N.A. Burdin
Nikalai A. Burdin is Director of the Central Research Institute on the Economy and Information on the Forest Industries, Moscow.
This article is based on a study prepared in 1990 by the Government of the USSR for the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and the FAO European Forestry Commission. As one of the first analyses of this vast economic asset from an internal perspective, it represents an important step toward a fuller understanding of the forestry sector of the USSR.
In the USSR 1259.4 million hectares (56.4 percent of the total land area) are designated as State Forest Lands. These include forests directly managed by the state, urban woodlands, allocated forests and forest reserves, and collective farm forests, i.e. forests on land set aside for the permanent use of collective farms. State Forest Lands also include areas earmarked for forestry purposes but not currently under forest cover (see Table 1). The total land actually under forest cover is estimated at 810.9 million ha (21.9 percent of the world's forests), corresponding to a standing volume of 85900 million m³, of which 51700 million m³ consist of mature and overmature stands.
The average forest cover of the USSR (the ratio of the area under forest to the total area) is 36.4 percent, but this varies considerably on a regional basis. It is highest in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (44.9 percent), the Byelorussian SSR (34.6 percent), Georgia (39.7 percent), Latvia (41.7 percent) and Estonia (40 percent), but low in the republics of Soviet Central Asia (Kazakhstan, 3.4 percent; Kirgizia, 4.1 percent; Tadzhikistan, 4.2 percent; Uzbekistan, 5.9 percent). It is noteworthy that stands in the European regions of the USSR are predominantly young and middle-aged, while in the Asian regions they are mature or approaching maturity.
All the state-run forest lands of the USSR (94 percent of the total area) are categorized into one of three groups, depending on their economic importance and the functions they perform. The first group, covering a land area of 256.6 million ha, of which 142.8 million ha are actually under forest cover, consists of areas that are reserved for protective and conservation functions.
The second group comprises forests that, although primarily of importance for protection, are also exploited commercially for timber and other products in regions of high population density and with a developed transport network; and forest areas with scarce raw-material resources where utilization must be strictly controlled. This group covers some 69.6 million ha, of which 57.2 million ha are under forest cover.
The third group (856.6 million ha, of which 545.5 million ha are forested) comprises those areas where the main value of the forest resource lies in its potential for commercial utilization. These are the forests that are called upon to meet the needs of the economy for, wood on a continuing basis without, however, destroying their protective properties.
The remaining 6 percent of forest lands (65.4 million ha) includes areas allocated to ministries and government departments, urban woodlands and forest reserves, and collective farm forests.
Of course, the qualitative and quantitative structure of the forest resource, particularly the areas subject to commercial exploitation, is highly dependent on regeneration and afforestation operations. During the period from 1970 to 1987, 900000 to 1000000 ha of forests have been regenerated annually by tree planting and sowing. Natural regeneration has been encouraged over even larger areas (see Table 2).
Forestry enterprises have established more than 11500 ha of forest seed orchards and set aside more than 160000 ha of permanent forest seed compartments. On average 6000 to 7000 tonnes of seeds are collected and used annually, including 900 tonnes of conifer seeds.
Up to 7000 million seedlings and transplants of more than 60 species of trees and shrubs are produced annually in forest nurseries. The planting of seedlings is given preference over the sowing of seeds for the establishment of forest crops because the survival rate is higher and crown closure is achieved earlier. Roughly 76 percent by area of all artificial regeneration now consists of planted seedlings.
Regeneration efforts concentrate on economically valuable species: pine accounts for 48-51 percent by area, spruce for 27-29 percent, cedar for 2.5-3.3 percent and oak for 3-3.5 percent.
During the period of reconstruction following the founding of the Soviet State, the main types of forest products were industrial wood, sawnwood and plywood. These products were used in construction and for industrial operation requirements. The role of wood increased under the five-year plans of the period preceding the Second World War (1929-1940), which was marked by nationwide industrialization and extensive industrial construction. Since the end of the 1940s, the consumption of forest products has increased constantly.
Throughout the period 1928-1955 the building industry was the main consumer of forest products, although its share decreased from 41.7 percent of the total volume of wood consumption in 1928 to 27.3 percent in 1955. Sawnwood accounted for nearly half the volume of the forest products used by the building industry over the period.
