of widows ill-defined (Palmer, 1985). In Western Kenya patrilineal rules of inheritance, which confine women's access to wealth, have gradually changed and land titles held largely in men's names are now alienable (Staudt, 1985). Nevertheless few women own land. In Nyanza Province women own only 6% of land parcels (Okeyo, 1980). With no control over land women lack collateral for loans.
Existing credit and marketing systems in African countries are generally inadequate in meeting rural women's needs (Bey, 1984). Due to institutional regulations they are often unable to receive credit in their own names, Moreover, as they have few assets they cannot provide the collateral required by lending institutions. Coupled with lack of financial resources this restricts women's adoption of improved technologies for food handling.
Some examples of international efforts to design institutional credit schemes to facilitate greater access to credit by rural women in Africa are the United Nations Voluntary Fund for Women (which considers applications for revolving funds for women's groups); the Women's World Banking, which has developed a fund to be used to secure bank loans to local groups; and the African Regional Credit Association (AFRACA) which is cooperating with FAO to develop and implement a series of sub-regional projects for women's agricultural credit and banking.
African women traditionally have considerable decision-making and managerial power in food production, processing, storage and marketing. Likewise, in many African countries, women have traditional social organizations which are separate from the men's and regularly consulted by the village elders. However, most development associations, such as cooperatives or irrigation committees, rarely permit women to register as members unless they are household heads (Dey, 1984).
4. ACTIVITIES IN OCEANIA
Women's involvement: within the Pacific Region more often than not is in the capacity of consumer rather than producer, A number of barriers limit women's involvement in production in the cash economy The underlying problem lies in the sexual division of labour in which females perform mainly non-productive labour in the home and males perform largely productive labour outside the home.
Concerning the availability of credit as an adjunct to income-raising activities by women in the South Pacific, Cole (1985) summarized bank activities with reference to lending to women clients. The Development Finance Institutions (DFIs) in the South Pacific offer a wide range of credit opportunities for commercial, industrial and agricultural purposes. For example, the Development Bank of Western Samoa (DBWS) has no specific policy of encouraging women clients, but the board welcomes staff involvement in projects geared to women's participation. A staff of 90 include 30 women among whom are a senior security officer, a senior accountant, and 9 loan officers. Eight percent of all industrial and 10% of all agricultural loans are for women. For fishing, only one woman made use of credit in 1980, 2 each in 1981 and 1982, and another one in 1983. In loan preparation and understanding of obligations men and women do not differ greatly, but women are more responsible in their attitude to repayments and in cooperation with bank staff.
The Development Bank of Solomon Islands (DBSI) has no policy of discrimination between sexes in lending and no special effort to encourage women to borrow. One-fourth of the staff are women, including one loan officer and one securities officer. Fishing/rural transport (combined in the classification) had 3 women customers in 1980, 4 in 1981, 3 in 1982, and 5 in 1983. Women appreciate obligations better than men. Those who seek loans are Chose who have been employed either in the government or the private sector.
The Papua New Guinea Development Bank (PNGDB) does not discriminate against or in favour of women lending. The criterion for loan approval is the likelihood of success rather than sex. The National Development Bank of Palau (NDBP) commenced operations only recently and so far has not provided loans for aquaculture. Of the three staff members, two are women. The Business Development Advisory Bureau in Tuvalu (BUDAB) has no discrimination on male or female loan applicants. Of the two staff members, one is a woman. One loan has been made to a woman for a fishing venture. Women are keen to use credit from the bank to develop joint ventures and single proprietorship operations, but lack management and financial skills. The Tonga Development Bank (TDB) has one third of the staff female. One is a Finance Manager and another a Chief Clerk Administrator. No special policies favour women clients. Women concentrate on domestic activities better, and are involved in trade stores, sewing, hotel operations, handicrafts, and restaurants. The Niue Development Finance Fund states that women are treated no differently from men. The three female borrowers are involved in garment making, agriculture, and manufacturing. The National Loans Board, Kiribati, states that commercial Loans are provided regardless of sex; however, no women have applied for loans.
The Fiji Development Bank (FDB) has no discrimination against or in favour of women. In Fiji, a Women's Interest Office has been established to cater to particular problems of women in relation to training in rural areas. The activities of the office, however, have concentrated on home economics and handicrafts. The Fiji Development Bank established a commercial and industrial loan scheme specifically directed towards encouraging indigenous Fijians in commercial and industrial activities. However, while loans have been provided to women (110 or 5%, out of 2 167 borrowers involving an amount of F.$ 700 000 or 4% of F.$ 16 151 000), none was for aquaculture.
5. SUMMARY
Published information on the role of women in aquaculture is limited. The literature available often presents women in general in rural areas or in fisheries without qualification.
The role of women in aquaculture has to be publicized more before they will be accepted and involved in credit and in institutions. Farm credit is usually provided in cash and has to be repaid in cash, hence the extent to which women are involved in the cash economy both in terms of earning and spending has to be better understood.
The extent of women's participation in aquaculture (or other sectors) depends on a number of macro- and micro-level factors, such as price policies, availability of credit for different enterprises, and the stage of the family cycle including the ages and needs of children. However, the main factors appear to be cultural patterns for the male/female division of labour; socio-economic status; competing demands on women's time and hence their opportunity costs; and the amount of land and other productive resources available.
Few institutions cater specifically to the financial needs of women. One, Women's World Banking (WWB), serves as a financial intermediary between local community organizations and lending institutions. It primarily utilizes local leadership and provides management training. WWB has 30 affiliates in 27 countries; 27 affiliates in formation and regional operations in Latin America, the Caribbean, Eastern and Southern Africa, and West Africa. Over 2,729 guaranteed commercial bank loans have been granted with over 10,000 additional loans extended by WWB affiliates. No defaults have been reported to date. A record like this will unquestionably attract other rural development banks to increase the availability of credit for women to invest in the aquaculture sector.
Although WWB has not yet granted loans for aquaculture projects, it is interested in receiving requests from fish farmers. It can provide training in the development of business plans and credit management as necessary.
