World newsprint famine surveyed
Forestry and forest products
Meetings and conventions
Personalities
Book reviews
The items appearing here are condensed selections of news thought to be of interest to readers of UNASYLVA. The Editor will be glad to receive direct from readers authenticated items of interest and of news value for this part of the review.
This article is reproduced front the "United Nations Bulletin" published by the United Nations Department of Public Information at Lake Success, New York, U. S. A.
The world is suffering from an acute shortage of newsprint, together with a "marked inequality in its distribution." This is the chief conclusion reached in a 27 page United Nations report surveying the current production and distribution of newsprint. ("Newsprint" is the class of paper used in the regular editions of daily and weekly newspapers throughout the world. It is normally composed of 75 to 85 percent of mechanical - groundwood-pulp, and 25 to 15 percent of sulphite pulp.)
The report is based on replies of Member governments to a questionnaire prepared jointly by the United Nations Secretariat and FAO. The replies reveal that world production as a whole has dropped fifteen percent below 1937; that Canada is the only key country showing a current gain in newsprint production; that the United States is the only country now using as much newsprint as in prewar times; and that, with the exception of Switzerland, all European countries are very short of newsprint supplies.
The basic interrelated reasons listed by the report for this shortage are as follows:
The wartime destruction of plants.
Shortages of raw materials, fuel, transport, and labor.
Foreign exchange difficulties.
The conversion of newsprint production machinery to more profitable types of paper.
Because of these and other reasons, the report asserts that it is difficult to obtain an exact estimate of the current world demand for newsprint. Governments, in forming their policies, impose priorities, restrictions, and systems of allocation and therefore the "effective demand" for newsprint varies according to these policies.
Canada's Production Gain
Surveying the newsprint production field, the report discloses that Canada, producing over 40 percent of the world's newsprint in prewar days, is the only country reporting a current gain. Between 1937 and 1947, Canada's annual news print exports rose from 3,135,000 to 3,812,000 metric tons, but her newsprint exports to the United States increased by 678,000 metric tons. Canada's other customers have been getting the same amount of newsprint as in 1937 - slightly more than 500,000 metric tons. Forecast exports for 1948-49 show a decline of over 100,000 metric tons annually to countries other than the United States.
After Canada, the world's major source of newsprint supply is Scandinavia. Here, the report disclosed, newsprint exports from Finland, Sweden, and Norway fell between 1937 and 1947 by 44 percent, although in 1947 exports from Finland and Norway staged a moderate rise. In 1946, the U.S.S.R. received nearly half (105,000 metric tons) of Finland's exports, about ten per cent of which were on reparations account.
Germany, which in 1938 exported nearly 100,000 tons of newsprint, is now out of the world's newsprint trade, and is expected to remain so this year and in 1949. Newsprint supplies in the United States would appear, on the basis of data for the first ten months of 1947, to have been somewhat higher in that year than in 1937.
Still far and away the world's leading consumer of newsprint, the United States showed an average printing in 1946 of 50,928,000 copies of daily newspapers lone, or more than twenty million copies over the comparable figures for the United Kingdom. Though domestic production for the first ten months of 1947 in the United States fell below the comparable period in 1937, newsprint supplies were higher, thanks mainly to increased imports from Canada.
Europe's Scanty Supplies
Reporting that all Europe, with the exception of Switzerland, is either "short" or "very short" of supplies, the survey cites the position of five small countries - Austria, Denmark, Hungary, Ireland, and the Netherlands - as an example. Their current supplies are more than 40 percent below 1937, and even lower than the level of present requirements.
"Nowhere, perhaps," says the report "does the newsprint picture look so dark as in the United Kingdom, the world's second largest consumer of newsprint." Domestic production in 1947, compared with 1937, had fallen from 813,000 to 256,000 metric tons, imports from 478,000 to 125,000 and current supplies are expected to drop still further to 357,000 metric tons, or less than 30 percent of the 1937 figure.
Meanwhile, newsprint exports from Britain, amounting to 58,000 metric tons in 1937, have now practically disappeared. (All daily newspapers in the United Kingdom are now restricted to four pages, while all circulations are "pegged" by Government regulations.)
In the United Kingdom, the capacity to produce more than 500,000 metric tons of newsprint annually is now lying idle, according to the report. A considerable amount of production capacity is also lying idle in Germany, Japan, and Korea. In Japan itself, the 1948 output of newsprint was just over 80,000 tons, compared with nearly 400,000 tons produced in 1937.
In other parts of the world where needs are smaller, it is reported that generally supplies have been better maintained during the last two years, especially in Latin America. Nevertheless, Australia and New Zealand both contemplate fairly drastic curtailment of their 1948-49 supplies, through reduced imports.
High Installation Costs
Reviewing prospects of future newsprint production, the report attributes the following factors for the very few new mills being constructed:
Increased costs of new installations.
In countries like the United Kingdom, Germany, and Japan, there is a great amount of unused mechanical capacity.
Pulp and newsprint industries suffered as a result of excess capacity for ten years preceding the war.
Newsprint is at present a relatively unprofitable timber product.
Some governments are unwilling to extend cutting areas.
In conclusion, the report states that experiments have been conducted in the use of other fibers, waste paper, and lighter paper, and in de-inking, but these promise no adequate relief within the immediate future. Smaller and less frequent editions of newspapers have, in some countries, resulted in circulations rising above prewar levels, and it appears that the more newsprint a country can obtain the more it uses. This is also true of all timber and paper products.
Silviculture and Management
AUSTRALIA
Conversion of low production hardwood forest to high yielding softwoods is a project of the New South Wales Forestry Commission. In the Woolgoolga area small pilot areas established some years ago have demonstrated the rapid growth of Pinus caribaea and of Pinus taeda and it is now proposed to plant some 12,000 hectares (30,000 acres) to be managed on a 40-year rotation for production of saw timber and perhaps turpentine and rosin.
FRENCH CAMEROON
The forestry development plan includes a surface of 2.3 million hectares with a classified forest area of 750,000 hectares. The latter will form the permanent forest domain and will be subject to special cutting regulations. Utilization will not be limited to the extraction of a few species used for cabinet making. The logging of some 40 species, the technological characteristics of which are already well known, will be required. Cutting figures of 20 to 35 m3 per hectare have been established on the basis of a 50-year rotation. A very interesting part of the plan is that dealing with stand improvement. Until now, reforestation was mainly a matter of planting a few species considered to be of great value. This method had the disadvantage of high cost. The new plan is based on natural regeneration, which should be possible because of the abundance of natural seeding. Plans will be based on detailed knowledge of the lots to be logged and will apply to trees of all dimensions, seedlings included, of worthwhile species.
KENYA
The planting of 81,000 hectares (200 000 acres) of softwoods in the high altitude country on the equator is being undertaken. A great deal of planting has already been done but the proper development of the timber resources must depend on long-term planting. Accessible areas in Kenya were depleted as a result of the war effort and the new plan alms to replace this valuable forest land.
SWITZERLAND
In pursuance of a Federal decree, dated 20 December 1946, the decrease in volume of standing timber which resulted from overcutting during the war years is to be offset by reafforestation work in nonprotective forests. This will consist, inter alia, in converting spruce stands, which have become unproductive, into hardwood or mixed stands.
