by
A. MESCHKAT
FAO Regional Fishery Officer for Africa
Accra, Ghana
THE STATUS OF FISH CULTURE IN WARM-WATER PONDS IN AFRICA
Abstract
Fish culture is not indigenous in Africa. Some cold-water fish culture developed between the wars. The introduction of warm-water pond fish culture, mainly with tilapia, took place principally between 1953 and 1960.
Fish culture in Africa is carried out mostly on subsistence level, as a spare-time occupation of agricultural farmers. The mixed method is the most commonly used in fish culture. The ponds contain various age-groups and sometimes different species of fishes. Breeding and rearing are done simultaneously in the same ponds. Larger fish are fished out with nets during the culture period and the total stock harvested by draining. An experimental fish farm for brackish-water pond fish culture has been established in the Niger Delta with the assistance of FAO. Rice-field fish culture has not yet become popular and it is practised only in a small area of Madagascar.
Eighteen species of tilapia have been tried in Africa, but only a few are used in actual practice. Different food habits require different culture and feeding methods. Feeding and weed control are neglected by many African fish culturists, and this results in low production. Fertilization of ponds is rarely done.
Carp culture is at its very beginning in Africa. Other African and exotic fishes have been tried. Heterotis niloticus is used to a small extent with good results. Predators kept for tilapia population control have gained some importance e.g. Lates and Micropterus.
Fish parasites and diseases have not yet gained practical importance in Africa. Fish culture could spread those human diseases requiring aquatic animal vectors. Malacophagous fishes have been used successfully for the control of vector snails of schistosomiasis in experiments. Mosquito-transmitted diseases do not become a problem in well-kept ponds.
Economic data on investment costs and recurrent expenditures in home-pond fish culture is rare. The few figures available cannot be used for general conclusions as local conditions vary greatly.
After an explosive development, fish culture in Africa has come to a standstill or even a decline. Over-population in ponds and the resulting small size of fish causes a lack of interest in fish farming. Mixed culture is genetically anti-selective. The introduction of methods eliminating over-population would require a considerable change of the present structure of fish culture. Suggestions are made to improve the extension service, to train fish farmers, to introduce professional fish farming, to create an infrastructure for large-scale commercial fish culture economy and to improve culture and management methods.
SITUATION DE LA PISCICULTURE EN ETANGS A TEMPERATURE ELEVEE EN AFRIQUE
Résumé
An Afrique, la pisciculture est une activité d'importation. L'élevage de poissons en eaux froides s'est pratiqué dans une certaine mesure entre les deux guerres, mais c'est surtout entre 1953 et 1960 que s'est dévelopée la pisciculture en étang à eaux à température élevée, intéressant principalement les tilapias.
Ce sont surtout les agriculteurs africains qui pratiquent, à temps partiel, une pisciculture de subsistance. L'élevage mixte est le plus employé, l'étang renfermant non seulement divers groupes d'âge, mais parfois différentes espèces. Reproduction et élevage ont lieu simultanément. On prélève au filet en cours d'élevage les gros sujets, et la totalité du stock est récoltée au moment de la vidange. Un établissement piscicole expérimental pour la pisciculture en eaux saumâtres a été créé dans le delta du Niger avec l'assistance de la FAO. La rizipisciculture n'est pas encore entrée dans les moeurs, et n'est guère pratiquée que dans un secteur restreint de Madagascar.
Pour ce qui est des tilapias, les essais piscicoles ont porté sur 18 espèces, mais quelques-unes seulement sont utilisées dans la pratique. Etant donné les différences dans les habitudes alimentaires de la population, il n'est pas possible d'appliquer les mêmes méthodes d'élevage ou de nourrissage. Nombre de pisciculteurs africains négligeant l'alimentation d'appoint et la lutte contre les plantes aquatiques, le niveau de la production s'en ressent. La fumure des étangs est rarement pratiquée.
La carpiculture ne fait que commencer en Afrique. Des expériences ont été faites avec d'autres poissons, africains ou exotiques. Heterotis niloticus, utilisé à faible échelle, donne de bons résultats. Les Lates et les Micropterus, prédateurs élevés pour la limitation des populations de tilapias, ont pris une certaine importance.
Sur le plan pratique, parasites et maladies des poissons ne posent pas encore de problèmes en Afrique. Il se peut que l'extension de la pisciculture diffuse certaines maladies humaines transmises par des vecteurs aquatiques. De bons résultats ont été obtenus lors d'essais d'utilisation de poissons malacophages pour lutter contre les escargots, vecteurs de la bilharziose. Si les étangs sont bien entretenus, le problème des maladies transmises par les moustiques ne doit pas se poser.
On manque de données économiques sur les dépenses d'investissement et les dépenses renouvelables en matières de pisciculture familiale. Les quelques chiffres disponibles ne permettent pas de formuler des conclusions genérales, les conditions locales étant très diverses.
