3.5 Former USSR Area

Figure 3.5.1.
Total aquaculture production in 1995 in the countries of the former USSR area amounted to 161,000 mt, valued at US$395 million. The contribution of this region to world total aquaculture production and value in 1995 was 0.6% and 0.9%, respectively. Total production in the region has decreased since 1984, when total aquaculture production in the former USSR was 271,000 mt, valued at US$313.7 million. The decrease in production (APR 1984-1995, -4.6), and the increase of its value (APR 1984-1995, 2.1), however, were not continuous throughout this period (Figure 3.5.1). Production and value showed significant increases from 1984 to 1990 (APR 6.9 for production, and 18.1 for value), when total aquaculture production peaked at 404,000 mt, valued at US$856.1 million. In 1990, this region contributed 2.6% in terms of production and 3.2% in terms of value to world aquaculture production.

There was a drastic decrease in total production and value from 1990 to 1991 of 36.6% and 34.2%, respectively, when production and value dropped to 256,000 mt and US$563.6 million, respectively. Since 1991, total production and value of aquaculture have continued to decrease, although at slower rates, with APRs (1991-1995) of about -11.0 for production and -8.5 for value. Total production in 1994 was 171,000 mt, valued at US$417.3 million The decrease in production for the 1994-1995 period (6.1% for production, and 5.3% for value) may indicate that the rate of decline in aquaculture production, and its value, is slowing.

The four main producing countries in the region are the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Belarus and Uzbekistan where aquaculture production contributed 42.6%, 28.7%, 8.8% and 6.3%, respectively, to the total 1995 aquaculture output of the region. The decrease in total national production during the period 1988-1995 was most significant in the Russian Federation, Ukraine and Uzbekistan, with APRs of -10.9, -9.9 and -9.5, respectively. Aquaculture production in Belarus decreased at a much lower rate (APR -1.8). Recent production statistics may indicate that production in Ukraine and Belarus is increasing (5.7% and 3.7% increase in 1994-1995, respectively), whereas in the Russian Federation and Uzbekistan there were decreases of 12.0% and 30.0%, respectively in 1994-1995, indicating that total national aquaculture output in these countries has continued to decline.

The eleven "minor" producing countries in this region, taken as a group, produced 13.6% of the total regional output in 1995. Collectively, these countries also experienced a decrease in aquaculture production during 1988-1995 (APR -5.5), although recently there appear to be slight increases (1.5% in 1994-1995) in production in this group. However, the individual 1994-1995 growth for these countries showed different percentage increases: Armenia 3.4; Azerbaijan 7.0; Estonia -24.5; Georgia 9.3; Kazakstan 3.4; Kyrgyzstan 9.8; Latvia -6.2; Lithuania -8.5; Moldova Republic 2.0; Tajikistan 2.5; and Turkmenistan -8.5.

Figure 3.5.2.
Throughout 1984-1995, aquaculture production in this region never contributed more than 4% to total fish production (Figure 3.5.2). Total fish production has declined significantly from peak levels of 11.4 million mt in 1986 and 1988 down to 4.6 million mt in 1994. Highest relative contributions by aquaculture were reached in 1990 and 1993, with 3.9% of 10.5 million mt, and 34.0% of 5.5 million mt, respectively. The 1995 share of aquaculture to total fish production (5.3 million mt in 1995) was 3.0%, down from 3.7% in 1994. This was mainly due to an increase in capture fisheries landings of 751,000 mt in 1995.

Figure 3.5.3.
Most aquaculture production in this region is derived from freshwater aquaculture. In 1995, inland aquaculture produced 152,000 mt, valued at US$376 million, while coastal aquaculture contributed only 5.6% of total aquaculture production, or 4.8 % of its total value.

Figure 3.5.4.

The two dominant species produced in the region are common carp and silver carp. The production of these two species contributed 81.2% of the total aquaculture output in 1995. Common carp production decreased during 1984-1995 at an APR of -6.5; in 1994-1995, production dropped by 14.3%. Negative production trends in silver carp were less pronounced, with an APR of -4.4 over 1984-1995 and a 2.3% drop in 1994-1995. Aquaculture of brown seaweeds, freshwater fishes nei¹, cyprinids nei, white-fishes nei and bighead carp together generated 13.8% of the 1995 output (Table 3.5.1). The remaining 5% of production was derived from aquaculture of channel catfish, sea trout, Mediterranean mussel, freshwater bream, grass carp (= white amur), sturgeons nei, sea mussels nei, mullets nei, pike-perch, goldfish, Yesso scallop, flatfishes nei, freshwater crustaceans nei, trouts nei, snakeheads (= murruls), asps, wels (= Som catfish) and buffalofishes.