To initiate this program, Swiss specialists are conducting detailed and precise research work primarily concerned with pedology and plant sociology. Depending on circumstances, there will be two alternative courses of action; vigorous intervention regardless of present potentialities or principles of sustained yield, or else delayed intervention in endangered stands. Naturally, stands in a critical condition should be converted first. Others, however, should not be neglected.
Obviously, the purpose of this work is to revive the natural vegetation to some extent but not to exclude conifers from the lowland forests where they have sometimes been quite successful.
The technique used will be either direct conversion by planting or seeding to fill in larger or smaller cleared spots in the forest stands, or indirect conversion by means of thinnings followed by natural regrowth aided by seedlings of broadleaved trees, which may occasionally be found growing in the forest stand. The method will depend essentially on the value and composition of the present stand.
Financial difficulties are actually the hardest ones to overcome. The plan, however, Is an original one; it is intended to correct previous silvicultural errors and should receive the attention of all foresters.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
At a meeting in April the Northeastern Lumber Manufacturers Association, representing lumbermen from eight states, recommended that sound forest conservation should be practiced by all members. The Association is to set up a committee to work out a plan for putting logging operations in the Northeast on a sustained-yield basis. It is recognized that the forest resources of the region have declined, due in part to the hurricane of 1938 and to severe damage by forest fires and insects in 1945-47. In addition, the Association believes that the annual cut has exceeded annual growth since 1939. The Association has been assured that its plan is approved by the U.. S. Forest Service, which has promised its co-operation.
The Northwest Pacific Experiment Station has undertaken to conduct interesting experiments in order to determine, in the light of the density of the restocking obtained following the cutting of a stand of Douglas fir trees, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, whether it is necessary to intervene with artificial plantings in order to obtain a certain predetermined density for the new stands when they become closed. The practical value of these experiments is considerable, since, if it were possible to achieve specific results, it would be easy to predetermine whether such plantings are necessary for the restocking of cleared stands and also how intensive a planting is required. The tests made constitute an ingenious application of the sampling method and clearly indicate the general prospects of the utilization of such methods. In this particular case, what was done was a simple counting of the number of sample trees actually regrown under varying conditions of exposure, incline, cover, and distance from the sources of seed supplies, and the number of those which had already been restocked fifteen years ago. The results obtained are encouraging and show a clear correlation between the exposure and the density of the undergrowth on the one hand and, on the other, in case of unfavorable exposures, the correlation with the slope. Many divergencies, how ever, remain unexplained; the action of rodents, for instance, should have been taken into account. Nevertheless, the method used could be applied with profit to a good deal of current research on the reforestation of stands of other species.
A research project attempting to define the scope and methods of forest economics has just been announced by the Charles Lathrop Pack Forestry Foundation and the Society of American Foresters. The object of this study is to point up the economic problems of American forestry, and to clarify the nature of research needed to help solve them. It is hoped that some better organization of the basic principles of forest economics will eventuate to provide future workers with more effective tools, and that a closer definition of the field may be reached, thus making it more attractive to able researchers and students. The decision of the Foundation to support the project was based on its recognition of the relatively undeveloped status of forest economics and of the need for the inclusion of forest economics research of a high order in the solution of many major forestry problems. It is expected that at least three years will be required to complete the study, and that it will culminate in a two-part report tentatively titled "Scope and Method of Research in the Economics of Forestry." It is planned that Part 1 will contain a general discussion of the economics of forestry, the economic problems of forestry, and the types of research needed to help solve them; Part 2 will embody a "case-method" series of study statements, each of which will define a specific research problem, and then consider the best ways of studying it, including the data needed and the best methods of analysis. These statements will be sought from experienced foresters and economists the country over, and it is hoped that their contributions will give not only a comprehensive picture of the many fields of forest economics-such as forest land use, forest management, industry, marketing and prices of forest products, consumption, income, employment, etc. - but also of the various research methods applicable.
Logging and Engineering
AUSTRALIA
Logging conditions in Western Australia are rather special where jarrah, Eucalyptus marginata, and karri, Eucalyptus diversicolor, are concerned. Mechanical logging methods have not been used until recently. With the help of springs supporting the free end of a hand cross-cut saw, it is possible for one man to cut trees up to a girth of 7.3 meters (24 feet).
As far as moving the logs is concerned, the maximum distance between the felling site and the loading stages is considered to be 1.2 kilometers (3/4 of a mile). Where the distance is longer, it is more economical either to construct a new branch line or a new line altogether for railway transport. In cases where trees are cross-cut into several logs of average size, these are taken to the sawmills by truck whereas very heavy logs are usually taken by narrow-gauge railway. At present, transport by railway has a maximum range of 40 kilometers (25 miles), thus implying that the felling area of a sawmill usually covers a circle with a radius of that distance.
The use of bulldozers and angle-dozers in the construction of access facilities has brought about great changes in the moving and transporting of logs by opening up otherwise economically inaccessible areas. Transport from the site of felling to the sawmill is currently estimated at 12 to 15 percent of the cost of sawn goods at the sawmill. The recovery of lumber is usually around 35 to 40 percent with 50 percent for sawmills sawing first-class logs of large dimensions.
In this particular part of the country the absence of terrain difficulties allows transportation over long distances so that permanent sawmills can be installed. Selection of sites for sawmills is determined by comparing the economy achieved by proximity to fellings as against proximity to markets, Another factor to be taken into consideration is the water supply. The ideal site would be along a creek on flat and stable soil providing solid foundation for' the plant and sufficient space for the construction of dwellings. These sawmills will form nuclei of communities for up to 200 workers and their families. Logging operations therefore will have to be envisaged in a manner which will insure a steady supply to the sawmills for at least 50 years.
SWEDEN
Floating operations in 1947 suffered heavily owing to low water in all floating channels. At the end of the season no less than 33.6 million logs - corresponding to 2.7 million m3 ® (93.8 million cu. ft.) - were left in them, or about 19 percent of what had been reported ready for floating, which means that about seven times as much - wood was left in the floating channels as the year before. According to the figures of the Swedish Wood Exporters' Association, 13.8 million Bra ® (487 million cu. ft.) had been brought to the channels, i.e., a good 11 percent more than the year before. The timber left was mainly sawlogs while the pulp and other small wood was floated to a greater extent. The consignees thus received 3.4 million m3 ® (120 million cu. ft.) of sawlogs, or about 19 percent less than in 1946, and 8.1 million m3 ® (285 million cu. ft.) of other wood, which was about 4 percent more than in 1946. The total quantity floated was 11.5 million m3 ® (405 million cu. ft.).
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
An important experimental study of the advantages of preparation of forestry-logging plans before blocks of publicly owned timber are put up for sale has been made by the Western Oregon Branch of the Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. The experimental area comprised 416 acres (168 hectares) - of 150-year-old Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, which also contained limited quantities of hemlock, Tsuga heterophylla, and cedar, Thuja plicata. Estimates of timber volumes and a topographic map of the area had been prepared in advance. In the experimental study the forest was divided into blocks, and these were demarcated on the ground. Certain blocks were designated as suitable for partial cutting. Topographical conditions in other blocks made clear cutting and high-lead log transportation essential. Road locations were marked on the ground, and settings for logging machines were located. No clear-cut area was to exceed 80 acres (32 hectares). Stumpage values were determined and the area was put up for sale. Because a logging plan was available, operators were able to estimate their probable costs with accuracy. Partly as a result of this fact, the timber was sold at a total price 70 percent higher than the original appraised value, the difference exceeding $47,000. Total cost of preparation of the plan was $1,575.
UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS
Timber felling and hauling are being mechanized in the Byelorussian Republic. Two narrow-guage railways have been built in the forests of the Minsk region, thus considerably facilitating timber transportation to the capital of the Republic. Five narrow-gauge lines have been reconstructed in the Pinsk and Polessia regions. They cross the marshes and link up with the wide-guage railways. At the same time the number of motor trucks used in timber transportation has almost doubled during the last year. Light cranes built according to the special design of a Byelorussian inventor have been mounted on trucks, thus trebling the speed of loading. Electrical saws are being widely introduced and the lumberjacks are frequently exceeding the quotas fixed for electric sawing.
Utilization
BRAZIL
Service trials of limited numbers of railway sleepers (crossties) made from Brazilian woods have been made since 1930 in the Netherlands railway tracks, observations on their condition being made in 1938 and again in 1947. Sleepers of seven species have now been reported equal or superior to creosoted oak. Included amongst these are four species which are not regarded as first-class sleeper woods in Brazil. As a result of these tests, the Netherlands railways are using Brazilian sleepers on a large scale.
CANADA
A recent paper on complete utilization has stated as the theoretical objective of, integration in industry a procedure which would enable sawmills and plywood plants to utilize the larger logs while mills making pulp and other related products would utilize the small logs, thinnings, tops, and the so-called waste from the lumber mills. As an interesting trend toward achievement of this purpose the increased use of small logs for processing on the West Coast was noted. A hydrolysis industry might provide the outlet for large quantities of wood waste. The total amount (sawdust, slabs, edgings, and trim) of "waste" in Canadian sawmills in 1944 was about 4,100,000 metric tolls (4,500,000 short tons). If this quantity was hydroylzed by the Scholler process about 909 million liters (200 million imperial gallons) of ethyl alcohol could be obtained. However, in actual practice much less material would be available as many mills are already utilizing some of their "waste."
Waste liquor obtained in sulphite pulping is another source of alcohol, and Canada could probably produce 182 million liters (40 million gallons) of alcohol from sulphite waste liquor. A good possibility for utilization of lignin might be found in the electrochemical treatment of waste solutions. A relatively unexplored field of utilization of wood waste is the microbiological approach. In the whole of the paper the term "wood waste" is used as referring to that portion of the tree or log not manufactured into primary products. Studies carried out in Canada indicated that each year production is more than 200 million cubic feet, exclusive of sawdust.
FINLAND
A factory producing insulation boards has been established in the city of Rauma in proximity to a wood-pulp factory. Production was started in 1945. Total daily capacity is 100 m3 or 2,500 m2 of panels of 4 centimeters thickness. The principal source of raw material is pulp made from knots, a by-product of the wood-pulp factory. Further substances used in the manufacture are the caustic residues from sulphite-pulp manufacture which remain after the sugar content has been extracted for distillation into alcohol.
The manufacturing process can be briefly described as follows: the residual liquors from sulphite distilleries together with a number of impregnating substances are added to the pulp from the knots and the mixture is beaten into foam. The mixture is then poured into forms with perforated bottoms moving slowly on conveyor rolls. Sufficient liquid drains through the perforations to leave a mixture that does not spread when the side panels are taken away. The slabs resulting from this first phase can be transported to the dryers which they will pass through on 14 horizontal rollers. The dryers are steam heated and well ventilated. The dried slabs are removed from their perforated bases, sawn to the required sizes and split by band saws into the required thicknesses. The finished panels are then packaged for shipment.
The whole process is highly mechanized. Shifts of 6 or 7 men are sufficient to prepare the dry slabs but, additional labor is necessary for sawing and packaging the panels. Since the pulp is not compressed at any stage of the process, the air incorporated into the mixture while it is beaten into a foam ensures that the sheets will have a very high porosity. This accounts for the very low density of 65 to 70 kg. per m3 and for the high insulation coefficient equaling that of cork, i.e., 0.035. Due to the fact that they are impregnated against mildew, decay, and decomposition and due to their water-repellent properties these panels are especially fitted for building' construction, especially for beat insulation.
SWEDEN
Some 65 factories are now making prefabricated houses with an aggregate annual capacity estimated at about 20,000 houses, each containing 42 m3 (1,500 cu. ft.) or 9 standards of wood. However, since the work is seasonal the full capacity cannot be made use of and actual output will therefore be around 15,000 houses. Of these factories 38 are affiliated with the National Federation of Manufacturers of Wooden Houses. In 1946 the 36 factories then affiliated delivered close to 11,000 houses, representing some 70 percent of the total estimated output for Sweden. The home market received 7,868 houses of which 73 percent were, single-family houses. The amount of timber used for the home, market was 317,000 m3 (s) (67, 80 0 stds.) representing an average of 40.2 m3 (s) (8.6 stds.) per house. Exports amounted to 3,405 houses representing 85,000 m3 (s) (18,200 stds.) of wood or an average of 2.5.2 m3 (8) (5.4 stds.) per house. Of the total output of affiliated firms, 30 percent was thus exported but only 20 percent of the total quantity of wood used went into the exported houses.
UNITED KINGDOM
Laminated wood and metal skis have performed well in their first skiing season and they present a new application for the scientific bonding of wood and metal. They have a steel frame and a wooden running surface. Their high resistance to twisting permits greater speed on turns in racing and also reduces accidents both for beginners and proficient skiers. They are claimed to be 10 percent faster than an ordinary ski and were used by members of the British Olympic ski teams during the winter.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
A group of research engineers has filed patent applications and formulae from which they claim to be able to produce a crosstie to take the place of a wooden tie. All ingredients are said to be natural products which, when molded, produce a crosstie with the flexibility of a seasoned white oak tie. Spikes can be inserted by force without causing fracture, and the crosstie will not explode, chip, break, or crack in normal use. It is reportedly entirely inert and impervious to moisture, and it will not expand or contract.
Durisol, a new construction material, is now being made from planed and sorted wood chips, chemically treated and impregnated to bring about mineralization of the fibers, then mixed with Portland cement. The material is shaped under pressure and dried into panels, slabs, or blocks of standard sizes. It is said to be resistant to the effects of moisture, fire, and termites, and to have acoustical and insulating qualities. Suggested uses are: insulating slabs, 'concrete slab filler panels, intermediate floor slabs, exterior wall panels, and combination ceiling slabs.
Monsanto Chemical Company has announced a dry-process waste wallboard sheet which can be used in homes and in many phases of construction. In the Monsanto process a special phenolic glue has been developed. Planer shavings, sawdust, wood fiber, and bark are spread with this glue and subjected to heat and pressure. The results, depending on the amount of binder and pressure, is a smooth wallboard varying from a low density to a high one. The wallboard can be used where strength and not appearance is required. It makes good subflooring, wall and roof sheathing, and building forms. For other uses where appearance is also wanted, there is another type. Using the ugly duckling as a base and overlaying it with various veneers - paper, metal foil, knotty pine slices, fabrics, or highly compressed wood waste - a pleasing board results. Such board is for doors, cupboards, wall and ceiling panels, etc. In both cases, ultimate manufacture with a continuous process is a possibility. The equipment is simple and, with the exception of a hot press, inexpensive.
