This Report deals with a Study Tour arranged in the United States under FAO's Expanded Technical Assistance Program; the report has been compiled by staff members of FAO Forestry Division.
Serious forest fires can only be prevented and controlled by men who are thoroughly trained to carry out well planned procedures and methods of attack. This is the essential element in any successful fire control program. The details of the training, the kinds of equipment used, and the operational procedures must be adapted to local conditions in each country.
These were the main lessons learned by the 34 foresters from 22 nations 1 who participated in a Forest Fire Control Training Program in the United States of America from 5 September to 12 October 1951. Designed to permit the study of American methods of forest fire prevention and control, this project was sponsored jointly by FAO and the Economic Co-operation Administration of the United States of America, and the program was arranged by the United States Forest Service in conjunction with the Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations of the Department of Agriculture, under the supervision of Major Evan W. Kelley as Project, Manager.
1 Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, France Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Honduras, India, Italy Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan Philippines, Thailand, Turkey, United Kingdom, Venezuela.
The Chief of the U.S. Forest Service generously made available the personnel of the Fire Control Division and Research Branch at headquarters in Washington D.C., and the full facilities of Region 1 (Idaho, Montana, eastern Washington) at Missoula, Montana; of Region 5 (California) at San Francisco; and Region 8 (Southern States) at Atlanta, Georgia. The State Foresters of Idaho, Washington, California, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia participated with their staffs in the program, together with a welcome number of private organizations and business concerns.
The visitors first assembled in Washington D.C. to be greeted by the Honorable Charles F. Brannan, Secretary of Agriculture, and to be briefed by representatives of FAO, E.C.A. and O.F.A.R. A mutual exchange of information then took place on the forest fire problems of the various countries represented, and this greatly helped the host foresters of the U.S. Forest Service in arranging, during the tour, for special emphasis to be given to ideas, procedures, and equipment most readily adaptable to the need of the respective countries.
Field-work in the North-west
On the first stage of the field work, the whole group travelled by plane to Spokane, Washington, where the regional foresters described the local forest conditions, fire problems and control methods. They showed the visitors the Supply Depot and explained how it functioned to provide supplies and equipment for fire control throughout the Region. That the training of the men who operate the Depot impressed the visitors is shown in the final report:
"As a result of experience gained from thousands of fires over a period of years, all tools and equipment stocked are well suited to the work. Particular mention must be made of the 25-men standard fire outfit package, a complete kit of tools, bedding and mess equipment for an average-sized fire-fighting crew; the 5 to 15-men Back Pack outfit, which can be segregated for 5-men, 10-men or 15-men emergency crews; and the 1-man smokechaser Pack, which provides tools and 1-man 1-day rations for the first individual dispatched to small fires...... It was particularly educative to see how all these stores, with others, are kept and maintained in orderly manner at the Spokane Depot (and at Ranger Stations), and how they could be dispatched with lightning speed and without error by a mere handful of highly trained men. The principle is generally acceptable, and the methods used should present no difficulties if adapted intelligently to local circumstances."
At the District Headquarters of the Forest Service of the State of Washington, near Spokane, the group saw how the personnel operated to combat fires on state-owned and privately-owned land, and how they co-operate with the Federal Forest Service, particularly in regard to detection and communication activities. Next the party proceeded to northern Idaho to spend a profitable week in the Kaniksu and Coeur d'Alene National Forests. Amongst much else of interest, the members saw the fire research work of the Northern Rocky Mountain Forest Experiment Station where H.T. Gisborne's pioneering in firedanger forecasting began; logging operations; slash disposal work; forest road construction projects, and private sawmills. The cooperative work of the U.S. Forest Service with the State of Idaho and the Western Pine Association was demonstrated.
The scene then shifted to the State of Montana. A visit was made to a Forest Service tree nursery which produced planting stock for burned-over and cut-over forest land. At Remount the group saw how smoke-jumpers are trained, and watched demonstrations of men parachuting from airplanes to an actual fire and of equipment being dropped to them - and then joined in a hot lunch which was dropped at their feet. Three of the party went with one of the planes on a routine flight to drop equipment to a fire-crew on a forest fire in an inaccessible part of the Payette National Forest in Idaho.