Figure 3.5.5.
The Russian Federation was and continues to be the main producer of common carp and silver carp in the region (Table 3.5.1), followed by Ukraine, Belarus and Uzbekistan. Even though production of these two species is considerably lower in all other countries of the region, their relative contribution to total aquaculture production in these countries is very significant (Figure 3.5.5). The exception is Estonia, where production of rainbow trout accounted for 88.3% of total national output, and for 27.7% of total production in the region, ranking third as major rainbow trout producer, after Armenia and Ukraine which in 1995 contributed 35.8% and 34.8%, respectively, to the total regional production of 1005 mt. Channel catfish is mainly produced in Ukraine which contributed 1,300 mt or 92.9% of total regional production. The Russian Federation accounted for 1,100 mt (or 100%) of sea trout produced in the region. Total regional production of Mediterranean mussel in 1995 was 1,075 mt, of which 53.5% were produced in the Russian Federation and 46.5% in the Ukraine.

There has been a very noticeable drop in recorded production in the region, in both aquaculture and the wider agricultural sector, since the change of political system and the break-up of the state structure (Muir, 1995). Note that since 1988, statistical data on aquaculture in the former USSR area, which were grouped earlier under the USSR, have been separated and reported by FAO under the individual countries of the former USSR. Because of this, there may well be problems in recording and reporting appropriate production data from aquaculture and inland capture fisheries, which makes it difficult to define the actual patterns of production and availability of aquaculture products for domestic food supply.

The economic and political changes taking place in the region, due to the transition from centrally-planned to market economies, have had a tremendous impact on all sectors in the countries, including the fishery sector (FAO Fisheries Department Task Force, 1995; see also FAO, 1994; 1995; 1996a). According to FAO (FAO, 1996a), the decline of agricultural output, which affected the region since the beginning of the transition, continued in 1994 and 1995. The sector has been hit by the demise of former support policies, demand decline linked to real income reduction, the difficulties of the farm-restructuring and enterprise-privatization processes, and the disruption of trade among the republics of the former USSR (FAO, 1996a). In 1995, crop and livestock production continued to decline in some of the major republics of the former USSR, such as the Russian Federation, Ukraine and Kazakstan (FAO, 1996a). In Armenia, the food supply situation continues to improve as a result of increased trade and donor assistance. However, a section of the population seriously lacks resources to purchase food and, together with refugees and internally displaced people, continues to need assistance.

In Azerbaijan and Georgia, although some recovery in food production is anticipated in 1996, the food supply situation remains difficult because of economic problems and reduced imports. In Tajikistan, the food supply situation is extremely serious, with those populations most at risk being threatened by starvation in the absence of international assistance (FAO, 1996a).

Significantly, these economic and political changes have entailed a drastic drop not only in total fish production but also in fish consumption or availability of fish for human consumption. Fish as a human food commodity in this region is relatively important, providing 10.2% of total dietary protein supply, as estimated for 1990-1992 in FAO’s Sixth World Food Survey (FAO, 1996b).

Available data on per caput supply of fish and fishery products show that apparent consumption of fish in the Russian Federation has decreased from 22.7 kg in 1991 to 15.5 kg in 1993, in addition to a significant decline in supply of animal (i.e. non-fish) protein from 57.3 g per caput per day in 1991 to 46.6 g per caput per day in 1993, resulting in the reduction of the ratio of fish/animal protein from 15.8 % in 1991 to 11.5% in 1993 (Laureti, 1996). It is noteworthy that Zaitsev (1996) reports a decline in average annual consumption of fish and fishery products in the Russian Federation from 15.8 kg (edible weight) per caput in 1991 to 9.5 kg per caput in 1993, and a decline in consumption of meat and meat products from 69 to 55 kg per caput for the same period. The FAO Fisheries Department Task Force (1995) quotes Russian data reported by Chuksin (1994), which indicate a drop in apparent consumption of fish and fishery products from 29 to 9 kg per caput for 1989 and 1993, respectively. However, production shortfalls have also resulted in rising prices and steadily increasing imports of fish and fishery products, with the Russian Federation in 1995 leading the way in Eastern European countries, by importing a total of 481,000 mt, mainly fresh, chilled, frozen or canned fish, valued at US$346 million (Anon., 1997). The significant increase in imports of frozen pelagics, namely mackerel and herring, by Eastern European countries, has created opportunities for western exporters (Lem, 1997).