Economics and Statistics
AUSTRIA
It is reported that Yugoslavia will send Austria 100,000 m3 ® of pulpwood for which it will receive newsprint, drawing paper, and other paper. The barter arrangement involves transactions valued at approximately one million dollars.
BELGIUM
It is reported that Belgium's trade agreement with Sweden provides for Swedish exports of 50,000 standards (234,000 m3 (s)) which may be increased during the last half of the year to 80,000 standards (374,000 m3 (s)). Belgium may also purchase 35,000 standards (164,000 m3 (s)) of lumber from Finland and additional quantities from the U.S.S.R.
BRAZIL
About one third of the country Is newsprint requirements are being covered by home production as a result of increased output at the Klabin paper mills at Monte Alegre in the State of Parana. The mills are turning out about 60 metric tons of newsprint a day and almost 40 tons of sulphite wood pulp. Production started in April 1947 and when capacity operations are reached, production is expected to be about 120 tons daily.
The plywood industry is being expanded beyond the existing 250 factories already in operation. Production for 1948 is estimated to exceed 1 million m3 Until 1948 the United Kingdom was one of Brazil's best plywood customers.
NORTH AMERICA
Newsprint production in Canada during March 1948 amounted to 387,672 short tons (351,700 metric tons) and shipments to 380,732 short tons (345,400 metric tons). Production in the United States was 64,894 short tons (58,870 metric tons) and shipments were 65,943 short tons (59,820 metric tons). The output in Newfoundland was 28,510 short tons (25,860 metric tons) and shipments were 22,522 short tons (20,430 metric tons) making a total North American production of 481,076 short tons (436,400 metric tons) and shipments of 469,197 short tons (425,700 metric tons) compared with continental production of 472,341 short tons (428,500 metric tons) and shipments of 465,990 short tons (422,700 metric tons) in March 1947. North American production in March 1.948 exceeded that of any March on record.
FINLAND
An agreement has been concluded with the Board of Trade of the United Kingdom for the supply of 190,000 tons of chemical wood pulp, 30,000 to 40,000 tons of mechanical wood pulp, and 150,000 m3 solid volume of pitprops, sawn softwood, plywood, and other wood. The Board of Trade is reported to have agreed to supply Finland with 500,000 tons of coal and coke and 40,000 tons of steel. Specific quantities of other goods involved were not disclosed.
Timber exports increased noticeably in 1947. Free exports totaled 1,905,000 m3 (s) (407,773 stds.) against 1,294,000 m3 (s) (276,962 stds.) in 1946, whilst reparations exports to U.S.S.R. were 174,000 m3 (s) (37,287 Ads.) and 255,000 m3 (s) (54,519 stds.) for 1947 and 1946 respectively. Total exports of 2,079,000 m3 (s) (445,060 stds.) were 34 percent higher than total exports for 1946. The United Kingdom was the chief purchaser buying 48 percent of the total exported.
The aggregate output of Finnish paper mills, which in 1946 was 457,000 tons, rose according to preliminary figures by 66,000 tons, or 14 percent, to 523,000 tons in 1947. The increase is roughly equal as regards newsprint and other paper. Of this quantity 397,500 tons (including reparations deliveries) were shipped abroad, while of the balance of 125,000 tons 64,000 tons were sold on the home market. In 1947 the United States of America was the principal market, taking 85,700 metric tons, followed by the Soviet Union and South America both taking 58,000 tons; next followed Great Britain and Eire 46,000 tons, Denmark - 34,000 tons, France 25,000 tons, Holland - 20, 000 tons and Belgium - 16,000 tons. The increase in exports to the United States and South America is particularly encouraging, because it contributed, largely to relieve the pressure on Finland's dollar requirements. The restrictions on home consumption enforced in Finland in 1946 were continued throughout the year, and further quantities were therefore set free for export. Because of the rising cost of production the level of prices still tended upwards, but for various reasons it was not possible to obtain sufficient price rises on all markets. In spite of the general upward trend, the financial results were not particularly good because of the home-market prices which are controlled at a level considerably below production cost.
FRANCE
The French market for colonial woods is passing through a period of readjustment caused by production trends of tropical woods. Market conditions vary considerably for the different species. As far as precious woods are concerned, the aim is to establish a great market in France itself in order to achieve practically a monopoly of the sale of these woods. The advantage would be not only for France but also for the foreign buyers who would be in a position to get their whole supply in one place and to make a careful selection with all possible safeguards, since they would be buying on sight instead of having to write overseas to local producers and sign contracts on specifications, as they often had to do until now. As far as veneer woods are concerned, the policy adopted aims at the reverse, i.e., direct sale by local producers to customers in France or abroad. This would principally refer to okoumé, where very severe regulations obtain so that disagreements are easily avoided. The task, however, of reorganizing the trade in colonial woods for current usage is far more delicate. Production of these timbers was developed mainly in order to cover France's reconstruction needs so that until now the policy followed in regard to the greatest part of those timbers was delivery in France at the nearest port to the areas in which the timber would be used. When use of these woods has become accepted, adequate propaganda and satisfactory distribution will be indispensable in order to ensure a stable balance of supply and demand.
Paper production reached a total of 900,000 tons in 1947 representing an increase of 30 percent over 1946. Total pulp production was 375,000 tons in 1947. an increase of 40 percent over 1946. Prospects for 1948 are not considered as very bright, however, and, with the raw material situation still far from satisfactory, the paper mills are inclined to pay more attention to the possibility of home-grown straw.
JAPAN
There are about 90 wood-pulp mills in Japan proper. Eight mills are classified as manufacturers of rayon pulp and the remainder produce paper pulp of the groundwood, sulphite, kraft, and soda types. Production of all types reached a maximum in 1941 of 1,408,000 short tons, of which 77 percent was paper pulp and 23 percent, rayon pulp grade. Production of all types of pulp in 1945 was only about 18 percent of 1941 production. The chief reasons for current low production are shortages of coal, chemicals, and wood. Approximately 45 percent of the domestic wood pulp for years up to 1942 was produced in Karafuto. The loss of these facilities was especially severe with respect to chemical paper pulp of the sulphite and kraft types. The shortage of chemical pulp, in addition to the loss of sources of desirable pulpwood, is reflected in the decreased quality of pulp and paper. Sulphite pulp is the only chemical paper pulp formerly made in large volume in Japan, but 65 percent of the 1930-1940 production of this pulp was made in Karafuto. Nearly all of the kraft pulp was made in Karafuto during the same period, but by 1945 about 30 percent of the rated productive capacity for kraft was located in Japan proper. Most of the capacity for the production of rayon pulp and mechanical pulp was established in Japan proper. Soda pulp was produced in Japan proper and Formosa. Mills producing this pulp are numerous but they are small, inefficient, and of low capacity. The rayon pulp industry expanded rapidly from 1932 until 1941 but as production did not meet demands, Japan depended heavily on the importation of rayon pulp. Domestic production expanded from an estimated 4,000 short tons in 1932 to more than 325,000 tons in 1941. Production in 1945 was 11,400 short tons.