Between 1960 and 1970, the structure of consumption changed radically with the development of advanced substitutes for wood in the rough and sawnwood, including particle board, fibreboard and paperboard (see Table 3). At the same time, there was a marked increase in overall consumption of the main wood and paper products, driven by the steady expansion in industrial building and civil engineering, the development of the furniture industry and the increasing need for packing in the transportation of agricultural produce, in particular vegetables and fruit. This trend toward increased consumption has continued through the present.
TABLE 1. Distribution of the area and stocks of the State Forest Lands by form of use
|
Categories of forest by form of use |
Total area of forest land (millions of ha) |
Forested area (millions of ha) |
Standing volume (thousands of millions of m³) |
|
State forests |
1239.7 |
792.1 |
83.94 |
|
of which: | |||
|
State-run |
1182.8 |
745.5 |
78.65 |
|
Allocated to ministries and departments, urban woodlands and forest reserves |
56.9 |
46.6 |
5.29 |
|
Collective farm forests |
19.7 |
18.8 |
1.96 |
|
Total |
1259.4 |
810.9 |
85.90 |
Source: USSR Government.
Sawnwood
Sawnwood is still the most widely used forest product, having extensive applications in many branches of industry, in building and for private consumption. In the building industry, there has been a slight decline in the proportion of sawnwood used, primarily because of increased use of reinforced concrete, linoleum and metal structures, and also because of the increasing deliveries of prefabricated components (windows, doors and glued constructions).
In the furniture industry, owing to the rising standards of chemical processing and the expanding use of wood-based panels, there is a move away from sawnwood in favour of particle board. Whereas in 1960 sawnwood accounted for 74 percent of the total volume of forest products used in furniture production, and particle board for only 3 percent, by 1986 particle board accounted for 69 percent of furniture raw product, while sawnwood had dropped to 15 percent. The use of sawnwood for pit-props in coal production is also on the decline as a result of the increased emphasis on open-cast mining and because of the use of powered supports with metal frames in underground mining.
The consumption of sawnwood for containers and for packaging materials has also declined appreciably in conjunction with the considerably increased output of container-board. In 1960, for example, wooden containers accounted for more than 70 percent of all packaging materials, but in 1986 the corresponding figure was down to 35 percent. Only 6 percent of containers were of paperboard in 1960, whereas the present figure is 22 percent.
On the other hand, there has been an increase in the use of sawnwood by the agricultural sector. Sales of sawnwood to the public have also increased considerably, particularly in recent years as a result of the growth of private residential building in rural areas, the building of holiday homes outside of major urban centres and the expansion of cooperatives (associations) engaged in market gardening.
Plywood, particle board and fibreboard
Plywood manufacture was already well established in the 1930s; by 1950 annual consumption was in the order of 0.8 million m³ and has doubled since. The particle board and fibreboard industries have developed dynamically since 1960 and their consumption has increased continuously. The consumption of particle board in the country in 1987 was 7.2 million m³ while consumption of fibreboard was 0.5 million m³ Nearly 75 percent of all particle board is used in furniture production, where it has become the main design material. The main applications of fibreboard are as panels in the building industry, for furniture, containers and packaging materials.
TABLE 2. Regeneration in national forests
|
|
1970 |
1980 |
1985 |
1987 |
|
Regeneration in national forests (thousands of he) |
1997 |
2179 |
2188 |
2203 |
|
of which: |
|
|
|
|
|
Tree planting and sowing |
934 |
1083 |
983 |
987 |
|
Assistance to natural regeneration |
1063 |
1096 |
1205 |
1216 |
|
Forest management (millions of ha) |
41.6 |
46.8 |
47.3 |
47.1 |
Source: USSR Government.
Paperboard
The paperboard industry has developed rapidly, helping to ease pressure on sawnwood resources for use in packaging. Consumption of container-board - 213000 tonnes in 1960 - had risen to 1352000 tonnes in 1980 and totalled 1630000 tonnes in 1987.
This article makes a number of fundamental assumptions in forecasting long-term patterns in consumption of forest products in the USSR. The planned volume and rate of the economic and social development of the USSR in 1986-1990 and to the year 2000 as approved by the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union for the country have been used as a benchmark.
The long-term forecast for forest products covers demand for building (state, cooperative and collective farms), repair and maintenance, the mining industry, containers and packaging materials, furniture production, the pulp and paper industry, the installation of communications and power transmission lines? mechanical engineering, sales to the public and export requirements.