Après avoir pris un départ en flèche, la pisciculture africaine a cessé de progresser, ou même accusé des reculs. La surpopulation des étangs, entraînant la récolte de poissons de petite taille, décourage les pisciculteurs. La culture mixte va à l'encontre de l'amélioration génétique. Pour mettre en oeuvre des méthodes visant à éliminer la surpopulation des étangs, la structure actuelle de la pisciculture africaine devrait être considérablement modifiée. L'auteur présente des suggestions intéressant les domaines suivants: amélioration des services de vulgarisation, formation des pisciculteurs, mise au point d'une pisciculture professionnelle, création de l'infrastructure nécessaire à une pisciculture commerciale à grande échelle, perfectionnement des techniques d'élevage et d'aménagement.
Extracto
La piscicultura no tiene carácter indígena en Africa. Entre la primera y segunda guerra mundiales se desarrolló en cierto grado la piscicultura en aguas frías. La introducción de la piscicultura en estanques de agua templada, principalmente con tilapia, se verificó principalmente entre 1953 y 1960.
La piscicultura en Africa se lleva a cabo principalmente al nivel de subsistencia, como ocupación accesoria de los productores agrícolas fuera de su tiempo de trabajo. El método mixto es el más corrientemente utilizado en la piscicultura. Los estanques contienen varios grupos de edad y a veces diferentes especies de peces. La producción de huevos y alevines y la cría de los pequeños peces se efectúa simultáneamente en los mismos estanques. Los peces más grandes se capturan con redes durante el período de cultivo, y la totalidad de la producción se recoge mediante desecación del estanque. Con ayuda de la FAO se ha establecido en el delta del Níger una granja piscícola experimental para el cultivo de peces en estanques de agua salobre. La piscicultura en arrozales todavía no se ha hecho popular y solamente se practica en una pequeña zona de Madagascar.
Se han ensayado en Africa 18 especies de tilapia, pero en la práctica real se utilizan pocas de ellas. Los distintos hábitos alimentarios exigen diferentes métodos de cultivo y de alimentación. Los piscicultores africanos descuidan la alimentación artificial y la lucha contra la vegetación acuática y esto da por resultado una producción baja. Raramente se practica la fertilización de los estanques.
La carpicultura está en sus comienzos en Africa. Se han ensayado otros peces africanos y exóticos. Se utiliza en pequeño grado Heterotis niloticus con buenos resultados. Han adquirido cierta importancia especies predadoras mantenidas para limitar la producción de tilapia como Lates y Micropterus.
Los parásitos y enfermedades de los peces no han alcanzado todavía importancia práctica en Africa. La piscicultura podría difundir estas enfermedades humanas que requieren vectores acuáticos animales. Los peces malacófagos se han utilizado con éxito en experimentos para combatir los caracoles vectores de la esquistosomiasis. La enfermedades transmitidas por los mosquitos no constituyen un problema en los estanques bien mantenidos.
Es rara la existencia de datos económicos sobre gastos de inversión y gastos continuos en la piscicultura en estanques familiares. Las escasas cifras de que se dispone no pueden utilizarse para deducir conclusiones generales ya que las condiciones locales varían ampliamente.
Después de un desarollo explosivo, la piscicultura en Africa ha pasado a un período de estabilización o incluso de descenso. La superpoblación de los estanques y la consiguiente disminución del tamaño de los peces ha dado por resultado una falta de interés en el cultivo piscícolo. La piscicultura mixta es genéticamente antiselectiva. La introducción de métodos que eliminen la superpoblación de los estanques exigiría un cambio considerable de la estructura actual de la piscicultura. Se hacen sugerencias para majorar los servicios de divulgación, capacitar a los piscicultores, introducir la piscicultura profesional, crear una infraestructura para una piscicultura comercial en gran escala y para majorar los métodos de cultivo y de explotación.
The African Region of FAO comprises the major part of the African continent, Madagascar and the neighbouring islands in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean, except Libya, Somalia, Sudan and Egypt (U.A.R.) which countries are included in the Near East Region.
The countries and territories in the region are: Algeria, Angola, Basutoland, Bechuanaland, Burundi, Cameroon, Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands, Central African Republic, Congo (Brazzaville), Congo (Leopoldville), Dahomey, Ethiopia, Fernando Po, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Portuguese Guinea, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Nigeria, Niger, Réunion, Rhodesia, Rio Mundi, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, French Somalia, South Africa, South-West Africa, Spanish Sahara, Swaziland, Tanzania, Republic of Tchad, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Upper Volta and Zambia (minor islands are omitted).
Fish culture is practised on the continent, in Madagascar, Mauritius and Réunion.
The central part of the region is in the tropical zone and extends into the subtropical zones. It covers all known tropical climatic zones from desert climates to extremely humid areas.
Reliable perennial water resources for fish culture are numerous, mainly in the humid areas, between about 10°N and S of the equator and in Madagascar.
The water quality is normally suitable for fish culture. The pH of the waters (as far as known) is mostly near neutral or slightly below. Extremely acid and alkaline soils and waters are rare. The calcium content and the alkaline reserve are low in many West African waters so that considerable daily pH fluctuations can occur. Phosphate seems to be, like elsewhere, the most important minimum substance. In some waters of West Africa sulphate can go down to minimum values and may then act as limiting factor for production. Iron content can sometimes be a handicap. The environmental factors for fish can change within relatively small areas. Generalizations for such a vast continent are therefore not possible.