LEBANON
The furniture industry is one of the most stable in the country. It comprises 10 large manufacturing plants and about 100 smaller establishments. Production covers present domestic requirements with a small surplus exported to Syria. The industry is said to employ 2,000 workers. Wood is usually imported from Poland and Rumania, while veneer is imported from the United States of America and the United Kingdom.
NEWFOUNDLAND
In 1946-47 Newfoundland imported lumber valued at $610,004, wood manufactures valued at $955,151, and paper containers and wrapping paper valued at $707,087 - values in Newfoundland dollars.
NORWAY
It is now clear that the quantity of logs expected to be felled in the 1947-48 winter season, namely 8 million m3 ®, has not been attained. This is ascribed to the shortage of laborers, severe cold, too much snow, dissatisfaction with prices, etc. It is now estimated that output will not exceed the 1946 figure of 6 million m3 ® with the result that the prospect of increased export of wood is not good.
During 1947, a total of 35,945 metric tons of fiberboard were manufactured and 4,500 metric tons were exported, compared with 6,500 metric tons in 1946. Domestic Consumption Of 51 m2 per caput is now about half that of Sweden. Present capacity of Norwegian fiberboard mills is about 50,000 metric tons per annum, but this will be increased to 65,000 metric tons when alterations and extensions are completed.
POLAND
Delivery is reported of 300 metric tons 'of newsprint to the American and British Occupied Zones of Germany. Negotiations for further deliveries of 900 metric tons in monthly allotments of 300 tons were said to be under way.
SWEDEN
Commercial agreements so far concluded for 1948 cover the following amounts of sawn and planed lumber:
|
Country |
Standards |
|
United Kingdom |
162,000 |
|
Belgium |
80,000 |
|
Netherlands |
69,000 |
|
France and French Empire |
19,000 |
|
Italy |
2,000 |
|
Total |
332,000 |
So far during the current year only a few minor sales have been effected to Egypt, South Africa, and Australia and elsewhere to clear off the balance of shipments due under 1947 quotas.
Production of newsprint in Sweden totalled 274,000 metric tons in 1947, compared with 281,000 tons in 1939. Exports in 1947 amounted to 149,000 tons, or 54 percent of total production, whereas in 1939, exports were 176,000 tons, or 63 percent of production in that year. Exports in 1947, by principal countries of destination, are given in the accompanying tabulation:
|
Country |
Metric tons |
|
European countries |
32,100 |
|
Argentina |
31,525 |
|
United States of America |
25,053 |
|
All others |
60,411 |
|
Total |
149,089 |
Paper and paperboard exports in 1947 amounted to about 560,000 metric tons. Domestic deliveries were kept within the pre-established quota of about 465,000 tons and for the current year the aim is to cut them down to about 420,000 tons with a view to making additional quantities available for export. Negotiations between industries and the authorities have led to an upward adjustment of prices on deliveries for the whole market. This rise exactly covers the higher costs of production caused by the increase in timber prices during the season. On the other hand, this adjustment does not involve any change in the basic prices that have been current since 1942.
UNITED KINGDOM
Imports of logs and sawn goods have been particularly heavy in the first months of 1948. Stocks have increased considerably, quality and specifications have been very satisfactory. Nevertheless buying of logs and sawn goods abroad is still severely restricted by the lack of currency and the desire to balance imports and exports. Urgent needs are therefore supplied by importations from British overseas possessions. Construction of sawmills in these possessions will gradually overcome present difficulties. Large shipments of German oak of excellent quality have also been received. Demand for veneer is still very great.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Increasing imports of newsprint in January and February 1948 have relieved the newsprint shortage to such a degree that the export market price is noticeably softened with an increasing drop in prices. North American production of newsprint for the first quarter of 1948 is 3,211 metric tons (3,540 short tons.) less than the first quarter of 1947. Because of reduced shipments to other countries, Canadian and Newfoundland shipments to the United States increased over 1947. Finland, Sweden, Norway, France, Austria, Netherlands, and Italy also shipped newsprint to the United States during this period.
In connection with the growth of the United States paper industry, figures for production workers and wages in the pulp, paper and allied industries are given below:
|
Year |
Average Wage Earners |
Total Dollar Wages |
|
|
(Thousands) |
(Millions) |
|
1899 |
94 |
36 |
|
1919 |
208 |
213 |
|
1939 |
265 |
310 |
|
1947 |
384 |
929 |
Policy, Legislation, and Administration
ARGENTINA
By a decree dated 29 February 1948, the government of the Argentine Republic authorized the granting of forestry exploitation concessions to workers' co-operatives to the extent of 2,500 hectares of public forest land.
This type of undertaking has already shown interesting developments in the Chaco and Misiones territories.
BELGIUM
The Belgium Government, by a decree of its Regent dated 6 December 1947, issued in response to a request from the Belgium Federation of Wood Manufacturers, has undertaken to create a Technical and Scientific Center for the woodprocessing industry. The aim of this Center will be to determine on a scientific and technical basis the most rational methods for the utilization of wood and wood products and to develop new processing methods. It will also be the function of this Center to stimulate scientific and technical research with a view to improving the yield, as well as the quality and esthetic appearance, of processed products. The Center is also entrusted with the task of collecting and disseminating information. The results of its work will be available to all industries. It may, should its program permit assist industrial concerns for their own benefit, but also at their own expense. To that end the Center will enjoy great freedom of action and may create any service it considers necessary, organize field studies and exhibits or even grant subsidies to existing agencies. The organic structure of the Center includes a General Council composed of representatives of the wood industries, wood industry associations, and prominent scientific and technical experts. For the purpose of continuity of action, a Standing Committee and a Director will be appointed.
BELGIAN CONGO
A paper prepared by the Belgian Ministry of Colonies at the request of the Conference of Colonial Experts in December 1947 contained data on the possibilities of the Belgian Congo. Production in sawn goods varied from 1942 to 1945 between 23,000 and 38,000 m3 (s) and between 138,000 and 216,000 m3 ® for logs. Exports amounted to 34,000 metric tons in 1942 and 100,000 metric tons in 1947. The main hindrances to increased exports are the local demand for wood, problem of transportation, the resistance of buyers to exotic species, and irregular deliveries. A number of government plans have been worked out to improve rational forestry utilization. To begin with, present-day regulations will be further expanded and the new forestry system will be based on the difference between classified forests and protected forests. The classified forests will be subject to management plans covering every phase from the utilization of natural stands to their replacement by artificial stands. On the other hand, protected forests will be subject to rational utilization plans based on increment per unit of surface. The forestry program is characterized by reforestation and by letting concessions. In certain areas agriculture plantations will be replaced by forest plantations, notably of Limba, Terminalia superba. Forestry research will be undertaken by the Congo National Institute of Agricultural Studies. Technological research on tropical timbers will be undertaken by the forestry section of the State Institute of Agriculture at Gembloux and by the University of Louvain. The necessary appropriations for the implementation of these plans will be covered by taxes paid by forest utilizers. The problem of labor supply will be dealt with by bettering living conditions of the native forest workers. Plans are being made for the establishment of veneer factories and distillation plants as well as for pulp mills. Mechanization of sawmills will help eliminate waste. The forest services are developing rapidly.
FRANCE
The training of forest agents for privately owned forests, which constitute more than half of the forest lands of France, was until very recently practically nonexistent or left entirely to the initiative of individual forest owners. The National Association of Forest Owners and Silviculturists of France has just taken steps to bridge this very serious gap, at least in part, by organizing correspondence courses for training private forest guards.