The visitors saw how pack-mules are transported loaded, and taken out on trails into otherwise inaccessible country, and how bull-dozers build fire-lines in difficult terrain where there is much fallen timber. The entire group had an opportunity to see how radio and telephone communications are handled by the U. S. Forest Service, and film-shows on fire-fighting supplemented the field demonstrations.
At Missoula the group discussed questions of interest with individual staff officers of the Regional Office and the Experiment Station, and saw how aerial mapping is used in fire-control work. The visitors were particularly impressed with the way in which the fire-prevention campaign is conducted through all possible media of publicity and education - newspapers, magazines, radio, teaching materials for schools, and the showing of Forest Service motion pictures Especially striking was the cartoon of "Smokey Bear" and his admonition, "Only you can prevent forest fires," which appears on billboards, on road signs, in shop windows, and is heard on the radio Incidentally, an overeager black bear, trapped during the stay at Remount, showed the visitors when it was released that bears can be quite appealing.
California - The Golden State
The group now divided into two sections, one party going to California and the other heading for the southern states via Chicago
The California party visited the Shasta National Forest, where it saw the tragic smoking ruins of the recently controlled Shasta fire. This scene gave point to all that was reamed of the development of the Federal and State fire-control organization, and to the importance of the fire-weather forecasting carried out in collaboration with the U.S. Weather Bureau. The group proceeded down the Sacramento River Canyon, and had an opportunity of hearing the story of fire prevention along the Southern Pacific Railroad right-of-way and along U.S. Highway No. 99.
At the Shasta Dam it learned from the U.S. Reclamation Service how the impounded waters, which originated on watersheds in the National Forests, would be used for irrigation purposes in the production of farm crops. In this connection there is a close link-up between the forest influence research and fire research of the California Forest Experiment Station. In Southern California, watershed protection and management are especially important, and high water values justify very intensive fire control programs by the Federal, State, and county governments. These programs fit together with each other and with those of several private organizations. The San Dimas Field Station provided an excellent example of the complexity of water-forest-fire relations.
The party witnessed demonstrations of specially developed equipment, operated by men carefully trained for the job. They saw logging and sawmill operations and fire prevention activities of several private lumber companies. In the Plumas National Forest they saw how slash disposal is conducted; how fire prevention and control is handled in connection with sales of National Forest timber to private operators; and how fire planning is based on research findings.
Education and admonition combined in this attractive fire-prevention poster
They visited Divisional Headquarters of the California State Forester's Organization, and at San Francisco spent some time with the Regional Office staff. The strategy and tactics used in several recent serious fires were explained on maps and on the ground, to give the visitors a clear idea of how a highly organized set-up functions. In the Cleveland National Forest, demonstrations of helicopter operations were given to show the part these machines play in fire control.
The Southern States
The Southern party divided its time between three National Forests: the Mississippi, characterized by longleaf-slash pine (Pinus palustris - P. caribaea) flat-woods conditions; the Alabama, where there are hill types of southern pine mixed with hardwoods; and the Chattahoochee in Georgia, typical of the mixed hardwood Appalachian Mountain forests. The visitors were interested to learn that the large number of fires mostly in fast-burning grass fuel types, required a very different form of attack from that used in the western states. The easy accessibility of the open forest has led to the development of tractor-plows which can be quickly transported on trucks to a fire area, to plow a mineral soil line around the burning area. The fuel between the line and the fire-face is burned out by torches or fusees. This method has succeeded in holding down the average size of fires and uses less manpower than former hand-line construction methods. Slight modifications in plows have been made to meet the variations in topographic conditions in various parts of the South.
The group had an opportunity to see the functioning of the detection systems, the dispatching of equipment and men, and the actual suppression operations. They were impressed, here as in the West, by the close co-operation between the Federal, State, and private industry organizations in prevention and control. The excellent conditions for forest growth in the southern states and the increasing development of forest industries have resulted in a keen appreciation of the value of fire control by many dumber companies, pulp and paper companies, and naval store operators.
