Nepal
Reflections
Extension of PAR for Rural Energy Development
Conclusions
This ease study is extracted from the experience of the Rural Energy Planning Studies (REPS), which were one of several activities of the Regional Energy Development Programme (REDP). REDP as a whole is funded by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and executed by the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). The associate executing agency for REPS is the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Chulalongkorn University Social Research Institute (CUSRI) of Thailand and East West Centre Resource Systems Institute (RSI) were commissioned by FAO to coordinate, supervise and provide technical support to the project.
The origin of REPS can be traced back to the Workshop on Rural Energy Planning, held in Beijing, China, in April 1983 1/. Three concerns that were utmost in the minds of the participants at the time can be summarized as follows.
- Exclusion of intended beneficiaries, especially the rural poor, from the process of rural planning and development.- Reliance on technological determinism in policy formulation without proper consideration of the social, organizational and economic processes that prevail in rural areas.
- Failure to relate energy policy to the context of complex, heterogeneous and dynamic village systems.
1/ FAO, 1984. Proceedings of the Workshop on Rural Energy Planning, 9-29 April 1983, Beijing, China. RomeBajracharya, Deepak (ed.) 1985. Rural Energy Planning in China and Other Developing Countries of Asia. Environment and Energy Paper No. 5, Rome: FAO
Recommendations were made that village studies be conducted with due recognition of the national policy and planning context in the countries concerned.
Appropriate development of rural energy schemes is seen here as being constrained by fundamental structural and institutional problems associated with planning for rural development. The aim in REPS was, therefore, to search for alternatives by deliberately putting a great deal of emphasis on the learning process through intensive interactions and dialogues among key participants, i.e. village residents, officials from government and non-government agencies, concerned people from private companies and researchers The idea was to start by getting rural residents directly Involved in the assessment of needs and priorities as well as available resources, formulation of action projects and implementation, operation and maintenance of some small projects that are immediately feasible through mobilization of internal resources and, where necessary, channelling of external resources. By gaining experience in action and by reflecting on the process, the expectation was to evolve village energy plans. The goal in the process was to strengthen the ability of rural residents and also of experts and institutions to form, implement, evaluate and adapt village energy plans that fit local needs and priorities.
The emphasis, as evident in the above description, is on Participatory Action Research (PAR), defined as an experiential learning approach that involves active participation of all partners in situation analysis and decision making in all phases of any activity from problem identification to implementation to monitoring and evaluation. PAR is aiming at a transformation process in which the partners, namely, members from the research and development community, government and international agencies, and village communities, engage in dialogues and negotiations for a win-win situation based on a mutually-agreeable common ground.
The energy concern had two main aspects. First, the low level of consumption that is inhibiting the growth of production capabilities in rural areas, and second, the Increasing difficulty for many rural residents to meet daily fuel requirements for such basic needs as cooking, heating and lighting. Dwindling forest resources are forcing them to go farther afield. Limited availability of fuelwood is forcing the substitution by crop residues and dung cakes, and even to tree leaves. Serious environmental problems have emerged as the rate of deforestation has Intensified due to the need for agricultural land, which is exacerbated by the need to extract fuelwood from the already-dwindling forest resources. The principal issue, therefore, Is how to plan better so that energy supply can be increased on a sustained basis and the capacity to use more energy efficiently is enhanced.
Much local knowledge, as well as information about new technological development, has not been articulated or organized in ways to enable either local residents or scientists to use it effectively in solving rural energy problems.
Community members need methods and new Information to be able to:
- improve their understanding of food-fuel links and of new opportunities for greater productivity in crop, animal and forest resources;- identify crucial energy factors that limit or block production increases and determine how to overcome them;
- invent new ways of organizing and allotting work activities in order to add more value and to share benefits more equitably;
- evaluate alternative energy technologies, both by contributing to their design and by operating, testing and modifying them as required to fit particular daily and seasonal conditions; and
- realise economies of scale and of transactions in food and energy resources through appropriate group and community organizations.
Similarly, scientists, planners and agency personnel need new methods and information to enable them to:
- increase their awareness of the differing perspectives and overall priorities of various users and incorporate these values in the basic criteria for selecting and developing technologies to enhance energy use;- identify needs and the priorities with which users expect them to be satisfied with particular technologies under varying resource and socio-political constraints;
- learn of and incorporate local knowledge of technology and wisdom of experience into the overall information package used to develop and modify specific technologies;
- develop a multi-sectoral and holistic system approach by combining users' perspectives and priorities with information from various disciplines for compatible, relevant and effective schemes in rural energy development.
Collaborative methods are needed which will enable village residents to join with scientists and development planners, including agency personnel, to generate, share, assess, integrate and test relevant information, and to plan and implement activities more effectively in the field of rural energy development. Participatory action research as presented below provides a framework that is consistent with this principle.
PAR Participants
As illustrated in Figure 1, PAR participants include "the villagers", representing the rural community, "the researchers", representing the research and development community, and the development planners, representing the government system. The researcher and the development planner may be collectively conceptualized as external resource persons. For rural energy development, each of these participants have important contributions to make.