Fish culture is not indigenous in Africa. It has been introduced everywhere. Introduction of foreign fishes into natural waters and stocking of artificial waters are not considered in this report as fish culture.
Production of fish in ponds started in Africa with the introduction of cold-water fish culture between the two world wars.
Trout hatcheries, mainly for stocking sport fishing waters, have been established in higher altitudes in Morocco (the first in 1924), South Africa, Kenya, Réunion and Basutoland. Production of food fish is normally not done in these hatcheries. Pike hatching for river and lake stocking started before the second world war in 1939 in Morocco (Chapuis, 1959).
The first and only modern carp farm was built in 1954 in Panyam, Northern Nigeria. Initially it cultivated tilapia but it took up carp farming in 1959 (Anon., 1963).
The use of tilapia for fish culture has been suggested by Monod since 1925 (Bard, 1962a and b). Systematic studies on the possibilities of warm-water pond fish culture with Tilapia started in 1946 in Katanga, Congo (Leopoldville), in 1948 in Cameroon and in 1949 in French Equatorial Africa (now Congo Brazzaville). Measures to introduce Tilapia were not undertaken however before 1949, 1952 and 1953 respectively in these countries. Details of the introduction of pond fish culture in various African countries are given in Appendix I.
Fish culture has been introduced into the region on the initiative of governments, mainly to improve the diet of the local population. The “colonial administrations” established fish breeding centres. These were used as models carrying out experiments, demonstrations, training and distribution of fry to private farmers. They did not produce fish for consumption. In certain areas farms were built and operated under the supervision of the government centres for the production of young fish.
Private fish farming developed under the guidance of these centres. African fish culture of today is principally of the home-pond subsistence type, managed as a parttime occupation of farmers. Thousands of such home-ponds have since been built (App. I). A small number of large fish farms were established in the former Belgium Congo, the Rhodesias and in Mozambique by European settlers, larger schools, missions and private companies, mainly to produce fish for their own use.
Private commercial fish farming has not developed in the African region. Occasionally home-pond owners make a small cash income from the sale of surplus production, particularly in Madagascar and Uganda. The Panyam Fish Farm in Nigeria was established as a commercial project, but has now been converted into a fry production centre.
4.1.1 Pond construction
Fish breeding centres and the few large fish farms in Africa mostly have well laid out pond systems.
Numerous privately owned tilapia home-ponds are either constructed by excavation, by damming small streams in valleys, by diverting water from streams or as contour ponds along streams.
Dug-out ponds are normally very small, about 100 to 500 m2 and about 1 m deep. Dammed ponds can be larger and vary in size and depth according to the bottom relief; but exceed rarely 1 ha. Larger dams in which Tilapia may be reared are often constructed for purposes other than fish culture. Extremely small ponds of only a few square meters have also often been constructed (Bard, 1962b; Kiener, 1963).
The size of the ponds influences growth. Tilapia claims, obviously, less space than carp and can grow in very small ponds. According to Bard (1962b) greater depth of ponds delays the maturity of T. mossambica and in deeper ponds this fish grows to a larger size. Dug-out ponds usually cannot be drained. Many dammed ponds are not levelled carefully and have no drainage facilities so the dykes have to be cut open for drainage.
In Madagascar it has become common to have storage tanks for storing small fishes, during the draining period, for restocking. Monks are built mainly for larger ponds. Often little attention is paid to water-supply control arrangements and many ponds are endangered by floods. In government farms and in larger dams protection against wave action is achieved by planting grass (Paspalum) (Huet, 1957). Such provisions are normally not made in home-ponds.
4.1.2 Culture methods
Tilapia culture developed in Africa empirically following the management measures comparable to the ancient “femel” culture of carp in mediaeval Europe.
Three types of tilapia culture are recognized (Bard, 1962c; Huet, 1957 and others):
The mixed method or method of culturing mixed age classes (“femel” culture in carp farming). The same pond is used for both propagation and production. It is heavily stocked with different species and age groups of tilapia. The population propagates and grows quickly to a size near to the capacity of the pond. This level is kept up by periodic fishing starting three to four months after stocking. After eight to 12 months the pond is emptied and all fish are taken out. A new stock of young fish is stocked after refilling. One gets enough young fish for restocking. This is the most common method in Africa. Crops consist of fish of all sizes. Insufficient fishing results in over-population and stunting.
Rearing in age groups. The pond is stocked with one age group. After one reproduction the pond is emptied, the larger fish are removed and the young ones are used for restocking. In this method the individual fish grows faster (Kiener, 1957b). The total production is smaller than that in the mixed method (Bard, 1962c) because a variety of sizes (and species) utilizes the available food better. The crop consists of fish of nearly equal size. This method is not popular in Africa. It is obvious that it can only be implemented where water conditions allow refilling of the pond at any time.
Rearing with reproduction control. This type of tilapia culture makes it possible to avoid the danger of over-population in the ponds. Three methods have been developed for this purpose:
Use of predators. Predatory fish are stocked in the pond to keep down the population of young tilapia.
