Susan Singh-Renton
CARICOM Fisheries
Unit
3rd Floor, Corea’s Building
Halifax Street
Saint
Vincent W. I
Tél: 784 457 3474
Fax: 784 457 3475
e.mail:
[email protected]
Background
In fisheries, development may be defined as “a process of change through which sustainable and equitable improvements are made to the quality of life for all or most members of a society” (Bailey and Jentoft, 1990). Adding the need for sustainability implies that these improvements need to be achieved without risk to the long-term stability of the ecosystem concerned.
In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development defined sustainable development simply as “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This definition recognises that human needs can change with time, and that preservation of the integrity of the environment is necessary to ensure that future generations can realise the full potential of their own development needs. Another, more elaborate definition states that “Sustainable development is the management and conservation of the natural resource base, and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations. Such development conserves land, water, plant and genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technologically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable.” This definition was developed by the FAO Committee on Fisheries in 1991, and acknowledges the need to achieve a workable balance between guaranteeing satisfaction of both present and future human needs including fulfilment of social and economic demands, and conserving the natural resource base. In response to the general goals identified, FAO developed a Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 1995) that provides principles for ensuring sustainable exploitation of marine resources.
Searching for Optimum Fisheries Management
The 1991 FAO definition noted earlier recognises the need for management of the resources concerned as one of the essential actions for achieving sustainable development. To accommodate the other components of the FAO definition, it is clear that such management must embrace a range of objectives, incorporating biological, economic, and social elements. Knowledge of the status of the resources and the likely impact of fishing activities and other factors on these resources provide for informed and successful management of fisheries.
In the early days of fisheries management, scientists focused on the biological modelling of fish stocks (Graham, 1935; Beverton and Holt, 1957). Assuming that fish stocks respond predictably to moderate levels of exploitation, with a defined equilibrium state, fisheries scientists are able to calculate the maximum level of catch that would allow sustainable exploitation. This sustainable maximum catch is referred to as the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY), and continues to be a key reference point in present-day fisheries management (Gulland, 1983).
MSY takes into account only the sustainability of the resource and so satisfies only a biological objective. In view of this, fisheries economists have argued that fishing is conducted as a business and that the economic benefits of the activity must not be ignored. This led to the development of another management reference point, referred to as Maximum Economic Yield (MEY). MEY is calculated based on optimising the difference between the cost of fishing and the income gained, and usually occurs at a lower fishing effort than the fishing effort occurring at MSY (Hersoug, 1996).
Subsequent to the development of MEY, social scientists have noted the importance of addressing social concerns, to ensure more equitable distribution of economic benefits. The social objective of Maximum Social Yield (MsocY) was then recognised, and the associated reference point varies with the fishery situation.
These biological, economic and social management objectives, as currently defined, are now facing yet another challenge, with the development of chaos theory (Smith, 1990 in Symes, 1996; Wilson and Kleban, 1992 in Symes, 1996). Chaos theory suggests that although nature is non-random, it is unpredictable. The equilibrium state of fish populations assumed by MSY is not accepted, and fish populations are believed to vary unpredictably within limits (Symes, 1996). Chaos theory therefore proposes ‘ecologically adapted management’, based on knowledge of the long-term stable ecological relationships, and requires more flexible management systems.
Achievement of Responsible Fishing
Sustainable fisheries development can be achieved through responsible fishing, which considers rational fishery management objectives that address a range of issues including the status of the resource, the health of the environment, post-harvest technology and trade, as well as other economic concerns, social benefits, legal and administrative support. In the case of shared resources, a co-ordinated approach to responsible fisheries management is essential, and Caddy and Griffiths (1995) proposed the following actions:
Regulate fishing effort
It is crucial to control fishing effort, and to avoid financial incentives that would contribute to excess fishing capacity. Excess fishing capacity and overcapitalization threaten the sustainability of the resource, as well as the industry.
Establish code of conduct for responsible fishing to guide management plan
This is needed to maximize benefits from the fishery, while avoiding wastage caused by indiscriminate fishing practices. In particular, it is important to reduce catches of undersized fish and non-target species, and to avoid use of gears that have a negative impact on the environment.
Establish and support regional/international fishery commissions and organisations concerned with management of shared resources
The successful management of shared resources requires effective coordination by all the countries concerned. The relevant international fisheries agreements promote participation in, and financial support for, the work of these commissions and organisations.
Regular consultation among harvesting countries
Parties sharing the resources need to consult and collaborate regularly so as to promote understanding and full cooperation.
Set agreed management objectives and related reference points, incorporating a precautionary approach
Agreement on management reference points during the early stages of the fishery will help to ensure full cooperation of participants with management decisions. Where there is scientific uncertainty, a precautionary approach to management is recommended.
Develop contingency plans
Management plans should incorporate some contingency for dealing with sudden and unpredictable environmental changes caused by man-made or natural disasters.
Develop mechanism for resolving user conflicts
Management should provide mechanisms for handling problems arising from resource user conflicts.