Figure 1 Partners in Planning
To identify, plan and implement a project successfully, it must reflect rural realities accurately. For energy development to be relevant, its Importance has to be realized in connection with the farming system with which the village resident is preoccupied or the human drudgery which she/he is experiencing. Of importance also are the implications if added resources in terms of time, money and others need to be diverted away from the present schedule on which the residents' subsistence is dependent. Furthermore, if energy development is to occur at the scale of the community rather than at that of the household, a number of implications relating to organization (e.g., arrangements for providing land as collateral for acquiring loans), community property rights (e.g. during the establishment of village woodlots), and others have to be examined carefully. Nobody better than the village resident would be in a position to provide deep insights into these matters.
External resource persons bring their own strengths to rural energy development through their specialized knowledge and creative abilities. Energy technologies are currently being developed at a rapid rate outside the periphery of the rural environment. This is also true of other forms of knowledge. Plans are being formulated by government agencies to provide opportunities for delivery of materials, expertise, credits, loans and other inputs for encouraging rural development. These are the types of information and mechanisms with which external resource people are most familiar and are thus in a position to articulate the potential benefits that may be derived from them.
The crucial question is how to make a proper match of the knowledge and capability between the village resident and the external resource person. By the nature of present realities, external resource persons are experts on specific subjects, who are few in number and who cannot afford long periods of time at any one particular village. The form of communication during the brief spells of time they may spend in the village is likely to be dominated by their own knowledge system. The form of articulation that the village residents may bring out is not necessarily intelligible to them in full, and vice versa. There is, therefore, a clear need for a facilitator or matchmaker (lami in the Nepali language; literally, a matchmaker in a marriage). As an intermediary, the lami facilitates better communication and understanding between the external resource persons and the village residents.
The lami may be visualized as an extension agent or a community development worker who is an active participant in PAR. She/he lives in the village to help assess energy supply and needs through direct inputs of the village residents and develop a village energy plan. By virtue of her/his extended stay within the village and the continuous dialogues with the village residents, it is expected that she/he will understand the needs, priorities, preferences and capabilities of the village residents. She/he will also have a good grasp of the strengths and weaknesses of the village organization and the intricacies of factions, if they exist. It should be stressed that she/he will try deliberately to avoid being used by any one faction at the cost of hurting the other.
At the other end, the lami will have the necessary linkages with the external resource persons in such a way that their resources could be put to best use to supplement the village efforts. It should be stressed here that the lami is not there as an extension agent to fulfill the "targets" of the external resource persons. In that sense, the lami's role should be seen as one in which she/he reaches out for the external resource person so that the expertise and other opportunities would be channelized to help mobilize village resources and efforts.
One important consideration is that the lami will deliberately try to ensure that the village residents will not depend on him/her over a sustained period. Once the match is made, she/he is no longer needed.
Table 1. Schedule of Events
|
Events |
Dates | |
|
Preparation of draft Guidelines for Rural Energy Planning Studies |
September 1984 | |
|
Mission to Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal for Identification of implementing agencies and project organization |
January 1985 | |
|
National energy assessment and selection of research villages |
| |
|
|
Nepal |
March - July 1985 |
|
|
Bangladesh |
May - Sept. 1985 |
|
|
Bhutan |
Nov. 1985 - Mar. 1986 |
|
Action research in villages |
| |
|
|
Nepal |
Sept. 1985 - Sept. 1986 |
|
|
Bangladesh |
Oct. 1985 - Oct. 1986 |
|
|
Bhutan |
Jan. 1986 - Oct. 1986 |
|
Training Workshops |
| |
|
|
Bangkok/Chiang Mai (4 weeks) |
July - Aug. 1985 |
|
|
Dhaka/Ishurdi (10 days) |
Nov. - Dec. 1985 |
|
Exchange Visit Programme |
| |
|
|
Bhutan Team to Nepal |
March 1986 |
|
|
Nepal Team to Bangladesh and Bhutan |
April 1986 |
|
|
Bangladesh Team to Nepal |
September 1986 |
|
Technical Support and Supervision Visits |
April - May 1985 | |
|
|
March - April 1986 | |
|
|
Aug. - Sept. 1986 | |
|
National Workshops |
Nov. - Dec. 1986 | |
|
Regional Workshop |
January 1986 | |
|
Preparation of Monograph on rural energy case studies and planning methodologies |
Jan. - March 1987 | |
The project began with a visit by the supervisory team to the concerned countries, selection of the government units to carry out the activity, and recruitment of the "lamis" from among young graduates. The national teams carried out a rapid assessment of the energy situation in the country and selection of field sites. They were then invited to a regional training workshop.
Subsequent to the training workshops, research team members began their residence in the selected villages and initiated activities quite independently of each other. With the exception of brief technical support and supervision visits by CUSRI/RSI team members, there was no external interference in village activities. Responsibilities were placed entirely on research team members to implement programmes as dictated by needs and priorities expressed by village residents during interactions and dialogues with them. The job of the researchers was akin to that of lami or matchmaker. They were to play the role of catalyst in organizing maximum input of local people and resources for need and resource assessment, project identification and appraisal, as well as implementation, operation and maintenance. The project provided $5,000 per research site as seed fund to facilitate development action. Insofar as additional external resources were required for matching internal resources, the lamis were again instrumental in making necessary contacts with appropriate agencies and facilitate the process. Highlights of these project activities in Nepal constitute the focus in the next section.