Hemichromis fasciatus, Lates niloticus and Micropterus salmoides (black-bass) are used for this purpose in practice. Many others have also been tried (Appendix IV). The method is not quite reliable and satisfactory. The predation can be complete and no young fish may be left for restocking. On the other hand, it may be insufficient and the danger of over-population may persist. According to Lemasson (1960b) predators can change the proportion of species in mixed culture. The method is followed in farmers' ponds in Cameroon (with Hemichromis as predator), Madagascar (with black bass) and Nigeria (with Lates), but it is not yet popular in most other countries.
Sexing. For most Tilapia species it is possible, although not always easy, to differentiate the sexes at an early stage. The pond is stocked only with young males, which grow faster than females. However, if a few mistakes are made and a few females are introduced in the pond, it is sufficient to spoil the results. This method has been adopted only by very few experienced farmers.
Hybridization. Following hybridization experiments with Tilapia mossambica in Malacca, many combinations of Tilapia species have been tried in experiments in Africa (Appendix III). All of them resulted in an unequal sex ratio but rarely in 100 percent mono-sex hybrids. The sex ratio varies in experiments with the same species. The hybrids appear to be fertile. Therefore sexing is still necessary.
An FAO expert (FAO/UN, 1965) working in Uganda has obtained in repeated experiments 100 percent male hybrids from the combination of the male Tilapia mossambica and the female T. nilotica. Large-scale culture of hybrids in private farms has yet to be undertaken.
4.1.3 Cultivated species of Tilapia
The Tilapia species cultured are listed in Appendix II under the family Cichlidae. There is considerable confusion in their systematics and many workers have pointed out the need for a taxonomic revision of the genus (Bard, 1962c; Huet, 1957).
It has been shown that in some West African countries the fish cultivated for years as T. melanopleura was actually T. zillii (Bard, 1962c). In East Africa T. andersonii seems to have been confused sometimes with T. macrochir.
Racial differences seems to occur in widely distributed species. In cross breeding experiments of T. mossambica in Malacca where the species was introduced earlier, with specimens subsequently imported from Africa, the two stocks showed the characteristics of two different species, producing “hybrids” with a very unequal sex ratio. In experiments in West African countries (Cameroon, Ivory Coast) differences have been discovered between local T. zillii and the one imported from the Congo. The Bouaké Station in Ivory Coast considers these strains as separate and differentiates Tilapia zillii (local) and T. zillii (Congo) in their publications (Lessant, 1961). Whether these are different races or even different species must be decided by taxonomists.
The Tilapia species differ considerably in food and breeding habits. All of them are monogamous. There are substrate-breeders and mouth breeders, and variations within these groups also occur.
Tilapia melanopleura and T. zillii are mainly herbivorous though not always. All other species are microphagous or non-herbivorous-polyphagous. Adult T. nilotica can become predatory (Mrogo, 1961). Similarly T. melanopleura is reported to feed on eggs and fry.
All Tilapia species are tropical warm-water fishes. T. galilea and T. zillii are indigenous in the lowlands of Morocco. Higher altitudes in inner Africa, where the climate becomes subtropical in character, with distinct cold seasons, are not suitable for Tilapia culture. Difficulties of breeding Tilapia in higher altitudes in Uganda (about 2000 m) led to the introduction of carp culture in these areas. Kiener (1963) reports that the production per hectare of tilapia decreases with increases in altitude and varies with species utilized in Madagascar as follows: (i) in coastal zones near sea level T. mossambica and T. nilotica - 5 to 6 tons/ha; (ii) in middle altitudes T. macrochir and T. zillii - 3.5 to 4.5 tons/ha; (iii) on the plateau of about 1,000 m all species - 3 to 3.5 tons/ha; (iv) above 1,500 m only T. melanopleura - 2 tons/ha. In Zambia (Meecham, 1962) T. andersonii breeds only once a year, which might also be explained by the high altitude and the change of seasons.
Little attention has been paid in practical fish culture to the climatic requirements of different Tilapia species in countries other than Madagascar.
Most Tilapia species seem to be rather euryhaline. T. mossambica and T. nilotica can be cultivated in brackish water of the mangrove area (Kiener, 1963). Tilapia heudelotii is indigenous in the mangrove area of Nigeria (FAO/UN, 1965).
The growth rate, maximum size and quality of the flesh vary among species of Tilapia. The favoured species for fish culture in Africa are: T. macrochir, T. melanopleura, T. mossambica, T. nigra, T. nilotica and T. zillii. T. galilaea and T. heudelotii are considered to be slow growers (experiments at Panyam Fish Farm in Nigeria at about 1,000 m) (Maar, 1960b). T. heudelotii is said to have a poor taste (Meecham, 1962).
4.1.4 Fertilization
In experiments at many stations it has been proved that fertilization of ponds with manure and mineral fertilizers can increase tilapia production considerably. According to Wurtz (FAO/UN, 1961) tilapia ponds do not respond as well as carp ponds to fertilization. Cow dung has been found to have less effect on tilapia production compared to that of carp (Mortimer, 1962; FAO/UN, 1961). Most mineral fertilizer experiments have been carried out with commercial fertilizers containing phosphates. The effects of the various components (ions) do not seem to have been checked and their fertilizing qualities have been ascribed to phosphate. Nitrate, ammonia and potassium fertilizers are recommended occasionally. Lombard (1960) could quadruple the production of T. mossambica with lime only. Liming before manuring and mineral fertilizing is rarely recommended in Africa (e.g. Bard, 1962b; Mortimer, 1962; FAO/UN, 1961).