The Water and Forest Resources Service has lent its assistance to this undertaking and has organized sessions on typical silvicultural operations. Students taking the correspondence courses will be asked to attend these sessions which are to be conducted by specially selected instructors.
The National Association also contemplates to organize, at a later stage regional courses of instruction in forestry.
A tropical forestry research institute, Institut des Recherches Forestières Tropicales, is being established at Nogent-sur-Marne, thus expanding the existing laboratories within the framework of the technical section of tropical agronomical science. The new institute will continue the work already started there on a larger and better endowed scale for all tropical forestry areas of the French Empire. The Institute will work in close collaboration with the local tropical staffs and forest services. The Director of the Institute will be guided by an advisory body composed of scientists and technicians interested in tropical timbers. The review, Bois et Forêts des Tropiques, will carry the institute Is work to the general public.
GUATEMALA
Guatemala has announced a project to put 50,000 European Displaced Persons in the forest lands of that country. Albert Dupont Willemin, Guatemalan delegate to the International Refugee Organization, said the project was Guatemala's contribution to the solution of Europe's refugee problem.
MEXICO
A new comprehensive law administered by the Department of Agriculture and Stockraising is designed to check deforestation. Loss of timber and extinction of important tree species have been the consequences of the gradual disappearance of the forest. Erosion, dust bowl areas, and uncontrolled floods are of particular importance in and country like much of Mexico. The desire to provide rural recreation areas and tourist areas has also found expression in the law. Local forestry boards are headed by state forestry boards and culminate in the National Forest Council. The implementation of the policies brought forward from the local level and finally decided on by the National Forest Council will be entrusted to a General Forestry Administration. Severe restrictions govern the cutting of trees on publicly or privately owned land. Planting is mandatory. The clearance of woodland for agricultural processes is permissible only after expert judgment has confirmed the choice. Government nurseries will give particular attention to disappearing species or to species gaining in commercial value. Grazing on government lands and national parks will be subject to permission. Restrictions are placed on exports of wood and forest products. Domestic wood consumption is also to be checked by the use of preservatives for piles and crossties, etc. The law embodies the fundamental tenet that the country's forests are a public utility.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Particularly because of previous overcutting and fires, the forests of the Lake States now produce less than half of the local regional sawn-timber requirements; the balance is obtained from the forests of the western United States. It is believed, however, that if it were possible to bring the forests back into full productivity they could supply local needs.
On the other hand,. during the last few years half of the volume of soft wood consumed in local wood-pulp factories was obtained from Canada, particularly from Ontario. Six months ago the Ontario Government announced a major reduction in its exports of pulpwood.
In order to cope with this serious situation, the Federal Service and the Lake States Experiment Station recommend a vast research program with a view to:
a) reducing forest waste and improving wood utilization methods;b) modifying the pulping processes in order to make a more extensive use of aspen and hardwood stands;
c) intensifying silviculture;
d) increasing imports from the Rocky Mountains.
The First North African Congress on Fruit and Vegetable Packaging was held at Algiers from 8-11 March 1948. The Congress expressed its desire to standardize packaging practices in the three French territories of North Africa so as to bring them into line with metropolitan practices. In its opinion, large-scale standardization tests constitute the sole means of achieving such standardization. The Congress requested that the results of such tests be studied at a *second North African Congress, whose task it would be to draw conclusions therefrom and to suggest to the public authorities of the territories concerned new regulations adapted to the conditions and requirements of production and trade.
The First Congress of Research and Technical Chemists was held in Helsingfors, Finland on 21 and 22 February. About 400 chemists were present at the opening meeting and heard Dr. Bertil Nyberg, Managing Director of the Central Laboratory of the Finnish industry, speak on the significance of basic research for general technical purposes. Dr. Nyberg first reviewed the development of technical research in the big industrial countries and stressed how it became necessary during the recent war to resort to basic research, particularly in the field of chemistry and physics. Fundamental scientific study developed new approaches to the interpretation of technical problems and surprising results were attained. The work has therefore been continued.
In Finland the problems are the same as elsewhere, but the facilities are restricted. The main bodies are the A. B. Central-laboratorium, working essentially for the woodworking industries, the State Technical Research Institute, the Biochemical Research Institute, and the Research Laboratory of the Defense Forces. Financial resources are limited; the state does not find it possible to allocate sufficient funds for academic study, and it has not been possible to employ a sufficient number of specialists for the technical research institutes. In order to surmount these shortcomings, Dr. Nyberg stated that he had initiated an arrangement between A. B. Centrallaboratorium and the universities whereby specific problems could be submitted to academic teachers for investigation. In this way he hoped that technical development in Finland could keep abreast of that in the large industrial countries where enormous resources are available.
The Northeastern Wood Utilization Council of New Haven, Connecticut, has made a preliminary announcement of a, conference on the chemistry and utilization of bark. The Conference is scheduled to be held in Boston, with the co-operation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology on 17 September 1948. The conference will include specialists on the chemical and. industrial aspects of bark, with contributors from research institutions and industry. Developments in bark utilization from pulp and paper mills, as well as from sawmills and lumbering operations, will be reviewed.
The world congress of paper, stationery, and kindred trades, which Hungary is arranging in celebration of the centenary of its war of independence, will be held at Budapest from 29 August to 3 September 1948. The Congress will be attended by official representatives of associations or organizations of manufacturing, wholesale, or retail merchants of paper, stationery, etc. and by individual representatives. The purpose of the Congress is to survey the position of paper products on the world market; to consider development and establishment of international connections; to discuss actual problems of the trade; and to establish an international paper and stationery association.
Switzerland has offered to organize the general conference of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations in September 1948. At this conference, the question of the liaison to be established between the Union and FAO will be reconsidered. As the annual report of the Union for the year 1947 contains misconceptions of this liaison, further examination of the question by both FAO and the Union is under way.
Monsieur Pierre Gazonnaud (France) has been designated Chief of the Forest Service of the Ministry of Overseas Territories. He is replacing Monsieur Pierre Terver, now on the staff of FAO.
Mr. Harold R. Murdock, past vice-president of the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, and formerly director of research for the Champion Paper and Fibre Company, has been awarded the first Murdock Medal by representatives of the Japanese pulp and paper industry. Mr. Murdock is the head of the Pulp and Paper Branch of SCAP's Natural Resources Section.
The award was made in recognition of Mr. Murdock's help in re-establishing the paper industry in Japan and introducing the semichemical process which increased the yield of wood pulp by 35 percent. He also established a rayon pulp plant having a monthly yield of 4,000 tons. Another process introduced by Mr. Murdock was the use of infusorial earth to cheek difficulties caused by pitch from the pulpwood. Locally procured volcanic ash served this purpose. He also organized the Japanese Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry.
Cola G. Parker, for the last four years first vice-president of the American Paper and Pulp Association, was recently advanced to the presidency. In addition to being president of the Kimberly-Clark Corporation, he is a trustee of the National Industrial Conference Board, a trustee of Lawrence College, and a holder of other important posts in associations and institutions.
Wilbur F. Gillespie was re-elected to the post of president of the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry. Mr.. Gillespie is technical director of the Gaylord Container Corporation.