The executing agency in Nepal is the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS). Starting in March 1985, two concurrent activities were pursued. With the assistance of the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), six experts form Nepal were commissioned to review the state of the art in six different topics. An overview of issues identified in the review papers was also prepared. For selection of research villages, WECS formed a committee consisting of representatives from various agencies: (1) Planning Commission; (2) Women's Development Section, Ministry of Panchayat and Local Development; (3) Community Forestry and Afforestation Division, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation; (4) Agricultural Development Bank of Nepal; (5) Biogas and Agricultural Implements Company; (6) ICIMOD; and (7) WECS. Several prospective sites were suggested and six village panchayats* from different parts of Nepal were short-listed. A report based on visits to the six panchayats was later presented to the Committee and two panchayats were finally selected: Bhumesthan Dhading District along the Hill region and Rajahar in Nawalparasi District along the Inner Terai region. Subsequent visits were pursued by the researchers to the selected sites to get an understanding of the general conditions and energy situations. Reports based on these visits were presented at the Training Workshop in Bangkok. Residence of researchers in selected villages started in September 1985. Activities that followed from one year's stay in the panchayats are briefly described below.
* A panchayat is an administrative area including approximately 9 villages or groups of villages.
They demonstrated how energy concerns often led to more integrated development activities. Also, the original instructions to field workers to aim at village community activity had to be released when it was realised that community agreement was only feasible at the level of a hamlet or ethnic groups in the areas concerned, and that the type of activity conditioned the size of the participatory groups.
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REFLECTIONS FROM THE LAMIS Slow at first The most challenging period of our involvement was the time when we first entered the village community. Villagers' expectations were high because of impressions let by earlier development projects. They thought that a lot of money was going to pour in and that it was waiting to be grabbed. The visit by foreign consultants during he technical support and supervision visit reinforced their feeling that there would be big money here. Dependence on government and absence of initiatives for self-reliance were another notable features. Villagers from Barhakol exclaimed, "If we have to do everything ourselves, what is the role of the government?". Most of the villagers had developed Inhibitions due to poverty and illiteracy. To quote the villagers from Piprahar, "We are uneducated. We are blind. You have to guide us"; and from Barhakol, "We are poor. What can we do for development?". Such sentiments were strong in almost every village we entered. Many people were disillusioned by false hopes from earlier experiences with projects that failed to deliver in response to their genuine plea for help. Such feelings were mostly expressed at a later stage as we earned their confidence. We were struck, however, when people from Kujauli told us at our very first encounter, "We need nothing. Go to other villages. They might need you people". Against this background, the application of PAR principles seemed daunting. |
Improved Cooking Stoves in Sangramtar. Interested people from among the 42 households in the village were given the opportunity to install improved cooking stoves. UNICEF, in collaboration with the Small Farmers' Development Programme of the Agricultural Development Bank of Nepal (ADBN) was distributing similar stoves in the panchayat. The condition for distribution was that the farmer should be prepared to pay the installation fee of Rs 15. The Danuwar Rais living in this community were, however, so poor that they could not afford this amount. The agreement with REPS was that they would only pay Rs 5 per installation. In the course of consultations with the people, two innovations were also introduced to the original stove design. The size of the stove was increased because of the complaint that the pot holes were too small. An opening at the chimney pipe bend was introduced to facilitate cleaning of chimney pipes.
Afforestation in Amarkhu. Based on dialogues between the researchers and village residents, a committee was formed for afforestation of about 8 hectares of what used to be the public forest area around Amarkhu. Decisions were made that each of the 109 households would contribute 2 person days for digging pits and planting trees. REPS would in turn make a contribution of Rs 4,800 to the community to be used for repair of the local elementary school. In addition, seedlings were to be provided by the District Office of the Department of Forestry. The cost of transportation of the seedlings was to be borne by REPS.
Problems arose during the time of tree planting, when the Department of Forestry used hired workers from other wards for afforestation in the designated area. The villagers claimed that this act was a breach of assurances given to them by REPS researchers. The position of the researchers was that the Amarkhu residents had failed to show their enthusiasm for doing the work as agreed earlier. In spite of letters and messages sent to the residents about programme activities, they had ignored them all. They failed to show up at the site on the day of planting. The Forestry Department officials therefore had to get other people to work that day. The residents started raising objections only after they realized that they were not going to receive the sum of Rs 4,800 in return for activities related to afforestation. Moreover, several villagers got the impression that the Forestry Department was going to restrict use of the forest area by local residents.
Negotiations had to be made later. Final agreements were reached on the following points: (1) the afforested area would be attributed to control of the Panchayat Council as Panchayat Protected Forest; (2) the Department of Forestry would provide the salary of a guard on a regular basis; (3) the community would nominate four people who would take turns as guards to protect the area; and (4) REPS would contribute the agreed sum of Rs 4,800 on condition that the residents would contribute a minimum of 2 person days per household to improve the foot trail in the ward.