In some of the larger fish farms of Congo (Leopoldville) and Mozambique manure has been used regularly (Huet, 1957; Costa, 1960). Mineral fertilizers are not easily available in the region.
Fertilizing is normally not done in home-ponds. Because this type of culture is based mainly on artificial feeding, Schirlé (personal communication) recommends against the use of fertilizers on account of the cost involved and the uncertainty of their beneficial effects in small ponds. The raising of pigs or ducks near fish ponds for the purpose of fertilizing ponds has been tried on an experimental basis in Ghana (van der Lingen, 1960).
4.1.5 Feeding
As tilapia in small ponds require intensive feeding, experiments have been conducted with a variety of locally available materials (Appendix IV). Leaves and grass are the most easily available feeds, but it is obvious that daily feeding with them is only possible in small home-ponds. Large farms would need large quantities of fodder which cannot be obtained daily from the agricultural fields.
For better utilization of the natural food production including plankton, mixed culture with herbivorous and microphagous species is recommended and has become popular in many areas.
It appears that the fish farmers in Africa use mainly the leaves of cultivated plants for feeding fish and do not feed the non-herbivorous species. Uneaten plants decay and increase the production of plankton and other food organisms. A list of feeds used or recommended for tilapia feeding is given in Appendix IV.
According to Kiener (personal communication) the food-coefficient of most leaves used for herbivores may be in the order of 20:1. It may vary considerably according to the plants used and to the growth stage and age of the leaves. In Congo (Brazzaville) (Anon., 1954) the food coefficient of food other than leaves for tilapia is estimated to be 6:1, but this conclusion does not appear to be supported by critical experiments.
As in Africa animals are normally not fed by man; it is difficult to induce the farmers to feed fish. In numerous home-ponds, feeding is not done at all or at least not regularly. The fact that feeding is neglected is often the reason for poor results and consequently the loss of interest in fish farming.
4.1.6 Weed control
Herbivorous tilapia suppress development of algae and submerged soft weeds. However they do not destroy all water plants (Appendix IV) and mechanical weed destruction is, therefore, necessary as well. Many ponds have deteriorated because weed control has been neglected. In Senegal weed control with the sea-cow, Trichechus senegalensis has been tried in irrigation systems (Bard, 1962c). Weed control with nutria, Myocastor coypus, done in Europe in small fenced ponds, has been recommended and successfully tried in Cameroon (Bard, 1962c; Ehrlich, 1957). However, this or chemical methods of weed control have not been adopted elsewhere in Africa.
Carp was probably introduced in Africa before 1859. It was in use in the Cape Province of South Africa in 1896 for stocking natural waters (Maar, 1960). Because of the alarming reports of carps spreading in natural waters in North America and in South Africa, the introduction of carps was banned in most English speaking countries and in Congo (Leopoldville). Stocks were even destroyed (De Bont, 1949; Coche, 1960; Maar, 1960b). Only in the last six to seven years has carp culture gained acceptance again in Africa. Carp farming was started in the Panyam Fish Farm in Nigeria in 1959 with carps of Yugoslavian and Israeli origin. In Rhodesia and South Africa (Transvaal) European strains of carps from Bavaria were introduced for experimental purposes in fish breeding centres in 1958 and 1959 respectively. Carp was introduced in Ghana in 1962 and in Eastern Nigeria in 1963 from the Panyam Fish Farm for experiments. Uganda started experimental culture of carps of Israeli origin in 1961.
Even now prejudices against carp culture exist. As the introduction of carp was done during the “boom” of tilapia culture development it was not easy to rouse public interest in an exotic fish. The results of early experiments in small tilapia ponds were not satisfactory (Maar, 1960a). Sometimes the carps did not spawn in the small ponds or the spawning was comparatively poor (Kiener, 1963; Kiener and Therezien, 1958). Also the lack of experience of the “pioneers” was responsible for many failures. Adequate pond systems for spawning and for rearing carps in age groups did not exist. In the only place where they existed (Panyam) carp production was a success.
However, whereas in Europe the carp matures in the third and fourth year, it sometimes matures in the tropics in the first year, when it reaches about half a kilogram (Zwilling, personal communication). This must necessarily lead to changes in the traditional European management methods for adoption in Africa.
In the high plateau of Madagascar and Nigeria the carp has distinct spawning seasons, whereas in lower altitudes it matures and spawns at any time. The difficulties of breeding carps in tilapia home-ponds and the low fry production in the small ponds of the fish culture stations prevented carp culture from becoming important in Madagascar. Thérézien (1960 and 1963) stressed the need for larger carp culture stations specially designed for the production of fingerlings to stock home-ponds. For the various reasons mentioned above carp culture in ponds remains even now in its very beginning e.g. in Uganda.