Wildlife Management Handbook for Forest Officers, Region 5, 1947. S. B. Show, A. G. Brenneis, F. P. Cronemiller, R. L. Deering, Ivan Sack, and D. M. Traugh. viii + 243 pp. U. S. Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., U. S. A., 1947.
A very large part of the effective habitat of many game animals, game birds, and sport fish in the western United States is in the National Forests. Control of these wildlife species rests with States, rather than with the Federal Government, under the present legal system.
The taking of game and fish is thus controlled mainly by State law, and a complex system of seasons, bag limits, etc., has grown up. Moreover, under American doctrine, with few exceptions, permits to hunt and fish are issued by State authorities to all applicants, and very large numbers of people avail themselves of their legal rights to hunt and fish. The American tradition of free public hunting and fishing is cherished; but this method of legal control can, under heavy hunting pressure, result in severe over-utilization of wildlife stocks.
Thus, the U. S. Forest Service, as custodian and manager of these nationally owned forests, has control of the habitat or environment which produces wildlife, but does not control the time or manner of taking, except in the limited areas and times when occupancy of game ranges by people would represent an excessive fire risk and threat to the game ranges and populations themselves. In such circumstances, the National Forests may be closed to all forms of use. At times, too, game animals cause damage to National Forest ranges, and under such circumstances remedial measures may be taken.
With this complex and divided system of land and of wildlife controls it 18 understandable that the role of field forest officers in wildlife management is complex. It is to these officers that the Handbook is addressed. The keynote to its theme is stated as follows: "Wildlife, like forests and range, is a product of habitat. Each species of animal, tree, shrub, or grass can exist under certain conditions and may vanish as any essential condition disappears or is seriously modified.... One aspect of wildlife management deals with direct control of each species in accordance with its values and relations to man; another aspect is the manipulation and control of the habitat. Each is necessary to supplement the other; neither can do the job alone.... The Handbook attempts to develop a biologically sound attitude and approach to wildlife management. It is addressed to the forest officers, who control and man age the habitat and who are responsible for seeing to it that the National Forests produce all they are capable of producing, including quality wildlife values."
The Handbook then defines and discusses the what, why, and how of wildlife management and the principal fields for action and leadership by forest officers. It points out that there are several distinct groups of people having an interest in wildlife, and that the attitudes of each must be understood by the wildlife manager. It then treats of the major factors of habitat not subject to change by man, such as climate, weather, the main vegetative cover types; and the factors which are subject to change, such as food, cover, water supply, shelter, places for nesting and raising young, interspersion of cover types, predation, etc.
A further major group of controls in management, as discussed in the Handbook, contains the inherent qualities of species and populations, such as breeding habit and potential; mobility and migration; and tolerance to other species, to variable habitat and to hunting and survival factors.
All these factors of habitat and of species are summed up in a series of very useful tables which serve to emphasize the essential limiting factors for each native species. These show that there is a vast difference in survival value, some species being excessively demanding of particular combinations, others broadly tolerant of a wide range of conditions. Detailed species summaries are given.
The Handbook next covers in detail the management methods applicable to the species and habitat conditions under discussion. First, there are the preparatory steps, such as census of existing population, diagnosis of habitat factors responsible for population levels, gains and losses, and the types of management plans required.
As pointed out in the Handbook, actual management methods must be largely co-ordinated with timber, range, and watershed management, and there are found to be many ways in which minor changes in timber and range practices can benefit wildlife. There are also specific wildlife measures which can be practically carried out, such as water developments, food and cover planting, and creating' edge vegetation. These practical methods are all treated through analysis of specific problems, indicating the conditions encountered and effective means for solution.
This case method is applied also to the analysis of methods to improve survival of wildlife through application of legal controls, spreading the hunting effort, control of predation, protection against disaster, and similar methods.
A section on fish management follows the same general pattern as that for animals and birds, emphasizing the habitat factors, inherent qualities, and requirements of species; steps preparatory to management; and actual management methods.
Finally, a series of appendices gives working descriptions and drawings on field operations which forest officers may apply and a useful glossary of technical terms employed in wildlife management. A well-prepared index adds to the usability of the Handbook.
In total effect, the Handbook is a useful and practical guide in, fitting wildlife management into its proper place in the whole forest management program, in the area and under the circumstances covered. Above all, it emphasizes over and over that wildlife management, like forestry, is first of all a problem in applied biology, and that success depends upon working within the well-known biological laws.
Report of the Chief of the Forest Service, 1947: Forests and the Nation's Water Resource. Lyle F. Watts, Chief, U. S. Forest Service. iii + 48 pp. 15 cents. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, U. S. A., 1947. For sale by Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
Last year in UNASYLVA, Vol. I, No. 1, portions of Mr. Lyle F. Watts' annual report for 1946 appeared under the title, "Timber Shortage or Timber Abundance in the U. S. A." In this report he dealt with the unsatisfactory national situation - the lack of use of forestry on the abundant available forest land to supply present and prospective needs for forest products.
In his report for 1947 Mr. Watts places first emphasis on the watersheds and on the forests and ranges which cover them. He states the scope of the report thus:
"Timber production is vital to our national economy, but it is by no means the only useful function of our forests. The forests harbor a valuable wildlife resource. Their recreational values contribute greatly to our physical and spiritual health. Forest ranges have an important part in national livestock production.
"But undoubtedly the paramount service of a very large part of our forest land is as a source of water, an erosion preventive, and a regulator of stream flow. Irrigation agriculture, hydro-electric power development, municipal water systems all depend on adequate and reliable water supplies. Good management of forest and range watersheds can reduce the danger of disastrous floods. We need clear, clean streams from protected watersheds for good fishing and other outdoor sports. Water supply determines the establishment of homes, farms, industries; communities develop only where water is available. An assured, dependable water supply is indeed essential to our State, regional, and national development. Water is an essential of life itself.
"In this year's report should like to give special attention to our forest and wild-land watersheds. There are some encouraging things to report, but the story as a whole is not a pleasant one. Many important watersheds are in critical condition. Much watershed land is not adequately protected. We are paying a huge price every year in heavy flood losses, erratic stream behavior, reduced water quality, sedimentation, and in many other ways - for our failure to give enough care to the highlands that water our valleys.
"This watershed situation is nothing new or sudden. In many places it has been worsening for years along with the decline of our timber and range resources, and to a considerable extent from the same causes. But it is time we faced this problem in its full significance.
"Damaged watersheds can be repaired. Rampaging streams can be brought under control. Water sources can be kept in good condition. And to a large extent the kind of forest and range management that restores and maintains good watershed conditions will also make for increased timber supplies and increased livestock production. Recreation and wildlife also will benefit."
In documenting the statement that "many watersheds are in poor condition," Mr. Watts cites recent examples of muddy streams, flash floods, big river floods, and sedimentation and water supply problems in various parts of the nation. In summing up, he states:
"A geologic period of tremendous erosion followed the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the Ice Age. It took thousands of years for the stream courses to become stabilized and the earth to be anchored in place by trees and grass. Good soil was formed by the weathering of rock and the deposition of organic matter from vegetation. The land became rich and good for human habitation.
"... A new period of erosion is now under way in this country as great if not greater than any that has occurred since the glacial epoch. And this one is manmade."