Improved Traditional Watermill in Ghale-Ghartigaon. This activity was pursued in collaboration with the German Technical Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) in Nepal. GTZ was involved in the improvement of traditional watermills. The improvement allowed for the installation of not only the grinding operation but also a baby rice huller. To promote this system, GTZ was providing a 50 per cent subsidy of the total cost (Rs 7,000). In the case of Ghale-Ghartigaon, construction of the mill house, repair of the water canal and preparation of the wood chute required an additional cost of Rs 3,500. The agreement, therefore, was to have GTZ, REPS and the group of 4 owners each contribute one third of the total cost (Rs 3,500). To facilitate the payment by the owners, ADBN had agreed to provide a loan.
The improved mill stood were the old mill was operating until a few years ago. The original owner had died and the mill operation was discontinued because his sons were not interested in it. The Interest was revived when the possibility of Installing the rice huller was mentioned. One Brahmin from the neighbourhood also showed his interest. He bought the share from one of the sons and took the responsibility of acquiring the loan from the ADBN. This was convenient because he was already a leader of a small farmers' group and therefore eligible for making the loan request. The other three Tamang brothers were willing to go with the understanding that the loan payment would be a joint responsibility.
There were initially some problems when the rice huller was not working well and caused the dehusked rice to break. Subsequently, the entire huller was replaced by GTZ at no extra cost. Since then, no major problems have occured. The owners were happy with the system. They worked out a mutual agreement whereby two partners at a time take turns in operating the mill for one month. Normal rates are charged for grinding and dehusking. As is the custom in the area, the charges are paid in grains rather than in cash. The two operators live on the mill site and use the collected grains for daily food requirements. Whatever is left of the grains is distributed equally among the four partners.
Biogas/Mill in Srinagar. A 50 cubic feet biogas plant was constructed in Srinagar, Rajahar Panchayat. Two brothers took the necessary loan from the Agricultural Development Bank. The Biogas and Agricultural Implements Company sent skilled technicians for the construction. Three other households near the plant contributed dung from their stall-fed animals. There was a written agreement among these households that as soon as the slurry came out of the digester, it would be distributed among them in the same proportion as that which they put in daily. For filling the digester pit, other community members also contributed as much dung as they could, on a one-time basis.
The two brothers each had a biogas burner for cooking and a lamp for lighting. Their three neighbours were getting 3 to 4 hours of lighting in the evening in return for their dung contribution. Lighting was given top priority. Whatever gas remained was subsequently used for cooking and milling. The mill included a rice huller and a grain grinder. When there was a shortage of gas, the owners ran the mill totally on diesel. Because of the subsidy provided under REPS, the owners provide for all customers from the community a 10 per cent discount on the standard milling charges in that area.
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Installation of the water mill in Ghartigaun and the biogas/mill in Srinagar proved to be the first breakthroughs after which credibility became established. Words alone to depict the value of self-reliance were inadequate. They had to be supported by deeds. The symbolic value associated with the establishment of the water mill and the biogas/mill was therefore tremendous. This does not mean that everything proceeded smoothly afterwards. Other problems had to be faced, but we were taken seriously for the first time. Activities pursued subsequently moved faster. Greater initiatives came from the villagers. Whereas at first we walked from village to village to motivate them and received a lukewarm response, they later came to us and said such things as: "We would like an irigation scheme. We will contribute all the labour needed. How can you help us?". (The lamis in Nepal) |
Irrigation/Watermill/Afforestation in Barakol. The watermill considered for Barakol was of the same type as the one in Ghale-Ghartigaon. This would be installed as soon as water flowed along the Irrigation canal. Water from the irrigation canal would be diverted for running the mill and the water that came out of the mill would again be fed back into the main canal for irrigation in the village. REPS commitment to the project was in the form of a grant of about Rs 7,000 for installation of the watermill.
A loan of Rs 200,000 was made available to the residents of Barakol by the Agricultural Development Bank for construction of the irrigation canal. REPS researchers had been instrumental in organizing the villagers and motivating them to apply for the loan. This initiative was in response to the expressed wish of the residents there that irrigation was their top priority. Since this was going to be a gravity-flow scheme, the energy linkage was considered weak. Hence, financial contributions from REPS were not considered justifiable for the irrigation scheme. The researchers did, however, facilitate the process by making necessary contacts with the ADBN manager in Rajahar and thus expediting the process.
Further assistance of Rs 10,200 was made available for afforestation on 17 hectares of public land. The proceeds from afforestation were used towards the irrigation project. Afforestation was conceived to protect the irrigation canal and mill from hazards due to landslides and erosion. The slopes in the vicinity were mostly subject to slash and burn agriculture. The absence of vegetation cover had increased the probability of landslides and erosion. Arrangements were made with the Department of Forestry to register the afforested area as Panchayat Protected Forest. This would help stop the encroachment of the area by those outside the village. At the same time, villagers would be entitled to 50 per cent of the benefits derived from the forest.
