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Author: Zonn I.S.
Title: Sistïemodïeïatïel'nostnaïa kontsïeptsiïa ponïatiïa antropogïennogo opustynivaniïa (A systematic approach to the concept of desertification caused by human action)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 6, pp. 13-18, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1978 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 1A, 1B |
| Region: | - |
| Summary: | At the present time, there
are several dozen definitions of desertification
formulated in the extensive specialized literature on the
subject. The term was introduced in 1949 by A.
Aubréville, a French geobotanist working in West Africa. Aubréville's definition, however, is neither precise nor comprehensive; he defines desertification as the transformation of arable land into desert, caused by soil erosion connected to human activity. Some researchers working on the problems of desertification see it as a process of change, others as the result of change. The process of change is a progressive intensification of biological changes in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. By contrast, desertification as the result of change means the appearance of desert features where they did not previously exist. The author introduces the concept of system. It consists of: process - P; functional structure containing the elements and the relations among the elements - S; morphology or form of organizing the material - F; material of the system - M. This is expressed as a product: System = P*S*F*M. The system is formed by two perpendicular planes: 1st plane - biological environment, that is, arid and semi-arid regions; 2nd plane - human organization and activity (agriculture, animal production, industrialization). Man in contact with nature creates an anthro-biological system, or, more precisely, a functional-biological system. The functional-biological system is presented as two-dimensional and the biological system resulting from human activity as three dimensional. Desertification is studied as a complex process composed of diverse elements which may lose their quantitative and qualificative value during this process. The process can be expressed by the following formula: O1(t) = <x*y*z> where x = climate, y = soil, z = vegetation cover, t = time. Desertification is reached when a critical threshold value of a parameter is reached, according to the formula: O1(t0) = <xo*yo*zo>. Desertification is the process by which the above values of the parameters are exceeded by their critical threshold values: O1(t) (r) O1(t0) |
Definition: Desertification is a complex process which can be expressed by the following formula: O (t) = < x*y*z* > where x = climate, y = soil, z = vegetation cover, t = time, and the parameters x, y, and z reach their critical threshold values.
Authors: Zonn I.S., Orlovskiï H.S.
Title: Opustynivaniïe. Stratïegiïa bor'by. (Desertification. Combat Strategy)
Publisher: Akadïemiïa Naouk Turkmïenskoï SSR (Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan), Ylym, Ashkhabad, 320 pp.
| Date: 1984 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow |
| Classification: | 1A, 1D, 2-5 |
| Region: | Global (with the exception of the Soviet Union!) |
| Summary: | This document is a long monograph on world-wide Desertification (except in the Soviet Union); results of research by international organizations (UNESCO, FAO, UNEP) are often quoted, particularly materials from the Conference on Desertification in Nairobi in 1977. Numerous definitions of Desertification (p. 25) are cited; according to the authors the best is that of Rozanov (see below, cf. bibl. entry 52). The text shows the global distribution of arid and semi-arid lands according to different authors (in particular, the map of drylands of the world, UNESCO, 1977), as well as natural and human factors in Desertification (pp. 35-60), with a discussion of different hypotheses of climatic cycles (from a few years to the geological scale). The role of droughts is stressed in desertification. But "very often the human factor plays the main role" (p. 46). A short description of human factors is provided. There is a long account (pp. 61-175) of regional desertification: causes, consequences, intensity, possible combat against (in Africa, Asia except the USSR, North America, South America, and Australia). Recommendations and commentaries from the Nairobi Conference of 1977 are included. Technology for combating Desertification is discussed, including various projects for "green barriers," which the authors favour). The last chapter (pp. 269-291) covers actions and international organizations engaged in combating Desertification (only UN programmes are included). |
Note: Bibliography - 257 publications in English, French and Russian.
Definition: (Rozanov, bibl. entry 52) Desertification is a natural or human-induced process of irreversible change in the soil and vegetation of drylands towards aridification and a decrease in biological productivity. In extreme cases this process leads to the total disintegration of the biological potential and the transformation of the area into desert.