At the Harrison Experimental Forest of the Southern Forest Experiment Station the group saw the results of research into the use of "prescribed burning" for silvicultural and hazard reduction purposes; and in fire danger forecasting. The results of such research have been effectively put to use in the National Forests to improve the efficiency of the fire control organizations.
Final discussions in Washington D.C.
Back in Washington D.C., both groups met together again. Talks were given by C.A. Gustaffson, Chief of Fire Control, and A.A. Brown, Chief of Fire Research of the U.S. Forest Service, summarizing the work that had been seen during the whole tour.
A general report was drawn up to serve as an aide-memoire for the participants. Briefly sketching the history of forest fires in the United States and the efforts made at prevention and control, this report says:
"It is interesting to note that the problems of the various countries, as described by the participants, varied from U.S. experience not so much in kind as in relative importance. In North America the feeling that forests were an obstacle to farming resulted in the use of fire to clear land, and this, when done carelessly, caused tremendous damage to valuable forests. As in many other countries, burning for grazing purposes still persists in parts of tile U.S.A., and this points to the continuing need for prevention measures, particularly all forms of educational efforts, and especially adequate legislation."
Many of the participants in the program had stressed the difficulties imposed on a, fire control organization by the inaccessibility of the forested areas to be guarded. The greatest need in some countries was for detection methods and improved communications and transportation systems.
Undoubtedly, the main problem affecting almost all countries was inadequate financial support to the forest service for fire prevention and control, more specifically to enable the technical personnel to apply and adapt known control methods.
Several tropical countries were represented on the tour, and it was considered that the problems mentioned above applied equally, if not more forcibly, to them as in the case of countries of the temperate regions. The outstanding difficulty in tropical countries was perhaps shifting cultivation, called by different names in different parts of the world but producing the same disastrous results. It is a similar, and more vicious form of clearing for farming purposes to be seen in the U.S.A. The results in soil erosion and water loss, and the enslavement of the population to an itinerant life of continual poverty, serve to drive home the importance of education and demonstration, of legislation and of adequate appropriations to support the work of the forest services in controlling these practices as a first step in the planned use of forest resources for the well-being of each country's people.
The report points out that "The lesson... is that forest fire education ought to be based on the development of the personal interests of the local residents...... It needs the persistent and continued action of men devoted to forest protection."
With regard to legislation, the report suggested that consideration be given to a compilation and analysis of all forest fire legislation as a guide to governments wishing to formulate or modify forest fire laws Special attention should be given to joint federal and state programs, perhaps along the lines of the U.S. Clarke McNary Act.
The value of research was generally recognized and the report says, "In general it is believed that where organized forest fire protection is established, an adequate proportion of the expenditure involved should be allocated to research."
The principal emphasis of the report is on Presuppression and Suppression. Under the former considerable space is given to planning a fire control system, the principles and techniques to provide for detection, communications, transportation, location and placement of fire fighters, type and placement of equipment, system of dispatching equipment, its development and specifications, the use of aircraft, and the selection and training of personnel. Suppression is discussed under the sub-headings of operation and management of the control organization, with special regard to supervision and lines of authority, operation methods in detection and communications, and the organization for fighting large fires.
Finally, the report lists certain recommendations, amongst which appears the following passage:
"It is felt that the incentive to interchange of knowledge and experience between countries that this tour has given should be fostered continually by FAO. This could best be done by FAO serving, as far as practicable, as a center of coordination and dissemination of information on all developments in the sphere of forest fire management, research, policy and equipment........ In the meantime, the participants wish to express their gratitude and to congratulate the United States Forest Service, ECA and FAO for the joint efforts that made this tour possible."
So ended a most instructive tour, providing an excellent example of the kind of useful project that can be developed through the Expanded Technical Assistance Program of the United Nations.
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Some idea of the destruction wrought in pine forests by the pine beetles discussed in this article may be gathered from these photographs.