Afforestation in Bartandi. Eighteen households in this Christian community got together to plant 7.5 hectares of public land with various species of trees. The purpose of mixing the trees was to get a better quality of fodder. The villagers planted the trees in a collective manner. Their plan was to divide the trees later among themselves for maintenance as well as enjoying benefits. An afforestation and protection committee, consisting of 6 members, was established. This committee overlapped with a previous one formed for a water supply project. Under the agreed scheme, a guard (who had recently moved into the community) was hired. The community paid him a monthly salary of Rs 200.
REPS contribution for the project was in the form of cash at the rate of Rs 600 per hectare. This would be used to buy cement for lining of the Intake channel that fed the water into a water storage tank. Previously, the idea was to cement line the tank itself. Since the source was small, the villagers decided later that the cement lining of the intake channel would facilitate storage of large amounts of water and hence irrigation opportunities would be enhanced.
Improved Cooking Stoves in Rajahar. About 150 stoves were distributed to interested families in the panchayat. UNICEF provided 50 small sized stoves and REPS ordered 100 bigger stoves. Improvements were made in the chimney pipes as in the case of Sangramlar, to facilitate the cleaning operation. The Interested people had to pay Rs 15 for installation. An extra cost of Rs 10 was charged for the bigger stoves. REPS contributed a total amount of about Rs 11,000 to match the usual level of government subsidy on improved stoves.
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Organizing People and Facing Internal Conflicts One of the most gratifying experiences has been the generation of enthusiasm that led villagers to organize and get what they wished for. It was apparent that the mere fact of going through the process helped build confidence in themselves. Also remarkable were the different types of organizations that people employed, depending upon the characteristics of the group, the technology and the location. Our earlier expectation was to get big groups of people and proceed with a sense of community cooperation. This worked under certain circumstances, such as the irrigation canal in Barhakol, afforestation in Lamagaun, Karkidanda, Bartandi, Belswara and Barhakol, and trail repair in Amarkhu. At other times, we had to modify our expectations. We found that small groups could be organized to participate in projects that benefitted the community as a whole. This was true, for example, in the case of the improved water mill in Ghale-Ghartigaun and biogas mill in Srinagar. Although four to seven people were directly involved in technology implementation, the whole community enjoyed the services rendered by the mill (not to mention the 10% discount on the milling charge in Srinagar). Smaller scale technologies such as stove and tuki were also distributed to selected households. What impressed us therefore was the diversity in organization styles that had to be pursued in different projects. |
Projects that did not proceed as well as expected
In spite of such sensitivity that PAR demonstrated, there were a number of conflicts that developed in various communities, some of which were eventually resolved but others not. In Ghale-Ghartigaun, one of the previous sites for the mill had to be abandoned because a conflict arose between people in Wards No. 7 and 8 regarding water use rights. It was eventually installed on a site where no such conflicts existed. Conflict also came about when Amarkhu residents were unable to participate in afforestation at Thulo Khoria as previously planned. A compromise project, trail repair, had to be developed to overcome hard feelings. Part of the reason why the electrification scheme had to be postponed in Simle was the canal alignment that passed through the land of 5-6 persons who had little to gain from the project, as well as conflict among residents of the area. The afforestation project in Lamagaun had to be limited to the Brahmin and Chhetri community because the Tamang community felt threatened that they would no longer have the opportunity to graze their livestock on the afforested land.
"These are all indications of complexity that cannot be wished away. The one year period was insufficient to resolve all conflicts. What is however important to keep in mind is that our role as lami helped people to be motivated to come up with innovative approaches for resolving some of these conflicts. At times, repeated efforts were needed to reach an agreement. Continuous monitoring was required furthermore to ensure that words of the agreement were adhered to."(the Nepalese lamis)
Energy for Rural Development
Experiences in all three countries show that there is sufficient scope for substantial contributions that can be made toward rural development with a focus on energy. Caution is warranted, however, so that the euphoria that was initially characterized by a preoccupation with fuel energy is viewed more objectively to reflect village perspectives. The researchers' experiences in all three countries indicate that fuel per se is not usually perceived as the top priority by village residents. At the same time, it is etymologically hard to convey the full scope of energy activities when new expressions (such as urja, shakti, indhan and others) are used. This can be attributed partly to the absence of sufficient energy consciousness in the villages. More importantly, however, it is essential to understand that villages in Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal are confronted by many other basic problems, such as lack of adequate food, drinking water, irrigation water, employment opportunities and others that threaten their subsistence. Spontaneous statements by some villagers during our visits on different occasions indicate their sentiments quite pointedly:
"Energy is not a problem for us, not as much as it is to get enough food to cook. We don't have land of our own. Employment is hard to come by. If we have the opportunity to find enough food to cook, we will manage somehow to find the fuel to cook it with..."A Landless Woman
Kodimpara Village
Pabna District, Bangladesh
December 1985"Fuelwood scarcity is not our pressing problem. We can always find twigs or straw or maize cobs during the worse of times. But drinking water, that is something else. During the dry season, it takes us the whole morning just to fetch one pitcher. Show us how to bring water to the village and we shall do anything necessary..."
