WOMEN IN THE AQUACULTURE PROFESSIONS (C. Brown)

by Carol M. Brown
47 Bulkley, Suite 10
Sausalito, CA 94965, U.S.A.

The evolution of aquaculture from subsistence production levels into a viable food production industry in many parts of the world has generated demand for a host of new professional specialties. The relatively recent appearance of aquaculture in many countries has precluded a legacy of professional involvement. Few, if any, established biases regarding participation of women at the professional level have developed.

For the purposes of this paper, the term "professional" has been defined as "college-trained" and having a career interest in aquaculture. The paper presents data on women receiving graduate degrees in aquaculture, women's participation in aquacultural research, women occupying administrative positions in aquaculture, women's involvement in supportive programmes, and opportunities and constraints for women in the aquaculture professions.

Statistics are very sparse. In the few instances where they have been collected they are most commonly aggregated into the fisheries sector as a whole. The data presented in this paper are intended to illustrate and emphasize rather than to provide a comprehensive quantification of women in aquaculture at the professional level.

1. EDUCATION AND QUALIFICATIONS

It is difficult to attain professional positions in the aquaculture industry without education, training, and advanced degrees. In countries where there is both an established commercial industry and a supportive educational programme there is considerable competition for positions in aquaculture. A Bachelor's degree is considered minimal for jobs in commercial production, and an advanced degree is frequently required for positions in research, education, or extension management.

Graduate level training is evident throughout the industry. For example, of the 641 women members of the American Fisheries Society (or 9% of the total membership), 36% have a Bachelor's degree, 53% a Master's degree, and 10% have a Ph.D. (A.F.S. 1982). An estimated 20% of the individuals engaged in commercial aquaculture production in Hawaii have Ph.Ds.

Since the founding of the Institute Pertanian Bogor in West Java, Indonesia, in 1964, 856 fisheries graduates have included 197 women (23%). Of the 405 students currently enrolled at the University of Hasanuddin in South Sulawesi, 117 (29%) are women. Almost half of the current enrollment of 86 students at the University of Pattimura in Moluccas is comprised of women.

The College of Fisheries of the University of the Philippines has awarded Diplomas in fisheries since 1948. Since then, 66 (38%) of students receiving diplomas, 238 (60%) of those receiving B.S. degrees, and 11 (50%) of those receiving M.S. degrees in fisheries, have been women. At Bicol University in 1982, 109 (57%) of the recipients of Diplomas and 119 (60%) of the B.S. degree recipients in the College of Fisheries were women.

The Departamento de Ciencias Marinas of the University of Puerto Rico, Recinto Mayaguez, has awarded five M.S. degrees to women and currently has four women enrolled in the programme. All but two of these women are Puerto Rican.

The University of Stirling in Scotland has awarded 31 degrees to women in aquaculture and related fields since 1975. Of these, ten were at the Ph.D. level and seventeen at the Master's level.

A number of universities in the United States of America now offer educational qualifications in aquaculture: (a) Auburn University offers B.S., M.S., M.Aq., and Ph.D. degrees in Fisheries and Allied Aquaculture. Since 1969, 735 Master's degrees have been awarded in aquaculture. Of these, 35 (5%) have been awarded to women. The number of degrees awarded to women has increased significantly over the life of the programme. More importantly, this increase has occurred despite a more or less constant number of students in the programme. During the summer of 1986, for example, 12 women (11% of all students) were working towards degrees in aquaculture: (b) Michigan State University reports two undergraduate students specializing in aquaculture and one in the Ph.D. programme. During the past six years seven women have enrolled in an elective course in fish culture: (c) Oklahoma State University has had one woman seeking a B.S. degree in fish culture, and Louisiana State University has graduated three women at the M.S. level: (d) Texas A & M University has graduated 12 women at the B.S. level in aquaculture including one Honduran and one Mexican. There have been 5 graduates at each of the Master's and Ph.D. levels. The former includes students from Panama, the Philippines and Puerto Rico. One student from Sri Lanka received a Ph.D; and (e) The University of Rhode Island has four foreign female students in aquaculture-related programmes, including two from Ecuador, one from Costa Rica, and a Peace Corps worker in the Philippines.

2. PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES

In Egypt the General Authority for Fisheries Resources Development (GAFRD) operates a National Aquaculture Centre at El Abassa, in addition to regional aquaculture centres. Of a staff of 60, 15 (25%) are women. Of these, 5 women of 25 staff are located at the National Aquaculture Centre. These include 1 biologist (M.S.), 3 agricultural engineers, and 1 general technician.