Protect biodiversity
The biodiversity or species richness of an ecosystem is an important measure of ecosystem health. The preservation of biodiversity will ensure that present human development activities do not threaten the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Protect the environment
There should be monitoring and control of waste disposal and pollution. In addition, every effort should be made to prevent discarding of entangling material that could trap and kill species or physically damage the environment.
Promotion of research
Research should be conducted to support and inform various aspects of management.
Optimise social and economic stability
There should be fair and equitable distribution of benefits derived from the fishery.
Constraints to Caribbean island states
For many small developing island states within the Caribbean, there are a number of constraints that pose significant challenges to the sustainable development of fisheries, including the following:
Fishing practices
Destructive fishing methods such as dynamiting fish are still practiced in certain areas. Additionally, fishers continue to use illegal mesh sizes that catch very small fish, and non-target species that may have little or zero market value.
Inadequate knowledge of the resource and ecosystem
Many Caribbean islands do not have sufficient detailed data to permit an accurate evaluation of the status of their resources and a good understanding of their marine ecosystem.
Inadequate knowledge and recognition of social and economic conditions
Many governments within the region still do not have an adequate appreciation of the social and economic potential of sustainable fisheries development, and hence still invest minimum resources in fisheries development and management activities.
Absence of long-term policies
The lack of long-term policies makes it difficult for Caribbean countries to maintain pace with rapidly evolving trends in global fisheries management approaches and trade strategies.
Capacity
In many Caribbean countries, fisheries administrations are poorly staffed, and there are limited numbers of skilled and knowledgeable fisheries technicians, scientists and managers, and limited equipment and funds available for basic tasks such as data collection and research. There are few research institutions and regional organisations within the region, and some of these suffer similar limitations in available funding and a broad range of technical expertise.
Resource user input
In the Caribbean, fisherfolk organisations have not actively participated in the management process, mainly owing to a lack of good organisational and administrative skills. On the part of the fishers, this has resulted in a lack of trust in, and respect for, the governments that are responsible for making fisheries management decisions.
Capability for monitoring, control and surveillance
In many instances, there is little or no capacity for monitoring, control and surveillance activities, and no associated legislative framework.
Post harvest aspects
Caribbean countries are just beginning to develop their export markets for fish and fish products, and face the challenge of satisfying stringent standards in all aspects of fish handling, processing and packaging, recently established by the importing countries.
Facilities
Equipment and facilities are not upgraded regularly to deal with expanding fishing activities and increasing management demands.
Habitat degradation and pollution
For some time, there have been signs that the Caribbean ecosystem is under stress (Richards, and Bohnsack, 1990). Degradation of habitat, particularly in the coastal areas has resulted from uncontrolled coastal development activities mostly associated with expanding tourist industries and overpopulation problems, as well as extensive sand mining and deforestation.
Financial resources
Many Caribbean countries are small island developing States with limited financial resources. This impacts negatively on their ability to cope with the wide range of issues required for successful sustainable fisheries development.
Conclusions
Caribbean governments need to appreciate the social, economic and financial potential of sustainable fisheries development. Fisheries administrations need to be given more financial resources, and properly staffed and equipped to address effectively and completely all aspects of sustainable fisheries development and management. Additionally, small island states should recognize the benefit of, and work towards, regional coordination in fisheries management activities, including sharing of expertise and resources for education, research, technology, monitoring, control and surveillance activities, and development of the relevant legislative framework.
Having removed constraints to responsible fishing, fisheries management must then strive to achieve a workable balance between defined objectives protecting the resource and its environment, and those seeking fair and equitable distribution of viable economic benefits.
References
Bailey, C., and S. Jentoft, 1990. Hard choices in fisheries development. Marine Policy, p333-344.
Beverton, R.J.H., and S.J. Holt, 1957. On the Dynamics of Exploited Fish Populations. Fisheries Investigation (Min. Agric. Fish. Food UK) Series 2, No. 19, 533pp.
Caddy, J.F., and R.C. Griffiths, 1995. Living marine resources and their sustainable development. Some environmental and institutional perspectives. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, Vol. 353, 174pp.
FAO 1995. Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. FAO: Rome. 41pp.
Graham, M., 1935. Modern theory of exploiting a fishery and application to North Sea trawling. Journal du Conseil International pour l’Exploration de la Mer, 10, p264-274.
Gulland, J.A., 1983. Fish Stock Assessment. A Manual of Basic Methods. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK.223 pp.
Hersoug, B., 1996. Social considerations in fisheries planning and management - real objectives or a defence of the status quo. p19-24. In Fisheries Management In Crisis, ed. by K. Crean and D. Symes. Fishing News Books: London, UK. 222pp.
Richards, W.J. and J.A. Bohnsack, 1990. The Caribbean Sea. A large marine ecosystem in crisis. p44-53 In Large Marine Ecosystems. Patterns Processes and Yields, ed. by K. Sherman, L.M. Alexander, and B.D. Gold. American Association for the advancement of science: Washington, USA. 242 pp.
Symes, D., 1996. Fishing in troubled waters. p3-16. In Fisheries Management In Crisis, ed. by K. Crean and D. Symes. Fishing News Books: London, UK. 222pp.