Two long-term demand scenarios are presented. The first is calculated in the light of existing practical constraints on investment and other resources. Under this scenario the requirement for paper and board is not fully satisfied. The second scenario assumes higher rates of development of the country's economy and intensification of all forms of activity of the forest products sector, the correction of regional imbalances and consequent fuller satisfaction of the demand for forest products. Forecasts for the apparent consumption of the main types of wood and paper products in the year 2000 are set out in Table 4 and Table 5.
Containers and packaging materials will remain the most wood-intensive application. Increased volumes of industrial and agricultural production inevitably involve more transport of goods and, consequently, a demand for wooden and paperboard containers. However, use of container-board in place of wooden crates will be progressively increased. As a result, the contribution of roundwood to the manufacture of containers and packaging materials will be reduced from 13 percent to 3 percent in volume, and the contribution of sawnwood from 16 percent to 8 percent, while the contribution of container-board will increase from 30 percent to 56 percent.
The overall increase in demand for packaging materials will be partially satisfied by the replacement of wood-based packaging materials with other materials, i.e. metal and plastics. In addition, the increased use of containers and special freight vans will reduce the requirement for packaging materials by 25 percent compared with traditional types of packaging.
Furniture manufacture will remain one of the basic industrial uses of wood, but particle board will become the most widely used material. The breakdown forecast for consumption of the various forest products in the long term for furniture manufacture will be as follow (proportion of total volume): sawnwood 11 percent, plywood 11 percent, particle board 70 percent and fibreboard 8 percent.
TABLE 3. Apparent consumption of forest products
|
Type of product |
Unit |
1960 |
1970 |
1980 |
1987 |
1987 as % of 1960 |
|
Sawnwood |
millions of m³ |
101.1 |
108.7 |
90.3 |
94.0 |
93 |
|
Plywood |
thousands of m³ |
1254 |
1810 |
1752 |
1816 |
145 |
|
Particle board |
thousands of m³ |
160 |
1850 |
5110 |
7181 |
4500 |
|
Fibreboard |
millions of m² |
67 |
166 |
387 |
537 |
800 |
|
Paperboard |
thousands of tonnes |
2281 |
4127 |
5013 |
5899 |
260 |
Source: USSR Government
TABLE 4. Forecast of long-term apparent consumption patterns of main types of wood and paper products, in comparison with 1985 (1985 = 100 percent)
|
|
Variant I |
Variant II |
|
Sawnwood |
109.4 |
113.6 |
|
Plywood |
156.8 |
174.6 |
|
Particle board |
203.8 |
260.6 |
|
Fibreboard |
157.4 |
173.6 |
|
Paperboard |
280.0 |
367.4 |
|
Paper |
177.0 |
183.2 |
Source: USSR Government.
TABLE 5. Forecast of long-term apparent consumption patterns of forest products by end-use (percentages of total)
|
|
Variant I |
Variant II |
|
Building industry |
9.4 |
9.9 |
|
Pulp and paper industry |
16.0 |
16.8 |
|
Mining |
1.9 |
1.8 |
|
Containers and packaging materials |
21.6 |
21.0 |
|
Furniture production |
10.9 |
11.3 |
|
Mechanical engineering and woodworking |
4.3 |
4.2 |
|
Repair and maintenance |
7.2 |
6.0 |
|
Sales to the public |
6.2 |
5.8 |
|
Other consumption |
22.5 |
23.2 |
Source: USSR Government.
The building industry will also remain a large consumer of forest products. With an expansion in the total volume of building by a factor of 1.5, there will be a further increase in the demand for forest products, but there will be a simultaneous move toward the replacement of wood with steel and aluminium, the replacement of wooden houses with brick houses, of wooden flooring with linoleum, etc. In the light of these factors it is anticipated that the consumption of forest products per million roubles of building work will be reduced by 20 percent.
Shifts among wood-based products in the building industry - for example, the replacement of industrial wood and sawnwood with plywood and boards will be of great significance in ensuring better use of forest products. Absolute consumption of roundwood and sawnwood will fall in comparison with 1985, while that of particle board will increase by a factor of 3.3 and that of fibreboard by 1.6. The structure of consumption will be as follows (proportion of total volume): roundwood 9 percent, sawnwood 60 percent, plywood 9 percent, particle board 14 percent and fibreboard 8 percent.
The USSR is a world leader in terms of the volume of roundwood removals. In 1987 the total volume of removals for the country as a whole was 389 million m³, a figure that has changed relatively little over the period analysed (the volume of removals was 369 million m³ in 1960). The roundwood removed consisted largely of the following assortments: sawlogs 39 percent, pulpwood for the pulp and paper industry 11 percent, building wood (poles etc.) 5 percent, pit props 2 percent, fuelwood 29 percent and veneer logs 2 percent. An analysis of principal fellings over recent years, for the country as a whole, shows that clear felling accounts for roughly 83 percent by area and 90 percent by volume.