(i) Heterotis. Among the numerous species of fish tried in fisheries in African stations Heterotis niloticus has received special attention because of its rapid growth rate (2 to 3 kg per year) (Bard, 1960a, 1962c; Lessant, 1961). This fish does not easily propagate in small ponds. Bard (1962c) recommends propagation ponds of more than 2 ha in area. Maturity starts at 20 to 22 months. Breeding occurs throughout the year at least in low altitudes. Fingerlings of 40 to 50 g are produced in fish culture centres to stock home-ponds. Supplemental feeding is done with rice-bran, groundnuts (Bard,1960a and 1962c), groundnut and cotton seed cakes (Lessant, 1961). The fish is not well accepted by consumers because of its taste and the numerous sharp lancetteshaped bones. Nevertheless it is being introduced in Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Nigeria (Panyam Fish Farm) and in Madagascar. In home-ponds it is raised together with tilapia. As it does not breed easily in small ponds, over-population does not seem to be a problem. Heterotis culture may assume importance in African fish culture in the future.
(ii) Citharinidae: This group of principally planktophagous fishes is common in natural waters mainly in West Africa and can be found occasionally in fish culture centres and home-ponds. It has raised great interest because of its rapid growth, which is said to be higher than that of carp (Otorubio, personal communication). However, it has not yet been possible to make these fishes reproduce in captivity and specific methods of culture have not been developed.
(iii) Black bass: In Congo (Leopoldville), Gambia and Rhodesia, production of the American black-bass (Micropterus salmoides) with the blue-gill (Lepomis) as prey has been tried but has not gained economic importance. In South Africa Tilapia sparmanii has been used instead of blue-gill. This fish does not propagate easily in Africa (Bard, 1962c; Huet, 1957; Kiener, 1963). Propagation difficulties seem to be connected with lower altitudes as they are rarely reported in higher altitudes where the fish has acclimatized itself and propagated in natural waters, e.g. Kenya, around Mount Kenya, some areas of Madagascar and South Africa. On the plateau of Madagascar black bass caught in natural waters are regularly sold in the fish markets. In the Atlas mountains of Morocco the propagation in rivers and reservoirs is not satisfactory (Chapius, 1962) and it is not yet clear whether it happens regularly.
(iv) Lates is mainly produced in fish culture centres for the control of Tilapia over-population. Propagation in ponds is often difficult. Zwilling (personal communication) succeeded in making Lates niloticus reproduce by changing the water level of the ponds according to the rhythm of the floods in the rivers. Later on, they spawned also in ponds with constant water level. It seems that Lates needs larger water areas for spawning.
Rearing tilapia and carp in the same ponds is often recommended and practised, e.g. in Madagascar and Uganda. At Panyam Fish Farm in Nigeria experiments proved that carp grows slowly when tilapia propagate in the ponds to the extent that it becomes competitive to carp. Heterotis is normally raised together with tilapia in home-ponds and there seems to be no significant competition. Citharinids can also be raised together with Tilapia.
Though successful experiments have been conducted in rice field fish culture in many areas (Bard, 1962c; Chapuis, 1962; Coche, 1960: Costa, 1960; FAO/UN, 1957; Huet, 1957, 1959 and 1962; Kiener, 1957a, 1962 and 1963; Thérézien, 1960) it is rarely practised except for instance in Madagascar and Morocco. Experiments are being continued in some countries such as Ivory Coast.
In Madagascar, where rice culture is indigenous, some rice farmers have started on their own initiative to stock their rice fields with fish. Their production although large per field is “insignificant” in relation to that of the total pond fish production of Madagascar (Kiener, 1957a, 1963; Thérézien, 1960).
The following fishes have been used in rice-field fish culture: Tilapia melanopleura (Congo (Leopoldville), Nigeria, Zambia), T. mossambica (Madagascar, Mozambique, Rhodesia), T. nilotica (Tanganyika), Paratilapia pollenii (Madagascar), Cyprinus carpio (Madagascar, Morocco), Carassius auratus (Madagascar), Barbus spp. (Mozambique), Gardinus rutilis (Morocco), Tinca tinca (Morocco).
Mixed culture of carp, T. nilotica and T. melanopleura, or carp, T. macrochir, T. melanopleura and Haplochromis mellandii are often recommended (Chimits, 1955).
Following small-scale experiments, an experimental brackish-water fish farm has recently been established with the assistance of an FAO expert (FAO/UN, 1965) in Buguma (Nigeria) in the mangrove area of the Niger delta. The initial experiments gave encouraging results and further work is progressing. The expert also studied the possibilities of fish culture in the lagoons of Ghana (FAO/UN, 1962). He concluded that brackish-water fish culture would probably be possible in West African lagoons and suggested further surveys and the establishment of pilot farms.
In Tunisia mullets and eels are reared in closed lagoons where stocking takes place by natural immigration. There are numerous large and practically unused mangrove swamps and lagoons all along the African coast, and there is good prospect for developing brackish-water pond fish culture in the region. Up to the present, proper brackish-water pond fish culture has not been done anywhere else in Africa apart from the pilot farm in Nigeria.