Three of the educational institutions specializing in fisheries in Indonesia employ a combined total of 34 women, out of a total of 176 staff. Half of these (17) are employed at the Institute Pertanian Bogor in West Java. Women at these institutions are working in the areas of aquaculture, fisheries management, soil fertility, economics, genetics, marine oceanography, nutrition, and environmental science. In the Directorate General of Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture, the following positions are held by women: Subdivision Head for National Fisheries Extension, Director of Freshwater Research Station in Jakarta, Director of Carp Hatchery in Sumatra, Division Chief of Brackishwater Aquaculture at the national level. At the Agency for Agricultural Research and Development, women hold the following directorships: Freshwater Fisheries Research Sub-Institute, Lowland Fisheries Research Institute, Division of Fish Nutrition, Freshwater Fisheries Research Institute, Subdivision of Marine Fish Research.

In Norway women participate on a variety of professional levels in the aquaculture industry. Approximately 38% of private sector personnel working in aquacultural research and administration are women. In the public sector, 3 of 4 senior executive officers in the Division of Aquaculture within the Ministry of Fisheries are women.

In the Philippines a major problem in research and development is the lack of well-trained leaders, particularly at the Ph.D. level. The problem is exacerbated by low pay scales at universities and government compared with high-paying consultancies both at home and abroad. Although research funding and grants have become more available, all too frequently the work is performed in absentia. The grants tend to be small and widely distributed resulting in incomplete conclusions and minimal collection of data and reporting of results.

In the Philippines 43% of all researchers in aquaculture and all of the researchers in fish processing are women (Table 1). The involvement of women decreases, however, at higher educational levels. At the College of Fisheries of the University of the Philippines, 24 of 46 staff are women. One half of the SEAFDEC research staff are women.

More top government positions in aquaculture in the Philippines are held by men than by women (Table 2). At the level of Section Chief and Regional Directorships women are hired in equal numbers as men. The Planning and Programming Division of the Bureau of Fisheries is led by a woman and all sections of the Fish Propagation and Fish Processing Divisions are headed by women.

Table 1. Women graduates in aquaculture research and fish processing, Philippines (excluding SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department)

	Aquaculture			Fish Processing
	Total	Women		Total	Women
	No.	No.	%	No.	No.	%
Ph.D.	4	1	25	-	-	-
M.A./M.S.	26	8	31	3	3	100
B.S.	44	22	50	4	4	100
Diploma	5	3	60	-	-	-
Total	79	34	43	7	7	100

Source: Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) contributed by Aida Librero, Director

Table 2. Women officials of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Philippines

Level	Total	Female
	No.	No.	%
Director and Assistant Director	2	-	-
Division Chief	15	3	20
Section Chief	58	29	50
Regional Director and Assistant Director	24	11	46
Total	99	43	43

Contributed by: Aida Librero, PCARRD

On a higher and more technical level of aquaculture there is relatively greater participation by women. A workshop on aquaculture technology conducted by the University of the Philippines in the Visayas in 1986 had 11 women out of a total of 38 participants. A seminar workshop on research directions and methodologies had more women (21) than men (19). A national workshop on tilapia economics in 1983 had a participation of 43 researchers, 18 of whom were female.

At the international level the female participation rate is lower compared with that in the Philippines. A workshop on aquaculture economics in Asia sponsored by the International Development Research Centre in 1981 had 30 participants with 27 men and 3 women.

The Fisheries Research Society of the Philippines has 119 members, 32 (27%) of whom are female. Of this total, 41 are in aquaculture, 7 (17%) being female.

During the construction of fish farm projects it is not uncommon to have women civil engineers acting as construction supervisors - as is the case in the construction of the hatchery and nursery complex of the Laguna Lake Development Authority where three of six inspectors are women. Filipina women are also active as engineering and technical consultants, either members of consulting firms, research agencies (such as SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department), or faculties of local universities, A roster of the FAO/Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council (1986) includes 32 women among a total of 123 Filipino inland fisheries and aquaculture specialists in the region.

In Scotland, records of the University of Stirling indicate that 4 of their graduates are working towards more advanced degrees; 9 are employed in research and education, 7 in fish production, and 6 hold government positions at professional levels.

In the United States of America, a survey of women members of the American Fisheries Society indicated that of the 350 women members employed, 41% are engaged principally in research. Only 8% are engaged in fish culture which is not specifically research oriented (American Fisheries Society, 1982).

Over 60% of women graduates from the Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures Department of Auburn University are involved to some degree in research (Table 3). Participation in commercial production (36%), teaching (30%), extension (30%), administration (30%), and consulting (24%), was lower. Of the responses indicating perceived areas of opportunities for women, 80% were in research.