Unfortunately, there is little information on trends in supply of fish for human consumption in the seven LIFDCs² of the region, namely Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Table 3.5.2 provides the most recent indicative estimates for per caput supply of fish and fishery products, animal proteins, and ratio of fish to animal proteins consumed in these countries. Even though the estimates for fish supply do not include possible trade of fish and fishery products to and from these countries (trade statistics are not available), it may be seen that fish supply from domestic sources has generally declined in this country grouping, with sharp reductions evident for Georgia and Turkmenistan. All countries suffered significant reductions in supply of animal protein from 1991 to 1993 (Laureti, 1996).

In the context of the recent evaluation of aquaculture development perspectives for food security, the countries of the former USSR (in addition to Africa, Asia and South America) have been recognized as primary targets for attention for food supply and food security (Muir, 1995). Perspectives for aquaculture development and food security in the region were summarized by Muir (1995), as follows:

In addition to the consequences of the major economic and political changes, aquaculture and inland capture fisheries in many cases continue to face problems resulting from environmental impacts on water quality and quantity affecting living aquatic resources (FAO Fisheries Department, 1996a; 1996b). The environmental degradation of inland waters through industrial, urban and agrochemical pollution, and damming of major rivers has had significant local impacts on fish stocks. As a result of the large-scale uptake of water for irrigation, the original fish fauna of Central Asia have been significantly modified (Kamilov and Urchinov, 1995; Pavlovskaya, 1995; Urchinov, 1995); similar problems of damming and water withdrawal affecting capture fisheries and culture-based fisheries are being reported for Kazakstan, Russian Federation, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Latvia (Berka, 1989; Petr, 1995; Petr and Mitrofanov, 1995; FAO Fisheries Department, 1996a; Afanasjeva, 1997). Major concerns have also been raised regarding the gradual desiccation of the Aral Sea, affecting species migrating in rivers of the Aral basin (Berka, 1989; FAO Fisheries Department, 1996a).

Among the many problems aquaculture producers are facing due to the impact of recent economic and political changes, is the shortage of feedstuffs, fertilizers and fish therapeutants, as experienced by Armenian fish farmers (GLOBEFISH/FAO, 1997). In the Russian Federation, import duties caused a reduction in the supply of proper feeds, resulting in plans by salmon farmers to set up local fish feed factories (GLOBEFISH/FAO, 1997). Similarly, the productivity of Lithuanian carp farms has declined in recent years due mainly to increasing use of corn in carp feeds, which is due in turn to high costs of manufactured feeds imported from Ukraine (Jakstiene, 1997). It may appear that aquaculture producers have also suffered from the generally sharp deterioration of the terms of trade between agricultural producers and input suppliers, which has caused dramatic decreases in usage, sales and production of inputs (see FAO, 1996a). Other major difficulties faced by aquaculture producers may include: (i) uncertain legal status of farm ownership due to different privatization and decollectivization processes for farms of varying size; (ii) the need to re-establish new distribution and marketing channels, for both lower- and higher-priced aquaculture products within the countries, between the countries of the region, and to more industrialized countries or regions such as Japan, Europe and North America; (iii) severe lack of capital for required restructuring and maintenance of existing farms, and for investment in new aquaculture development opportunities; and (iv) the urgent need for institutional support and technical advice on viable and sustainable joint ventures with foreign investors.

The economic and political changes have also had significant effects on inland capture fisheries, which were or continue to be subsidized through stocking and fertilization programmes (FAO Fisheries Department, 1996b). It should be remembered that official data for inland capture fisheries may in many cases be underestimated (FAO Fisheries Department, 1997). Production from subsistence and recreational fisheries is seldom accurately reflected in the statistics, and it is likely that production from these sectors plays a rather important role for food supply in the countries undergoing economic and political transition (FAO Fisheries Department, 1997). However, capture fisheries in many inland waters of the region, including, in particular, reservoirs and lakes, continue to depend heavily on stocking of fry and fingerlings produced in hatcheries, lake farms and artificial spawning grounds, or by other types of enhancement measures (Berka, 1989; Voronin and Gavrilov, 1990; Karpova et al., 1996).