Annex 3: Bibliographic entries for other documents (61 to 147)
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Author: Akadïemïa Naouk Kazakhskoï SSR (Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan)
Title: Okhrana pochv i ratsional'noïe ispol'zovaniïe zïemïel'nykh rïesursov Kazakhstana (Soil protection and the rational exploitation of the resources of Kazakhstan)
Publisher: Naouka, Alma Ata, 184 pp.
| Date: 1976 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 2A1, 2B2b, 4A1, 5D2a |
| Region: | Kazakhstan |
| Summary: | A collection of 18 articles
prepared by pedologists of Kazakhstan for the Congress of
Soviet Pedologists which took place in Minsk. The majority of the texts discuss the geochemistry of various types of soil. Two of the texts are soil studies prepared for the needs of the planned canal for transporting water from Siberian rivers. Two other documents deal with the problem of wind erosion in Kazakhstan (pp. 4-18 and 26-36). Wind erosion threatens 52.5 million ha of territory in Kazakhstan, while riverbed erosion affects 17.7 million ha. The chart on page 12 shows the lands threatened by erosion. This work by the Academy also contains charts indicating the extent of deflation on experimental fields and the loss in humus (a comparison is made between arable lands and the steppe). In the case of soil where erosion is moderate, there is a reduction in humus at the level of 0-5 cm. This work also contains information on the loss of different elements in the soil due to erosion, on dust storms which have affected this region since the 1960's, and some information on agriculture. |
Author: Akramov Z.M.
Title: Okhrana prirody i uluchshïeniïe okruzhaiushchïeï srïedy (Protecting nature and improving the environment
Publisher: Fan (Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan), Tashkent, 136 pp.
| Date: 1975 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 2A2, 2A4, 2B2e, 4A3 |
| Region: | Central Asia - Uzbekistan |
| Summary: | This collection of 18
articles is principally concerned with cartography
(methods of preparing maps of the natural environment)
and physical geography; the problem of desertification
remains secondary. There are articles on soil salinization and on water economy (pp. 35-45). Currently, irrigation systems in Central Asia cover 5.5 million ha. The area of land suitable for irrigation is 35 million ha, while water reserves are sufficient for irrigating 12 million ha. The drying of the Aral Sea has caused a reduction in the fish catch from 50,000 tonnes in 1960 to 12,000 tonnes in 1970. Included is a commentary on the financial capacity for transporting water from Siberian rivers (1 km3 of water = 1 billion roubles). The author points out that knowledge of physico-geographical conditions is necessary to efficiently combat salinization. In southern Uzbekistan, the destruction of mountain forests due to the overexploitation of wood for fuel increases the danger of land and mud slides. |
Author: Alïeksïeïeva N.N.
Title: Prirodnyïe prïedposylki i faktory opustynivaniïa na sïevïero-zapadïe Indii (Natural preconditions and factors of desertification in northwestern India)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 1, pp. 35-42, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1986 | Language: Russian (summary in English) |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 2B1, 2C, 2D |
| Region: | South Asia (arid and semi-arid lands of India) |
| Summary: | Rozanov and Zonn's
definition of desertification (cf. B.G. Rozanov, bibl.
entry 52) is adopted. In the process of desertification
there is the simultaneous action of two factors:
irrational human activity and climatic aridity,
punctuated with droughts (p. 35). The author presents the
evolution of the climate and wind relief in the areas
studied (Thar, Rajasthan) from the Pleistocene (30,000
years B.C.) to the present day, showing that these are
fragile regions. Human pressure in India is very intense, with an average density of 66 inhabitants/km2 on arid and semi-arid lands (150 in Rajasthan), the world average being 3 to 4 inhabitants/km2. The search for fuelwood, overgrazing on arid lands and excessive ploughing of semi-arid lands causes significant degradation, especially deflation and the movement of dunes (formed around 20,000 B.C., stabilized in the mid-Holocene). |
Desertification process: Deflation (predominant), water erosion, soil degradation, salinization.