Very little information exists on fish diseases in African ponds. Diplostomiasis of the eyes of Tilapia has been reported from Congo (Leopoldville) (Bard, 1962c). As these flukes have life stages in birds, snails and fish they can be controlled by malaccophagous fishes (De Bont, 1949; Costa, 1962). Gill flukes (Dactylogyrus, Gyrodactylus) have been observed in Nigeria (Zwilling, personal communication) and Uganda (FAO/UN, 1965). The parasitic copepod (Lernaea) occurred in large numbers in Upper Volta (Bard, 1960f, 1962c).
Mvogo (1961) observed a fatal filaviasis which forms cysts at the operculum of Heterotis and describes an obviously non-fatal myxosporidiasis (similar to Myxosoma dujardini) found in Tilapia nilotica; both in Cameroon. R.H. Love (Bard, 1962c) observed a similar disease (Myxosporidiasis) in Uganda.
Very little information is available from literature on the economics of the prevailing tilapia home-pond fish culture. However, it is obvious that the development of this type of fish culture in a developing area like Africa, where capital is extremely short, was possible only because it could be done with minimal investment and recurring expenditures.
The small home ponds have usually been constructed by hand by the farmer himself, whose labour is not taken into account. Mortimer (1962) calculates the construction costs for a fenced contour pond of 1/10 acre (40.5 sq m) near Lusaka, Zambia, to be £22 to £35, estimating £7 10s to £12 for hand labour and £15 to £20 for equipment. If a tractor with dam scoop were used, earth movement would cost £15. These calculations for a developed town do not seem to be typical for areas where people still live in their traditional environment.
In Togo the labour costs for constructing a pond of about 100 m2 are assessed to be 18,000 Frs CFA ($72,00) (B. Allsopp, unpublished manuscript).
The value of the fish crop cannot easily be estimated because most of them are used for subsistence of the family. The farmer has usually no cash income from his pond production. There are of course a few exceptions, where advanced fish farmers sell a good part of the catches in neighbouring markets (Lemasson and Bard, 1964).
The largest expenses in the introduction of fish culture in Africa have certainly been incurred by the public sector which established fish culture and fry production centres.
Where larger fish farms have been established for feeding the dependents of larger agricultural farms or missions (Congo, Leopoldville, Mozambique) own labour force and farm equipment is used and payment of labour is often made in kind. The larger Panyam fish farm in Nigeria, for instance, was built by hand 16 years ago, utilizing local labour.
The costs of pond construction per ha of water surface cannot even be estimated. They will certainly vary considerably in different countries and areas.
Pond construction for a brackish-water fish farm in 150 acres of mangrove area in a densely populated region where compensation to landowners had to be paid, where wagetariffs existed and where the work was done by building contractors, was estimated at £15,700 by Pillay (FAO/UN, 1965). This included compensation, bush clearance, earth movement of 83,000 cu yds (3s per cu yd), two main sluices and 20 subsidiary sluices in concrete and steel construction. These figures are certainly not typical for the whole of Africa and do not apply to home-ponds. They might serve as guide-line for the construction of major farms and fish culture centres.
No norms can be established for recurring expenditure. They will vary considerably by country, area, situation and type of production. The Panyam Fish Farm in Nigeria had to be entirely self sufficient. The farm had to have facilities for building its own boat, maintain its own lorry park, its own workshop etc, whereas the Buguma Fish Farm (FAO/UN, 1965) is situated near a small town and close to the modern harbour-town, Port Harcourt, where some supplies and repair facilities are available. Pillay (FAO/UN, 1965) estimates recurrent expenditures in this case at £1,600 per annum.
The income of economic farms will depend not only on their production but also on their marketing situation: distance, capacity and purchasing power, price structure, availability of roads and water-ways, means of transport, etc.
During the explosive development of tilapia culture in Africa, the hygiene services of several countries have expressed concern and even requested a complete ban on pond fish culture e.g. in Uganda, Kenya, Congo (Leopoldville) (Coche, 1960) because they thought it might spread human diseases like malaria, yellow fever and bilharzia (schistosomiasis).
With respect to diseases transmitted by mosquitoes the prevailing opinion of biologists seems to be that in most areas where there are already many small natural waters and swamps the introduction of pond fish culture does not aggravate the situation. All cultured fish feed on mosquito larvae when they have access to them (Coch, 1960; Kiener, 1963). In well maintained and well stocked tilapia ponds, mosquito larvae have not been found; phytophagous tilapia destroy filamentous algae which are the favoured habitat for anophelid larvae; Stegomya larvae occur more in the open water where they can be reached by the non-herbivorous fishes as well. In ponds, where larger fish cannot reach the mosquito larvae (shallow shores, plant thickets, rice paddies) Gambusia affinis is an efficient biological control for mosquito larvae.
Only in very dry areas, where natural habitats of mosquito larvae are rare, fish ponds may eventually promote the spreading of malaria (but rarely yellow fever).