In Hawaii, where there is a significant public as well as private employment base in aquaculture, women hold approximately 11% of the 240 professional positions. It is estimated that they hold 12% of the positions in commercial production, education and research, and approximately 9% in consulting. Almost 30% of the individuals seeking advice from the State on employment are women.

Table 3. Professional employment and perceived opportunities for women graduates in aquaculture by area of employment

Area of Employment	Women Currently Employed* %	Perceived Area of Opportunity for Women** %
Commercial Production	36	60
Research	64	80
Extension	30	56
Administration	30	69
Teaching Consulting	36 24

Source: Maynard and Molnar, 1985, based on the responses of 33 fisheries/ aquaculture graduates of Auburn University employed and responding to the survey.

* Reflects both total and partial involvement
** Indicates positive responses to perceived employment opportunities

3. SUPPORTIVE PROGRAMMES

Within the past few years there has been a demonstrable recognition of the contribution women can make to the economy and directly in the production of food. Women throughout the world are actively participating in establishing policies and forming and administering aquaculture programmes. Women hold positions of influence and policy-making within such international agencies as the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC), and FAO. All of the major international organizations and many universities have established divisions specifically focused upon encouraging the participation of women, although rarely is aquaculture a specific target of these programmes.

FAO has established an office for Women in Food Systems. Although to date no projects in aquaculture have been initiated through this office, considerable interest, especially in West Africa, has been indicated. An FAO fish culture project in the Côte d'Ivoire employs 3 women professionals as part of its 11-member staff, and an FAO project in the Congo has a woman as national director.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) now requires inclusion of a subsection addressing women in every project preparation report. This is consistent with the recommendations submitted to the ADB by an independent consultant (Hourihan, 1986). The emphasis in such analyses is primarily focused upon the impacts on women labourers; however, education, training and opportunities for placement of women in instructional and research positions are not overlooked.

The ADB has funded a training and extension programme in aquaculture in Indonesia as part of a US$ 50 million loan package for shrimp aquaculture. A total of 200 extension agents will be hired and trained for the programme. Of these, 25 will receive 6 months foreign training. There were 40 applicants for the foreign training programme. Of the 24 accepted, 4 were women. Two of these declined, apparently due to social pressures. In order to be considered for this training programme a B.S. degree was required. Tests were given in English comprehension, loyalty, and technical competency. Of the total applicants one woman ranked in the top 5 and another in the top 15. Each trainee has a contractual commitment for 5 years at the senior technician level. Strong support for this programme has come from the Indonesian Government.

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) established an office of Women in Development in 1974 in recognition of the valuable role women play in the economic and social fabric of developing nations. Through this office, there is a focus for support in education and training of women as well as a watchdog effort to ensure that the impact and opportunities are responsibly addressed in all USAID-sponsored projects. One of the areas of emphasis of this programme has been increasing employment for women in the private sector through the co-funding of a worldwide banking/loan guarantee programme. The goal of this programme is to increase the role of women entrepreneurs in the private sector. The availability of this type of funding should be of interest to women seeking professional opportunities i-n the aquaculture field. The Rwanda Fish Culture Project supported by USAID has a woman project leader and 4 women, including 2 nationals, involved in aquaculture development.

4. OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS

Several large-scale aquaculture development programmes are being prepared and implemented which could afford excellent opportunities for specialized training and job opportunities in a variety of professional areas. For example, the Bangladesh Second Aquaculture Development Project will focus on the construction and operation of shrimp hatcheries as well as inland aquaculture development. The project has recommended training women in the care and maintenance of both fish and shrimp in hatcheries. This programme calls for training 22 individuals at M.S. and Ph.D. levels as well as practical training in fish and shrimp culture, aquaculture engineering, fisheries management, and shrimp hatchery operation.

Professional positions in aquaculture are increasing, but still remain few compared with job opportunities in traditional agriculture, fisheries, and animal husbandry. Aquaculture, because it combines some elements of each of these sectors, frequently becomes a step-child of an existing agency or department. This creates a tendency to transfer established biases on the roles of males and females which do not reflect the professional responsibilities of the aquaculture industry. This is especially true at the senior professional level where a new activity such as aquaculture is viewed as an opportunity to promote valued staff members through the creation of new positions. All too frequently these positions are filled on the basis of tenure rather than merit. Women with advanced or specialized training in aquaculture often are unable to compete for jobs with individuals who are tenured in more traditional disciplines.

Hatchery management is one area where women are making significant inroads. In Ecuador several women manage hatcheries for the production of marine shrimp seed. There appears to be a trend to select women in preference to men for many hatchery positions.

Farm ownership and management by women is increasing in many parts of the world. However, land ownership and investment financing continue to pose difficult problems for women.