Natural preconditions: Significant variation in precipitation (60-70%), frequency of droughts, existence below the surface of a layer of sand (15-20 m in depth), which, in the event of the destruction of the vegetation, forms sand dunes.
Author: Arnagïel'diïev A.
Title: Morfodinamika eolovogo rïelïefa pieschanykh pustyn' (Morphodynamics of the wind erosion relief in sandy deserts)
Publisher: Akadïemiïa Naouk Turkmïenskoï SSR (Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan), Ylym, Ashkhabad, 164 pp.
| Date: 1990 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | IP Ashkhabad, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 0,5C2 |
| Region: | Central Asia, chiefly Tajikistan |
| Summary: | This work deals with the problems of desertification only marginally; the term is not even used. The main subject is the influence of various factors (origin and character of sands, vegetation, fauna, climate, tectonics, orography, hydrography) on the emergence, development and forms of wind erosion. It is only in the summary (pp. 144-149) that the role of human activity in the formation of the desert relief is considered. In the territory of the ex-Soviet Union there are approximately 1 million km2 of sands, 12-15% of which are dunes. In the author's opinion, their fixation using revegetalization methods is easier than in other deserts of the world (however, this conclusion is not explained). The layout of unpaved roads has destroyed vegetation along a strip approximately 50 m wide. The development of agriculture along the takyrs has caused deflation in surrounding sands. Herd routes and road construction should be on the downwind side of takyrs so that sand is not blown onto takyrs by the wind. Wind directions must be studied before planning programmes to protect against sand encroachment. |
Authors: Arnagïel'diïev A., Kostiukovskiï V.
Title: Pustyni: ratsional'noï ispolzovaniï i okhrana (Deserts: Rational exploitation and protection)
Publisher: Agropromizdat, Moscow, 224 pp.
| Date: 1990 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow |
| Classification: | 0, 1A, 2B2, 2-5 (general information) |
| Region: | Global, Central Asia in particular |
| Summary: | This document examines the
natural environment, vegetation and animal life in
deserts. The history of the exploitation of desert
resources is described: nomadic and semi-nomadic animal
husbandry, irrigated agriculture, energy resources.
Features of desert ecosystems and landscapes are also
covered, as well as the nature reserves in ex-Soviet
Central Asia. There is a discussion of the salinization
of irrigated soils in Central Asia (pp. 112-117) and the
effects of the wind which carries off 24-132 mln t of
salt per year. The question of desertification is only briefly mentioned, and is defined as: "The degradation of deserts" (p. 127). Schematic map of desertification processes in drylands of the ex-Soviet Union, in four categories: light desertification, moderate desertification, strong desertification, and extreme desertification. |
Note: Bibliography of 63 titles, 46 of which are in Russian
Definition: "Desertification - the degradation of deserts."
Author: Babaïev A.G.
Title: Gïeoekologichïeskiï analiz dinamiki gïeosistïem pustyn' na osnovïe distantsionnykh mïetodov (Geo-ecological analysis of the dynamics of desert geosystems using remote sensing)
Publisher: Ylym, Ashkhabad, 244 pp.
| Date: 1991 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow |
| Classification: | 1C1 |
| Region: | Turkmenistan |
| Summary: | This document is a manual
for using remote sensing to study desert environments. It
describes types of satellite imagery and methods of
analysis. The most interesting examples are the maps:
|
Notes:
1. Data on the phenomena of desertification are few and far between, but the last map could be compared to desertification maps.
2. Extensive bibliography; 53 books and articles in languages other than Russian.
Author: Babaïev A.G. (ed.)