A Group of Villagers
Bhumesthan Village Panchayat
Dhading District, Nepal
March 1985
Clearly, the issue goes beyond just the fuel concern. The focus is rather on the desperate situations that prevail in rural areas. The important question is whether the scope of energy activities can embrace this context and address burning concerns in the villages. Based on the experiences in the three countries, the answer is a definite "yes". The only qualification needed is that a shift in the conceptual focus is essential.
The desired conceptual framework can be simplistically expressed as in the figure below. The process begins with an analysis of development alternatives based upon needs and priorities of the village. The challenge then is to identify energy constraints (among others) and explore possible alternatives to overcome associated problems. Choice of technologies and formulation of action programmes are subsequently based upon supply potentials, possibilities of resource mobilization, satisfaction of organizational requirements and others. Essentially, the emphasis here is on demand orientation in energy planning and implementation. The focus on energy is justified because it remains a neglected dimension and its consideration in rural development is essential. While energy is not necessarily the dominant constraint at all times, it is important to recognize its role and systemic linkages with other sectors for enhancing rural production capabilities.
The need for this type of orientation is evident in statements made by villagers themselves. Opportunities for appropriate energy activities can be deduced from their expression of desperate conditions. Such expressions are in line with integrated and systemic approaches mentioned above.
"We have no choice but to go to the steep slopes of the Churia hills and practise lhose (slash and burn). We get only a little millet or potato for very hard work. That is still better than nothing. If you can help us bring water to the village from the Bagaha Khola (a stream near the village), we can grow enough food on this land near our door steps. In such a case, the forests in the hills will be left untouched. Who would bother to earn such meagre amounts of grains in the steep slopes if better alternatives are available."Barakol Villagers
Rajahar Village Panchayat
Nawalparasi District, Nepal
March 1985"We put a lot of sweat to grow the turmeric. At the time of harvest, we are so desperate for cash to buy our foodstuff that when a rich man offers us 300-400 takas per maund, we sell It right away. He then dries It In the sun and sells dry ginger for more than 200 takas."
Kodimpara Villagers
Ishurdi Upazilla, Bangladesh
December 1985
An important consideration In this context pertains to the scope of energy. Until now, most people carry the Impression that rural energy activities are synonymous with renewable energy sources and related technologies. Whenever we meet a new friend and tell him, for example, that one of our professional Interests Is In rural energy planning, the inevitable question that follows Is "which kind?". The expected answer Is stoves, biogas, hydro, solar or wind. This attitude is understandable but unfortunate. If the objective of rural energy planning is to enhance energy inputs for rural development and, more specifically, for increasing productivity of agriculture and rural Industries, improving opportunities for generation of additional income, protecting the environment and so on, it becomes necessary to think of various energy mixes for maximum results. Without going into the organization elements of Implementation (this will be treated at greater length in the next section), it is necessary to emphasize that the energy mix must consider all different forms Including human energy, animal power and fossil fuels, along with renewable sources. The ultimate judgement should rest on the assessment of benefits and costs for achieving the objectives. Issues of substitution and complementarity can also be addressed within this context. The final point on the benefits and costs Is that the assessment should combine the perceptions of both the village residents and outside experts, and hence the need for a participatory planning approach.
Figure 2. Energy Linkages with Rural Development Alternatives
|
DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES |
ENERGY LINKAGES |
POSSIBLE PROJECTS |
ENERGY SUPPLY AND MANAGEMENT |
|
Examples |
|
|
|
|
1. Increase Agricultural Productivity |
Pumping |
Lift Irrigation |
o Technology Transfer or Adaptation |
|
Human Energy, |
Agricultural Tools |
o Local Needs, Priorities |
|
|
Animal Power |
|
o Organization Capability |
|
|
Mechanical Energy |
Post-Harvest Processing |
o Resource Assessment |
|
|
Refrigeration |
Cold Storage |
o Linkage with Other Agencies |
|
|
2. Supply Drinking Water |
Human Energy |
Gravity Flow Canal |
o Subsidies, Grants, Loans |
|
Pumping |
Water Lifting |
o Marketing |
|
|
|
|
o Benefit sharing |
|
|
3. Improve Small Scale Industries for Income Generation |
Mechanical Energy, Electricity |
Power Loom for Weaving |
o Information Supply |
|
|
Sawmilling, Furniture |
o Material Supply |
|
|
|
|
o Training |
|
|
|
Horticultural Processing |
o Etc. |
Organizational aspects of the PAR Process for Rural Energy Planning
Flexibility
Experience shows that the PAR approach has been successful both as a learning process for planning and as an approach for implementation of a wide range of activities as already described above. Its strength lies in the flexible stance that was adopted from the very outset. Rather than a technical fix approach, the process was consciously started with users' assessment of needs and priorities and also of internal and external resources that would be required to meet the needs. Technology choice was subsequently made in the light of organizational opportunities and constraints. Villagers acknowledge favourably that there was a fundamental difference in the way that REPS researchers acted in contrast to how, for example, government officials behaved. They say that REPS researchers seem genuinely concerned about overcoming problems not only by way of doing one's duties (as in the case of government officials) but also in accomplishing tasks by whatever means necessary. People remark furthermore that REPS researchers were different from other researchers who had come to the area before. They were not just talkers who illicited information from villagers but also doers who organized people tirelessly and activated them into performing tasks for their own development.