In assessing the development of logging activities in recent years we have to recognize that it has not met the needs of the economy. The wood-consuming industries, in particular the pulp and paper industry and sawmilling, have not been adequately supplied, owing to the low rate of increase in removals. The main reasons for this state of affairs are the slow commissioning of new capacity for removals, the lack of sufficient haulage roads usable all the year round, the limited forest use in some parts of the country, the low rate of introduction of new machinery and equipment, and the export of substantial volumes of pulpwood.
The Ministry of the Forest Industry is responsible for most logging operations in the country, accounting for nearly 60 percent of roundwood removals. The greater part of logging operations are carried out in the European and Urals regions of the USSR. In recent years priority has been given to the development of Siberia and the Soviet Far East, where transport facilities and industry are being intensively developed in new regions. The volume of logging operations is increasing and large groups of forest industries have been established (Bratsk, Ust-Ulimsk).
Sawnwood
Throughout the period under analysis the output of sawnwood was 98-105 million m³ annually, making the USSR the world leader. The process of building and commissioning large sawmilling plants and scrapping small unprofitable ones is bringing about a constantly increasing concentration of the production of sawnwood.
A fibreboard production plant in operation
The general trend in sawmilling is toward better and more comprehensive use of the raw material. Sawmill residues are increasingly being processed to make chips for the pulp and paper industry, as well as to meet fuel requirements and other needs. The output of chips from sawmilling waste in 1987 was 6.7 million m³ The level of utilization of wood raw material in some sawmilling enterprises is as high as 88-92 percent.
Wood-based panels
The USSR is behind a number of countries in terms of its output of plywood. The rate of increase in plywood production has been low in recent years, largely on account of technical, technological and organizational factors. Production of other wood-based panels is developing rapidly. Over the period 19601987, output of particle board increased by a factor of 47 and that of fibreboard by a factor of 9. This growth trend has been evident for all the five-year periods.
TABLE 6. Comparison of Soviet exports of forest products with those of other main exporting countries in 1985 (percentages)
|
Product |
USSR |
USA |
Canada |
Sweden |
Finland |
|
In raw wood equivalent |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
|
Roundwood |
37.5 |
32.9 |
2.9 |
3.0 |
3.1 |
|
Chips and residues |
4.6 |
5.7 |
1.2 |
1.3 |
0.7 |
|
Sawnwood and sleepers |
32.1 |
18.3 |
50.8 |
30.8 |
22.6 |
|
Plywood and veneer |
2.5 |
1.6 |
1.0 |
0.1 |
2.7 |
|
Particle board |
1.1 |
0.5 |
0.6 |
1.0 |
0.6 |
|
Fibreboard |
1.0 |
0.3 |
0.1 |
0.7 |
0.3 |
|
Wood pulp |
12.6 |
23.3 |
21.5 |
26.9 |
17.6 |
|
Paper and paperboard |
8.6 |
17.4 |
21.9 |
36.2 |
52.4 |
|
By value: | |||||
|
Roundwood |
26.4 |
27.8 |
1.9 |
1.1 |
1.9 |
|
Chips and residues |
1.3 |
3.2 |
0.6 |
0.3 |
0.1 |
|
Sawnwood and sleepers |
35.4 |
14.5 |
30.5 |
22.1 |
14.3 |
|
Plywood and veneer |
4.2 |
3.0 |
1.6 |
0.4 |
4.8 |
|
Particle board |
0.9 |
0.5 |
1.3 |
0.8 |
0.5 |
|
Fibreboard |
1.4 |
0.9 |
0.3 |
0.8 |
0.4 |
|
Wood pulp |
16.6 |
20.1 |
20.5 |
20.4 |
10.6 |
|
Paper and paperboard |
13.8 |
30.0 |
43.3 |
54.1 |
67.4 |
Source: USSR Government.
Particle board plants of various sizes are in operation in the USSR. Their capacities range from 18000 m³ to 250000 m³ but capacity is most often between 55000 m³ and 110000 m³ more than 60 percent of total output is produced by plants in this range.
Pulp and paper
The pulp and paper industry has a special place among the industries of the forest products sector in the USSR. In terms of the volume of production of pulp, paper and paperboard, the USSR occupies fourth place in the world after the United States, Canada and Japan.