Improved stocking and fisheries management measures have considerable potential for significant increases in fish production from reservoirs and lakes in some countries of the region (Coates, 1995). It is conservatively estimated that fisheries production from reservoirs in western countries of the region can be increased between four and six fold by improved stocking; inland fish production in the Russian Federation could realistically be doubled in the next decade (Coates, 1995). It is expected that recreational fisheries, often contributing significantly to household food supply, will gain increasing importance in eastern European countries of the region (EIFAC, 1996), as will the aquaculture production of seed for stocking by recreational fishers. Increases in food fish production may be expected in many locations, through culture-based recreational fisheries and with increasing delegation of responsibilities for the management of selected aquatic environments to anglers’ associations. Recreational fisheries can in many cases bring greater economic benefits to local communities than would accrue from subsistence or commercial fishing of the same resource (FAO Fisheries Department, 1996b).

Several hatcheries are being set up or modernized to rehabilitate Caspian sturgeon stocks, as part of a major action plan being supported by all Caspian countries, including the Russian Federation, Azerbaijan, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Kazakstan and Turkmenistan (GLOBEFISH/FAO, 1997). Volga delta fish farmers have started to repopulate ponds for production of Beluga sturgeon, and Bester and Spoonbill hybrids, and a new fish processing plant is being constructed in Astrakhan for the processing of carp and sturgeon (GLOBEFISH/FAO, 1997). Prospects for culture-based fisheries on the Far East coast of the Russian Federation also appear promising; for example, the release of 800 million pink, chum and coho salmon smolts reportedly contributed 20% to the 1996 landings of 150,000 mt of salmonids sent to processing plants in Sakhalin, Primorye, Kamchatka and Magadan (GLOBEFISH/FAO, 1997). Marine ranching as well as cage culture of salmonids is seen to have good prospects for future growth in Russia (Dushkina, 1994). Efforts continue to increase production of seaweeds and scallops in the Russian Far East (GLOBEFISH/FAO, 1997) and of mussels, oysters, mullets and sturgeon in Black Sea countries (UNDP, 1996). In Estonia, a new state-owned fish rearing centre was set up in 1994 to rear salmon smolts for stocking (100,000 smolts per year) and to manage genetic material from the different salmon populations (Aps, 1996).

Regarding prospects for future aquaculture development, Muir (1995) identified several general patterns which might be expected to apply to former Eastern Bloc countries. These countries will demonstrate variable responses to political and economic changes, depending on the effectiveness of emerging management structures, the institutional strengths of the entities carrying out production, and the extent to which access to open market conditions can be gained. The transfer towards 'western' systems will be variable, and new ventures may be constrained by legal and political uncertainty and by financing risks. There may also be serious environmental problems and difficulties with quality control for export markets. Production opportunities are variable, as climatic conditions will constrain many options, but resources are significant, and could be developed to a far greater degree. There are also important areas of potential with managed water bodies, and the development of high-quality and potentially valuable recreational fisheries for European and other markets.

The FAO Fisheries Department Task Force (1995), in its assessments of supply of fish and fishery products in 2010, concluded for the region that: (i) inland capture fisheries may have a higher output through the intensification of stocking; and (ii) aquaculture production will decrease further during the coming five years after which the trend is expected to be reversed. However, given the potential markets in industrialized countries, aquaculture production in transition countries is likely to diversify into culture of higher-value species such as salmon and eels (FAO Fisheries Department, 1997).

Since the transition from centrally-planned economies to market oriented economies has created turbulence for all sectors of the economies, including the fisheries and aquaculture sector, it is suggested (FAO Fisheries Department Task Force, 1995), that there is a general need of assistance to governments in policy analysis and strategy design as they undertake to restructure and privatize the fisheries sector. The Task Force identified several possible policy interventions relevant to aquaculture and inland capture fisheries, including the need to review fisheries legislation and institutions, the requirement for upgrading of the statistical data collection systems, and in particular in the following three areas:

1. Inland fisheries and aquaculture appear to be the sources from which fish supply could increase in the future. The inland sector needs to be given attention in several respects. A general management plan for inland water resources should be elaborated covering the interactions and conflicts between the fisheries sector and other freshwater users, such as the agricultural sector. The influence--possibly increasing--on resources by recreational fisheries should be taken into account. Furthermore, the development of fish yield enhancement strategies through the development and application of new technologies would be an important aspect of managing the fishery resources for a variety of inland water bodies and ensuring sustainable production.
2. The aquaculture sector needs to be restructured. The previously state-owned enterprises are now in the transition to new ownership structures. However, part of the sector has stopped functioning because of this transition, and production is decreasing. Appropriate government intervention for the rehabilitation of the sector is necessary. This would include provision of support infrastructure, assistance to develop business plans for potential fish farmers and investors, etc.
3. National and regional distribution systems need to be established. An important problem in marketing and distribution of fish and fishery products is the lack of infrastructure, both in the form of equipment and enterprise structures.

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