Much more serious is the danger of spreading schistosomiasis (bilharzia). Indeed many newly created ponds contain soon the host snails (Planorbidae and Limnaeidae) of Schistosoma larvae and the disease spreads in the population. Even in scientifically controlled fish breeding centres Schistosoma infestation of epidemic character has occurred (e.g. Yaoundé in Cameroon; Bard, 1960f; Gamet et al, 1965; Murgo, 1963). Public health authorities have tried to control schistosomiasis by destroying the vector snails with chemicals. Specific malaccocides not affecting aquatic flora, fish and other aquatic fauna have not yet been found. Utilization of malaccocides is therefore prohibited in fishing waters and culture ponds. Experiments in controlling the vector snails with malaccophagous fishes, using the East African Cichlids, Astatoreochromis alluaudii (Congo-Leopoldville, Kenya, Uganda, Cameroon) and Haplochromis mellandi (Congo-Leopoldville) have given the most promising results.
These fishes have less value as food fish and are kept in ponds together with tilapia. The use of malacophagous fishes for schistosoma control is not yet commonly practised.
With the creation of thousands of home-ponds in a period of 10 to 15 years, fish culture can be considered as definitely introduced into the African economy. This is indeed a great achievement.
However, after the first explosive growth of fish culture, in many countries development has almost come to a standstill or has even suffered a conspicuous setback in recent times (Bard, 1962c; Lemasson and Bard, 1964). This calls for a review of the situation and re-orientation of policy.
The reasons for the recent stagnation and apparent recession are manyfold. Among the various methods of tilapia culture only one has been widely adopted i.e. the mixed culture of age classes.
For getting reasonable results, heavy stocking and feeding, regular thinning and restocking after complete draining of the pond as well as good maintenance of the ponds and weed control are necessary. If one of these is neglected, over-population and stunting can result. This is occurring often in African home-ponds and is probably the principal reason for the loss of interest in fish culture in certain areas.
The practice of continuous harvesting of large fish (fast-growers) and keeping the small ones, including the slow-growers, is antiselective and will lead in the long run to hereditarily slow-growing races. Stocks should therefore be continuously “refreshed” with “wild” fish from natural waters.
The whole pattern of the present fish culture would have to be changed with the introduction of other methods.
Rearing in age groups would make it necessary for farmers to have more than one pond, or they will have to group their ponds into production units on a cooperative basis.
Control of over-population by predators is not an ideal solution because the farmer cannot assess properly the efficiency of the predator before total fishing.
Sexing is not easy for the average African farmer. Also, to use this method more than one pond is required; at least one for propagation and one for rearing the monosex stock. If public hatcheries have to produce monosex stocks for home-ponds, more and larger hatcheries would be needed. They would have to deliver to a pond owner the exact number of fish needed for the optimal utilization of the natural food production and available fertilizer or additional food. To do this, the hatchery personnel should know every pond or get at least full information about their productivity. As many thousand ponds have been built this seems to be impossible.
The explosive development of fish culture has obviously slipped out of the control of the fishery authorities. A large number of poor ponds, with respect to size, water supply, drainage etc, have been created by inexperienced farmers. Direct influence of fish culture centres affect only a smaller number of ponds. Extension services are inadequate with respect to size and often quality. It seems to be impossible to form and maintain the cadres necessary for the permanent supervision of each of the numerous private ponds.
The average African farmer was not educated to carry out fish culture. Only “advanced farmers” have been able to maintain a higher production over a long period (Lemasson and Bard, 1964). The ease of creating a small pond with minimal capital investment and the ease with which tilapia propagate (the “curse” of tilapia culture) have created the attitude that no effort is needed for producing fish in ponds.
The economic infrastructure which has developed in other countries in connection with fish culture (in Asia: professional fry-catchers of fishes, which do not reproduce in ponds, young-fish producers for supplying production ponds, specialized traders; in Europe: young-fish producers for pond owners, who have not the facilities for their own young-fish production, specialized dealers with specialized transport equipment) do not exist in Africa. The existing breeding stations would not be in a position to produce the whole stocking material for all existing fish ponds, much less the stocking material for rice fields if rice-field fish culture is to be introduced on a larger scale.
The lack of a specialized trade in pond fish is a handicap for the development of commercial fish farming. The small and irregular surplus of subsistence ponds does not allow the development of such trade. Similarly a trade in agricultural fertilizers does not yet exist, nor does a trade in animal fodder.
The home-pond fish culture is badly integrated with agriculture. The most important work in fish culture (draining and restocking) has to be done after the dry season, when water for refilling the ponds is available. This is also the time of land cultivation. As fish culture is principally a side-line occupation of the agricultural farmer, the work on the ponds may often be neglected in favour of agricultural work.
Changes in the economic and administrative patterns after political independance have obviously caused in some cases a recession in development (loss of extension cadres).
Future fish culture development policy in Africa should be directed to:
making the fishery services, especially the extension services, more efficient;
making the fish farmer more independant from fish culture and extension service centres: better training, own fry production, grouping of ponds in economic units;
creating the “professional fish farmer” for commercial fish farming in larger pond systems. Commercial fish farming would also have a beneficial effect on home-pond subsistence fish culture;
creating the infrastructure for a large-scale commercial fish culture economy; and
developing and improving culture and management methods in research centres so that they can easily be used in practical fish farming.
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