In some countries, a surplus of trained professionals exists. In the Philippines a government survey concluded that among the graduates of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries programmes, the largest proportion of delayed employment was in the fisheries sector where approximately two-thirds of the graduates had to wait an average of 2.5 years before becoming employed. Among those who did not get immediate employment 44% were unemployed for 3 or more years. Although this does not specifically reflect surpluses of trained professionals in aquaculture, it is estimated that 22% of the 900 000 individuals employed in the fisheries sector are engaged in aquaculture and other inland fisheries activities (Schmittou et al., 1985).

One of the serious problems cited in obtaining jobs, especially in countries where there is a tradition of aquaculture production, is that graduates in fish culture have not been actively sought by the private sector. Their expertise is frequently viewed as inferior to the hands-on practical knowledge of farm owners and operators. This same stigma is often carried over to extension workers and erodes their credibility.

Educational programmes frequently have not kept pace with the needs of the industry. Those completing training courses and those with post-graduate training have fared far better in the job market. They are better able to contribute to the advancement of aquaculture technology and thereby win the confidence of the private sector. However, highly trained individuals tend to be promoted into administrative positions.

Not only has the industry occasionally outpaced the educational system, the social evolution in many countries is lagging. Although aquaculture appears to be an extremely suitable profession for women, positions often require travel and field situations which may not be considered socially acceptable for women. In Pakistan, for example, one woman with equal training to her male counterparts is reportedly unable to travel into the field due to social constraints; she is assigned to office duties which are largely secretarial.

Many aquaculture professionals are responsible for one or more subordinates. The Auburn University survey revealed that 69% of the female aquaculture/fisheries graduates supervised an average of 5 others. It is difficult in most societies for a man to accept fully a woman superior.

Women often feel a need to out-perform their male counterparts and particularly to avoid showing any weakness to their subordinates. All too frequently outstanding performance is the only way in which women will be selected in preference to a male candidate for a professional position.

The Auburn alumnae survey revealed that the majority of respondents did not feel that being a woman resulted in discrimination in terms of pay, promotion, or responsibilities (Table 4). Many (45%) women, however, were not considered for a position because of their sex, and others (36%) did not have their work taken seriously.

Table 4. Auburn University fisheries women alumnae affected by job discrimination

Type of Discrimination	Percent of Women Affected
Paid less for equal work	24
Passed over for promotions	33
Excluded from professional organizations	18
Not considered for a position	45
Denied responsibility	33
Work not taken seriously	36
Given unusual advantages	30
Isolated from professional contacts	21
Refused a job	18
Subject to lower expectations	33

Source: Maynard and Molnar, 1985

Recent interviews with 17 women in the United States who selected aquaculture as a career revealed that the majority believed aquaculture will remain a male-dominated profession. Increased employment of women was foreseen, particularly in research. Brief mention was made of instances of insufficient physical strength for tasks. However, the respondents unanimously indicated that the single most important disadvantage of being a women in the aquaculture profession is the perception on the part of male colleagues of the inability of women to perform the duties required of their job. Once a woman has demonstrated her competence, the problems encountered are not gender related (Rosenbury, 1983).

5. CONCLUSIONS

There is a need to recognize the special expertise required in aquaculture. In most instances this will lead to the realization that women are at a parity with men in terms of their ability to contribute professionally; women should therefore enjoy equal opportunities in education, training, and employment. Aquaculture professional opportunities are more technically and less physically demanding than most professional opportunities in fisheries or agriculture.

At all levels it is necessary to create an enabling environment through education and policies which encourage the training and placement of women in positions in which their social background and orientation can be most effective. In particular these include the management and operation of hatcheries, extension, teaching, and research. However, segregating the roles and opportunities for women should be avoided. Professional employment opportunities should be identified within the context of the needs of the industry not merely as opportunities to enhance employment and participation of women.

Aquaculture is a comparatively new industry in most of the developing world and as such has few social or political biases. It is important to maintain a distinction between aquaculture and agriculture to avoid the transference of traditional stereotypes.

Women clearly are making valuable contributions in the aquaculture industry. Given the increasing number of women receiving advanced degrees in aquaculture, the number of women in the aquaculture professions will undoubtedly continue i-.o grow.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The assembly of this data has relied a great deal on personal communications from many individuals. I would particularly like to acknowledge Aida Librero and Medina Delmendo for the statistics of the Philippines; to Diana Putnam for Indonesia; to Lillian Andreassen for Norway; to James Muir for Scotland; to Richard Fasler for Hawaii, U.S.A.; and to many others. Their contributions are greatly appreciated.