Title: Opyt bor'by s opustynivaniïem v SSSR (The Soviet experience in combating desertification)
Publisher: Naouka (Sovrïemïennyïe problïemy biosfiery series), Moscow, 116 pp.
| Date: 1981 | Language: Russian (English version available) |
| Available: | WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 1A-B, 2A, 3C3-4, 4A1, 4A2, 5A-D |
| Region: | Central Asia, Kazakhstan |
| Summary: | The following aspects of
desertification are described: (i) climatic conditions of
arid and semi-arid lands in Soviet Central Asia and in
Kazakhstan, and (ii) natural and human factors of
desertification. This text gives much space to the USSR's
successes in desert management: pasture improvement,
extension of irrigation, sand dune fixation by
afforestation. Two terms are used to define
desertification: "opustynivaniïe" =
desertification - this term is used several times in the
text; "dïezïertizatsiïa" - desertization -
this word appears only once (p.25). Numerous definitions
of desertification are quoted (those of Le Houéroux,
Rapp, Mensching and Ibrahim, Dregne), without commentary. There is little information on the financial success of enterprises in the field of drylands management. "The construction of the Karakumy Canal, which is named after V.I. Lenin, has had satisfactory results; the net profit of the management of 1 mln ha in the canal zone has reached 1.25 billion roubles per year" (p.77). |
Characteristics of the desertification process:
Natural factors: primarily in connection with an increase in the albedo of drylands. This process is furthered by climate warming. Other factors: thawing of glaciers, decrease in the area and increase in the salinity of lakes, degradation of vegetation in watersheds, depletion of the flora, increase in salinization and the quantity of gypsum in soils in watersheds, lowering of the water table.
Human factors: description of the land degradation, in particular the depletion of the flora, on pastures due to overgrazing; increase in soil salinity on irrigated lands; desertification on lands near large construction projects (e.g., the Karakumy Canal), and, above all, development of wind and water erosion.
Author: Babaïev A.G. (ed.)
Title: Pïerspiektivy ispol'zovaniïa zïemiel'nykh rïesursov Turkmïenistana v svïazi s razvitiïem oroshaïemogo ziemlïedieliïa (Prospects for the utilization of land resources in Turkmenistan in connection with the development of irrigated agriculture)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 5, pp. 11-21, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1971 | Language: Russian (summary in English) |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 5A2, 5A4, 5D1a |
| Region: | Turkmenistan |
| Summary: | A text on the success of the Soviet Union in the economic development of deserts. During recent years, an irrigation system has been constructed on the Karakumy Canal, and existing systems have been modernized. Consequently, the area of irrigated land has increased by over 200,000 ha; when the projects are completed, 100,000 ha will be added. The author analyzes regional differences in environmental conditions in Turkmenistan (notably climate and soil) to determine their potential for irrigation. A chart shows a synthesis of climatic and soil characteristics. Detailed descriptions of individual administrative units are given. In conclusion the author estimates that 2.9 million hectares of land are suitable for irrigation, 620,000 ha of which are already irrigated. |
Author: Babaïev A.G. (ed.)
Title: Prirodnyïe uslovïa i voprosy osvoïeniïa Karakumov (The natural environment and issues in the management of the Karakumy Desert)
Publisher: Akadïemiïa Naouk Turkmïenskoï SSR (Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan) -Ylym, Ashkhabad, 168 pp.
| Date: 1977 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 2A1, 2A3, 5C2 |
| Region: | Turkmenistan |
| Summary: | Reports presented at a conference of young researchers of the Institute of Deserts (date not specified). It consists of 35 short texts, mainly regional and local studies of the physical environment of deserts: soil (chemical composition, migration of elements, salinization, soil evolution), vegetation and its pastoral potential, dune relief and fixation. The degradation of vegetation and the movement of dunes are mentioned in three texts (pp. 3-8, 8-13 and 17-22). Overgrazing and the overexploitation of woody resources for fuelwood has caused the total or partial extinction of soil in a radius of 3 to 5 km around large watering points and in other localities (p. 9); dunes form there. The same phenomena can be observed at the limits of irrigated lands, near livestock farms and roads. To stop the formation of sand dunes, fragile ecosystems must be exploited in a more rational and controlled way to avoid degradation; mechanical and biological methods of sand dune fixation are also briefly described. Human settlements in the west, northwest and southwest must be protected. |
Author: Babaïev A.G. (ed.)