Then the report goes on to show, citing experience and recent research, how forest and range treatment affects watersheds. The major destructive forces of fire, overcutting of timber, improper road construction, and overgrazing are recognized as operative.
Turning then to national forest watersheds, Mr. Watts recalls that "Watershed protection was one of the major purposes in the creation of the national-forest system from public domain lands more than half a century ago. It was largely concern over watershed conditions that led to enactment of the Weeks law of 1911 authorizing Federal purchase of lands for national forests.
"Virtually all of our national forests are sources of water of the highest importance for industrial, agricultural, domestic, and recreational use. National forests west of the Great Plains include many of the high-altitude areas that are the source of 90% of the water of the Western States. The watershed services of national-forest lands at the sources of western rivers transcend all other values attached to these lands. There is no substitute for these services." He points out that the listing of specific areas of dependence is impressive evidence of the importance of public forests and that
"The Forest Service, as custodian of the national forests, clearly has a direct responsibility in watershed management on lands within its own jurisdiction."
In discussing these special problems of the ranges, the report deals with the long-continued efforts of the Forest Service to make forest ranges available for use, but at the same time to protect fully their watershed values. It is emphasized that grazing is but one of several uses of these public properties, and that
"Any proposal that would restrict or hamper effective administration and management of national-forest lands used as range for livestock, therefore, ignores the interests of irrigation farmers, residents of valley communities, recreationists, sportsmen, and others. It would subject the lands to the possibility of the same kind of misuse that originally caused them to be included in the national forests." It is well known that such proposals are being pushed by some stockmen who have enjoyed the privilege of using ranges at low cost, but the report shows that other groups and organizations of stockmen believe that the Forest Service must retain a free hand in management. This is frank reporting of a controversy of great public importance.
In closing this section, Mr. Watts insists that "we can have good watershed management." This requires such programs as increase of upstream flood control work, expansion of public watersheds, intensification of national-forest management, improvement of forest and range practices on private lands, and provision for more research on watershed management problems. In each of these categories reference is made to past and present work, but in all cases it has been on far too small a scale.
Other sections of the report deal more briefly with the nation's timber supply, co-operation in State and private forestry, the national forests, research, tropical forestry, Forest Service personnel, and receipts and expenditures.
This annual report for 1947 fully measures up to the high standard established over many years by the series. Though prepared for domestic consumption, it will be of great interest to readers in other lands, as the most balanced and comprehensive statement available on the current problems, programs, and progress of American forestry.
Cork Production and International Cork Trade. Monograph prepared by Dr. Ernst Palmgren in the Bureau of General Statistics. 158 pp. + map. $1.50. International Institute of Agriculture Temporary Bureau in Europe of FAO, Villa Borghese, Rome, 1947.
As a result of the development of new techniques in the building, heating, and refrigerating industries, the production and utilization of cork are of ever increasing interest. Therefore, the recent publication by the International Institute of Agriculture of a monograph on this subject is particularly opportune.
This work begins with a general chapter on the economic importance of cork. After general considerations on its formation, the methods used in harvesting it, and its anatomical, physical, and chemical properties, there follows a brief historical account of the conditions under which it is employed, ending with a review of the present prospects for its use in the industries producing corks for bottles, linoleum, and corkboards.
Chapter II discusses the production of cork and commercial trends in the producing countries. After a statement of the basic phytogeographic data concerning the cork oak and other cork trees (i.e., areas and conditions of growth), there follows some information relating to the silviculture of these species, then a detailed review of the major cork-producing countries, indicating the areas involved, the specific conditions of vegetation, growth, and harvesting of cork, and data on the trade in, and the processing industry of, that commodity.- Data relating to Portugal, Spain, Spanish Morocco, French North Africa, France, and Italy are successively discussed.
Chapter III, entitled "Foreign Trade of the Consuming Countries," studies the trends in exports to highly industrialized countries and the evolution now taking place in producing areas where an effort is made to process cork locally.
The prospects regarding the possible increase in the production of cork and the substitution of other products for it, are dealt with in Chapter V, which stresses the inefficiency of purely silvicultural measures. It is essential above all to ensure the protection of forest stands against overcutting and overgrazing as well as against fire and the attacks of forest pests. To this end, states and individuals, both producers and industrialists, will find it in their own interest to join together in a common organization with a view to taking co-ordinated measures of control. In this connection, the prospective utilization of the following vegetable products and synthetic substitutes is considered: the balsa tree (Ochroma lagopus), the "musanga," several types of tree pith, kapok, and rubber.
The work also contains a series of 12 statistical tables on the cork trade in each producing country and on world trade in raw, cleaned, and processed cork from 1925 to 1939. It ends with an interesting bibliographical index and is illustrated by a 1/12,000,000 map showing the self-sown areas of cork oak trees.
La Industria de Maderas Compensadas en la República Argentina. (The Plywood Industry in the Argentine Republic.) Eduardo F. Di Lella. 95 pp. Technical Publication No. 10 of the Ministry of Agriculture of Argentina, General Division of Lands and Forests, Forestry Division, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 1947.
After a brief historical account of the manufacture of plywood throughout the world, this publication gives valuable data in the form of charts and graphs on the importation of plywood into the Argentine Republic and on the production and export of products manufactured by that country. It also shows that the supplies previously derived from Poland, Finland, and Russia were abruptly replaced, as a result of hostilities, by large shipments from Brazil, supplemented by products from Chile, Uruguay, and the United States. General comments are followed by an interesting list of the domestic and imported tree species used in Argentina for the manufacture of plywood.
The second and most important section of this work gives a very clear description of the various stages of the plywood-manufacturing process from preparation of veneer logs to classification and packaging of finished products.
There follows a study on the production cost of one cubic meter of plywood made from white guatambu (Balfourodendron riedelianum), taking into account capital investment requirements and other operational expenses. In conclusion, there is given a decree stating that in Argentina the plywood industry is a matter of public interest and giving the steps to be taken with a view to protecting and developing this industry.
THE Nations accepting this Constitution, being determined to promote the common welfare by furthering separate and collective action on their part for the purposes of
raising levels of nutrition and standards of living of the peoples under their respective jurisdictions,
securing improvements in the efficiency of the production and distribution of all food and agricultural products,bettering the condition of rural populations,
and thus contributing toward an expanding world economy,
hereby establish the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations... through which the Members will report to one another on the measures taken and the progress achieved in the fields of action set forth above.
- Preamble to the Constitution of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FAO Member Nations
AUSTRALIA
AUSTRIA
BELGIUM
BOLIVIA
BRAZIL
BURMA
CANADA
CEYLON
CHILE
CHINA
COLOMBIA
COSTA RICA
CUBA
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
DENMARK
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
ECUADOR
EGYPT
ETHIOPIA
EL SALVADOR
FINLAND
FRANCE
GREECE
GUATEMALA
HAITI
HONDURAS
HUNGARY
ICELAND
INDIA
IRAQ
IRELAND
ITALY
LEBANON
LIBERIA
LUXEMBOURG
MEXICO
NETHERLANDS
NEW ZEALAND
NICARAGUA
NORWAY
PAKISTAN
PANAMA
PARAGUAY
PERU
PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC
POLAND
PORTUGAL
SIAM
SWITZERLAND
SYRIA
TURKEY
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
UNITED KINGDOM
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
URUGUAY
VENEZUELA
YUGOSLAVIA