TABLE 7. USSR exports in 1987
|
Roundwood |
19.7 million m³ |
|
Sawnwood |
7.9 million m³ |
|
Panels |
1.2 million m³ |
|
Wood pulp |
1 million tonnes |
|
Total value |
US$ 3000 million |
Source: FAO Forest Products Yearbook 1987.
Over the past 27 years as a whole, the output of pulp has increased by 3.8 times, that of paper by 2.7 times and that of paperboard by 4.9 times. Nevertheless, the development of the pulp and paper industry over the period reviewed has not met the needs of the national economy.
The Soviet Union has a long-established tradition of exporting wood and wood products. In the Middle Ages, Russia traded extensively with many of its Western neighbours in Europe. At the beginning of the twentieth century, wood, mainly in the rough, was shipped from the northern and eastern ports to the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, France, the Netherlands and Belgium. The total volume of wood exports was 10.9 million m³ in 1913.
In examining the more recent development of exports, three distinct stages may be distinguished. The period 1960-1970 evinced the highest rates of growth in Soviet exports of forest products: shipments of roundwood increased by a factor of 4.5, Sawnwood 1.6, plywood 3.1, pulpwood I.8 and paper and paperboard 4.
In 1970-1980 traditional exports (roundwood, sawnwood, plywood) remained basically stable, but there was a substantial increase in exports of particle board, fibreboard, wood pulp, paper and paperboard, a trend which helped to improve the export structure of wood and wood products.
The years 1980 to 1987 were characterized by steady growth in exports of the whole range of forest products, a fact that can be explained to a considerable extent by the economic restructuring that had begun in the forest products sector (see Table 6 end Table 7). In 1987 the USSR occupied the first place in world exports of pulpwood; second place (after Canada) for sawn softwood; second place for fibreboard; fifth place for particle board, plywood and wood pulp; and eighth place for paper and paperboard.
The former socialist countries, and especially those that were members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) are the largest traditional importers of wood and wood-based products from the USSR. The Soviet Union sends more than 50 percent of its total exports of sawn softwood, 42 percent of plywood, more than 68 percent and 82 percent respectively of fibreboard and particle board, 15 percent of roundwood, 72 percent of wood pulp and 77 percent of paper to the CMEA countries.
Exports of Soviet wood, pulp and paper products to the developing countries are increasing. The USSR supplies these countries with sawn softwood, sawlogs, plywood, wood pulp, paper and paperboard.
The USSR is also a traditional exporter of roundwood, sawn softwood, sawlogs, pulpwood, pit-props, plywood, furniture, boards, wood pulp and paperboard to the developed capitalist countries. Japan and Finland are the largest importers of Soviet roundwood, while western European countries are the predominant importers of sawnwood.
A significant factor in the future development of USSR exports of wood products is the recent development of integrating relationships. On 13 January 1987 the USSR Council of Ministers adopted two decrees entitled "Procedure for the establishment and operation in the territory of the USSR of joint ventures, international groupings and organizations of the USSR and other CMEA countries" and "Procedure for the establishment and operation in the territory of the USSR of joint ventures with the participation of Soviet organizations and companies of capitalist and developing countries". These decrees make provision for the establishment of joint ventures to carry out productive, scientific and technical and economic activities in industry, agriculture, construction and other areas of the national economy.
By 1988 a number of joint ventures had already been established or were being set up in the forest products industries of the USSR with the participation of companies from Japan, Austria, Finland and other countries.
Over the period considered in this study, the forest products sector of the USSR has developed rapidly while the volume of roundwood removals remained practically unaltered. The apparent consumption of wood and paper products in all branches of the economy has risen steadily. The structure of consumption has also improved; consumption of wood in the rough has declined and consumption of effective substitutes (panels, paperboard, etc.) has increased.
Nevertheless, the rates of development of industries in the forest products sector, especially over the past decade, have not corresponded to the growth requirements of the national economy.
The principal approach to this problem should be an across-the-board intensification of forest industries, based on the integrated use of wood resources. Fuller and more rational use must be made of all wood resources, including secondary resources and low-grade hardwoods. The output of effective substitutes for solid wood and the development of the pulp and paper industry must be accelerated. Forest products industries must be further centralized and concentrated to increase economic efficiency. Environmental protection measures must be extended throughout the forest products sector. Finally, the export market for USSR forest products must be further developed and concentration must be shifted increasingly to processed, pulp and paper products.