To a large extent, the achievements of the researchers can be attributed to their orientation and training, but also to their operational freedom when in the village, and availability of certain resources at hand (such as seed funds, knowledge of energy technologies, and mobility to contact personnel from other projects and agencies for additional resources). The process was understandably slow at the beginning. The initial period had to be spent on earning people's confidence. Subsequently, the speed with which activities took shape was quite remarkable. Minor complications arose in the course of planning and implementation. On the whole, innovations that were introduced were significant, and learning on the part of all those concerned was greatly reinforced.
Project dimension
Among the changes made during project implementation, one that is particularly noteworthy was the adoption of various styles of organizations in correspondence with different scales of technologies. As shown in Table 2, three types are distinctly apparent: (1) household scale, (2) neighbourhood scale and (3) community scale. In spite of the different scales, the overall goal of the project was to embark upon small activities that would benefit a large number of households. Hence, smaller scale techniques necessitated their distribution in larger numbers and larger techniques implied the installation of one or two units. The nature of organization styles for decision-making had to vary in relation to the scales of technology.
Table 2 Scales of Technology and Organizational Characteristics
|
Technology Scale |
Examples |
Organizational Characteristics |
|
Household |
Improved Cooking Stove Improved kupi |
Household preference and responsibility |
|
Neighbourhood (or a small group of households) |
Improved traditional watermill Biogas/mill Treadle pump Weaving centre |
Group liability Agreements for mutual responsibilities and benefit sharing Readiness to take greater risks Uniformity of interest and attitude among participants |
|
Community |
Afforestation Crop drying facility Electrification Irrigation/mill Diesel mill Tools cooperative |
Group liability but limited individual sacrifices Formation of executive committee for managerial responsibilities Tendency to minimize individual risks |
Participation of the underprivileged. Another important aspect is the participation by the underprivileged members of the community (such as women, the poorest of the poor, and people from the lower castes). By virtue of researchers' residence in the community and intensive interaction with the residents, it has been proven to be possible to bring the peripheral groups to the fore. Examples include (1) organization of the poor women in Radhi for training at the weaving centre in Bhutan, (2) inclusion of poor people's shares in the establishment of the diesel mill in Kodimpara, (3) participation of the Magars in obtaining loans from the Agricultural Development Bank of Nepal in Barakol, and (4) awakening of interest in the charring drum among the blacksmights in Kamitole and in the improved cooking stoves among the Danuwar Rai in Sangramlar (Nepal). The methodology has helped in identifying what constraints inhibit participation in the development process by people in the periphery and thereby find means of overcoming constraints. Field workers had to realise, on the other hand, that many projects would really work only if everyone benefitted, including the more powerful people in the community.
The techniques varied from place to place. In Radhi, the researchers had to identify a respectable woman from the community who could act as a trainer and at the same time buy "Bumthang frame looms", yarn and other materials to initiate the weaving centre. In Kodimpara, the researchers negotiated with residents for a balance among share payments to avert eventual control by one or two persons. Negotiations led to the representation of three farmers, two landless people and two weavers as spokesmen in the Executive Committee. In Barakol, the poor residents were encouraged to organize for obtaining the loan from ADBN for the irrigation canal. The blacksmiths from Kamitole were taken to an exhibition in Kathmandu to witness the charring drum in operation before they could decide whether the risk was worth taking. In Sangramlar, the installation fee for improved cooking stoves had to be reduced from Rs 15 (the normal charge) to Rs 5.
Linkages with other Projects/Agencies. Another important contribution of PAR pertains to the establishment of linkages with related programmes of other agencies. Starting with the formulation of action projects based on needs and priorities, the researchers have been successful in facilitating the flow of resources from different projects and agencies in appropriate manners. These attempts have been appreciated by the project/agency personnel as well as the village residents. From the perspective of projects/agencies, the process has helped toward achievement of set targets. From the villagers' point of view, the process has helped In channelling resources for meeting their needs and priorities. The happy matching can in this sense be considered an important accomplishment of PAR. What is even more remarkable is that capabilities for local organizations have been strengthened and operational mechanisms of agencies/projects have become better coordinated. Examples of direct collaboration are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Collaboration with other Agencies
|
Agencies |
Activities |
|
Bangladesh | |
|
Bangladesh Council for Scientific and Industrial Research |
Improved kupis |
|
CARITAS |
Treadle pumps |
|
Bhutan | |
|
Department of Forests |
Afforestation |
|
National Women's Association |
Improved cooking stoves |
|
Paro Bondey Research Farm |
Tools Cooperative |
|
Nepal | |
|
Agricultural Development Bank |
Irrigation/mill and Biogas mill |
|
German Agency for Technical Cooperation |
Improved traditional water mill |
|
Department of Forests |
Afforestation |
|
United Nations Children's Fund |
Improved cooking stoves |
Collaboration was also apparent in relation to coordination for policy and planning aspects. In the case of Nepal, government officers from seven different agencies were included in the site selection committee. This initiative proved to be important to maintain a sustained Interest in REPS activities among national agencies.