Title: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn' (Issues in desert management, special issue), Konfierïentsiïa po problïemam opustynivaniïa (Conference on Desertification)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 3, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1978 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 1-5 |
| Region: | Global |
| Summary: | This special issue is devoted exclusively to the United Nations Conference on Desertification in Nairobi from 27 August to 9 September, 1977. It consists of 13 articles, including: ° opening lecture by M. Tolba, and introductory remarks by the Soviet delegate (A.V. Sidorïenko, Desertification and environmental protection issues, pp. 3-6), ° the report of the Soviet delegation, "Research and management of deserts and semi-deserts in the USSR" (A.G. Babaïev, I.P. Gïerasimov, N.T. Nïechaïeva, M.P. Pïetrov, A.V. Sidorïenko, pp. 17-24) which contains information on successes in combating desertification in the USSR and on the expansion of irrigated lands in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, ° a brief analysis of the conclusions of the Conference ° reports on section debates and summaries of selected reports (Climate and desertification; Ecological changes and desertification; Technology and desertification; Population; Society and desertification; International projects for the monitoring and control of desertification; Information on desertification in Asia, North America and Australia and on pasture management in Iran). |
Note: The article by N.T. Nïechaïeva on the establishment of criteria for desertification was presented at the Nairobi conference and published in "Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn"', N° 4, pp. 18-24, 1978.
Author: Babaïev A.G.
Title: Vklad SSSR v rïealizatsiiu plane dïeïstviï po bor'bïe s opustynivaniïem (Contribution of the USSR to the project of combating desertification)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 3, pp. 16-19, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1985 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | ID, 5A |
| Region: | Ex-Soviet Union |
| Summary: | In the Soviet Union several
studies and practical works were carried out in the
fields of desert management and combating
desertification. The area of drylands in the USSR before
1985 covered 14% of the territory of the country, or
approximately 300 mln ha. The USSR has contributed to
combating desertification by training professionals to
meet the needs of the country and of diverse developing
countries. The dominant role is played by the Institute
of Deserts in Ashkhabad. Two research projects have been completed with the cooperation of UNEP: "Scientific seminars serving the combat against desertification", and "Combating desertification with integrated development". In the Soviet Union the plan for combating desertification was prepared in 1978. Taking into account the needs of developing countries, the project planned to train specialists in the following fields: improvement of alkaline irrigated soils, sand dune stabilization, ecology, management and productivity of pastoral lands. In autumn 1984, a series of courses was organized, "Afforestation of sand dunes in drylands". The Soviet Union took part in the FAO/UNEP project "Preparation of maps of zones affected by desertification, and assessment of the desertification process" and in the execution of the UNESCO programme "Man and Biosphere." The USSR has also cooperated with the United States, Peru, Mali, Mongolia, and with ESCAP. |
Authors: Babaïev A.G., Batyrov A.B.
Title: Lïeninskiïe idïei o prïeobrazovanii prirody i ikh voploshchïeniïe pri osvoïenii aridnykh tïerritorii Srïednïeï Azii Kazakhstana (The Ideas of V.I. Lenin on managing nature, and the role of these ideas in drylands development in Central Asia and Kazakhstan.
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 2, pp. 3-12, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1970 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 1B |
| Region: | Central Asia |
| Summary: | Number 2 of the journal "Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn'" is entirely devoted to the role of Lenin's thought on managing the natural environment, particularly as it relates to the development of drylands in Central Asia and Kazakhstan. |
Authors: Babaïev A.G., Zonn I.S., Drozdov N.N., Frïeïkin Z.S.
Title: Pustyni (Deserts)
Publisher: Mysl', Moscow, 320 pp.
| Date: 1986 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 0, 1-5 (general) |
| Region: | General |
| Summary: | Monograph on the deserts of
the world (including the ex-Soviet Union), their natural
environments and human activity. Reduced reproduction of
"The World Desertification Map".