Lessons for replication and further planning
The participatory process helped the researchers to recognize the various constraints. There was a general feeling among all the researchers that the one-year period in the village was too short. A good part of the time was spent on earning people's confidence and initiating them into active participation. In most cases, projects were started but the opportunity to see them in operation was cut off. When problems occurred, some projects had to be dropped because there was no time to start the next series of negotiations for second generation problems. More importantly, the time constraint was most damaging with respect to formulation of village energy plans. The process had to be rushed and there was less time available to dialogue with the residents regarding these plans. The question, therefore, revolves around how the PAR process might be pursued in the future given the lessons learned in the present cycle of activities. Some reflections on this topic are discussed in the next section.
Toward District Energy Planning and Management. Based upon the above observations, we explored how PAR can be put into effect on a wider basis through alternative action paths by keeping in mind the organizational, administrative and conceptual implications. The suggestion is that the extension of PAR should shift from the "village" energy plan to the "district" energy plan. The important principle to keep in mind, however, is that PAR should continue as the inherent philosophy and working method for extension. Furthermore, it would be advisable to build upon the confidence that has been earned by researchers in the current research villages and, at the same time, extend to new communities that have different characteristics.
Given the year-long experiences already gained in the current research villages, the next stage of activities should logically centre around areas that surround these villages. The main advantage here is the possibility of building on the spread over effect of the work already in progress. There is already evidence of village residents from adjoining areas contacting researchers and persuading them into conducting similar activities in their respective villages.
Under these circumstances, a two-pronged approach can be pursued. In the first instance, the researchers can work toward strengthening villagers' capabilities for planning and project formulation, by providing the necessary backstopping and occasional monitoring and evaluation visits in areas where work has already begun. This would mean shifting the principal responsibilities from the researchers to individuals with leadership quality within the community or to executive committees formed in the various communities. The researchers can then assume the role of organizing functional training programmes, supplying technical Information and/or referring to other experts for possible assistance and service. Simultaneously, attempts can be directed to mobilizing organizations and initiating activities in the new communities. Lessons learned from previous experiences can be utilized in refining methods and approaches. Also, the data collected in due process can be accumulated into a systematic framework to assist in on-going activities.
Another important dimension in broadening the planning unit from one block or village panchayat to a cluster of such blocks or village panchayats is the possibility of inter-village or area-wide cooperation. Whereas PAR remains the Inherent philosophy and working method for extension, the schema could involve larger-scale projects such as hydroelectric development, irrigation activities, watershed management and so forth. These could feed subsequently into the development of larger market centres.
The framework suggested above fits well, for example, with the idea of a "service centre" as suggested in the Decentralization Act of Nepal. Depending upon the size of the district, each service centre covers a contiguous area consisting of about six village panchayats on average. As suggested above, the extension of PAR can be developed with the idea of strengthening the service centre. The objectives may be set up as: (1) strengthening planning capabilities, (2) providing technical backstopping and referral services and (3) establishing a systematic data base for the area that falls under the influence of the service centre.
Whereas the above activities would centre around the area where the PAR villages serve as the foci, it would be worthwhile considering other areas within a district (as in the case of Nepal) or a similar administrative unit. It is conceivable that such a unit might be divided into different categories as influenced by such criteria as agro-ecological differentiation; types of energy problems and prospects; resource potentials; distance from road heads, district headquarters or market centres; caste/ethnic diversities and organization potentials; availability of extension services; presence of on-going projects/programmes; and others as appropriate. Depending upon the availability of funds and other resources for PAR extension, it would be useful to choose new research villages that could serve later as service centre sites. The objective in such selections would be to explore the variations in PAR approaches required to address issues that predominate under different circumstances. The experiences gathered could subsequently be developed into what might be called a "district" energy plan.
Functional leadership and project funding could be progressively integrated in the area development programmes or integrated rural development projects (as in Nepal), or in special credit programmes like the SFDP.
The conclusions of the PAR Project for Rural Energy Planning, based on experiences in the research villages of Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, can be summarized as follows.
1. PAR is a valuable approach for rural energy planning. It has been able to address in particular the complexity of rural resources systems including energy, and thereby help in searching for critical energy linkages to basic development. Furthermore, it has shown how planners must interact to channel villagers' motivations effectively to keep up with the pace of development in accordance with their own needs and priorities.2. PAR gives evidence of being even more essential and effective for facilitating village organization and action for overall development planning and Implementation, rather than energy only: villagers' participation and mobilization of resources, moreover, can be expected to be much more active if the scope of project identification and appraisal, seed fund utilization and subsequent follow-up is broadened to encompass all development alternatives and priorities advanced within the community.
3. Inter-village and area-wide development programmes could also make use of a wider application of the PAR approach.
In fact, follow-up activities, at least in Nepal, have had a wider framework, through training of district officers on the approach, and transfer of the experience to IRD projects for the identification and design of their micro-components - be they energy-related or not.