Desertification is studied pp. 296-309, with a review of
definitions of desertification. No definition is selected
as universal. The authors emphasize the complexity of the
problem and the coexistence of two primary causes of
desertification: climate (periodic droughts) and human
activity. Information is presented on the extent of
desertification in the world, on the work of UNEP, UNESCO
and FAO, and on the Nairobi Conference of 1977. "In
the Soviet Union, the acceleration of the economic
development of deserts and the increase in population
have amplified the pressure on ecosystems, but the
desertification process has limited range in our
country" (p. 307). Vast zones in the river valleys of Central Asia were cultivated until recent times. Agriculture was abandoned not because of climate changes but due to socio-economic conditions and wars. Two chapters are devoted to the success of the Soviet Union in the conquest of deserts (pp. 20-261 and 262-283), one chapter to desert development outside the ex-Soviet Union (pp. 284-295). Among the subjects related to economic development, the authors give particular attention to the mining industry and to irrigation. |
Author: Babaïeva T.A.
Title: Ispol'zovaniïe kosmicheïeskikh snimkov "Mietieor" dlïa izuchïeniïa protsïessov opustynivaniïa v Turkmïenistanïe (Application of METEOR satellite imagery to the study of desertification in Turkmenistan)
Publisher: Problïemy osvoïeniïa pustyn', N° 6, pp. 33-39, Ashkhabad
| Date: 1982 | Language: Russian (summary in English) |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, IG RAN Moscow, KR FAK Alma Ata, WGiSR UW Warsaw, UAM Poznan |
| Classification: | 1C1 |
| Region: | Turkmenistan |
| Summary: | Satellite imagery is often
used to study natural processes. Imagery from the
satellite METEOR (1979-1981) has been utilized in
large-scale studies of deserts. A lithological map of the
deserts of Turkmenistan has been drawn up; it
distinguishes 7 types of desert. This article discusses
theoretical considerations of the possibilities of using
satellite imagery in the preparation of maps which
illustrate desertification, following the methodology
designed by FAO ("Provisional methodology for
desertification...", Rome 1981). In the author's opinion, the classification and typology of desertification can be carried out based on satellite imagery. Other elements of study (the causes of desertification and means of improving the situation) require the reinterpretation of material and supplementary data gathered in the field. Satellite imagery makes it possible to identify various processes of desertification covering large expanses of territory, to observe the dynamics of these phenomena and changes in their range. |
Desert types:
1. Typical sand deserts
2. Clay takyr deserts
3. Gypseous gravel deserts (erg)
4. Loessial clay deserts
5. Solonchak deserts
6. Arable lands
7. Mountainous terrains
Author: Batyrov A.B.
Title: Naouchnyïe osnovy tïerritorïal'noï organizatsii khozïaïstva i nasïelïeniïa v aridnykh rïegionakh (Scientific principles of population distribution and economic development in arid regions)
Publisher: Ylym, Ashkhabad, 156 pp.
| Date: 1990 | Language: Russian |
| Available: | BiL Moscow, WGiSR UW Warsaw |
| Classification: | 5A2, 5D1 |
| Region: | Soviet Union - Turkmenistan |
| Summary: | A collection of 16 texts principally covering theoretical questions of human geography and population distribution in the Soviet Union. The article by A. Batyrov discusses the economic development of deserts: "Types of economic development and the development of the population in the deserts of Turkmenistan" (pp. 122-130). Nine types of population concentration and eleven types of locality are identified in Turkmenistan. In the 1950's, oases occupied 1% of Turkmenistan; the figure is 7 % today. At first, the objective for economic development was to ensure a unilateral use of/natural resources; currently (in the 1980's) the objective is for a much wider utilization. Large multiple-function localities have been formed whose inhabitants are not only those working there, but also factory employees and livestock farmers working within a perimeter of several dozen kilometres. |