BELGIUM

The Kingdom of Belgium, on the North Sea in northwestern Europe, is a country of flat and gently sloping lands backed by low forested hills. Small as it is, its access to the sea, well-tilled terrain, temperate climate and (originally) its resources of iron and coal have enabled it to become a leading industrial country and to support one of the densest populations in Europe.

Its rivers are small, but canalized and linked with canals they provide an intricate system of waterways heavily used for transport and the disposal of wastes. Additional use of surface waters, especially through withdrawals for intensive industry and an absence of natural lakes preclude maintenance of a freshwater commercial fishery.

Some aquaculture for trout and warmwater fishes, and angling for coarse fishes in lowland waters and salmonids in upland streams represent Belgium's inland fishery.

Belgium is situated in northwestern Europe between 49°30' and 51°30'N latitudes and 2°30' and 6°23'E longitudes.

Roughly triangular in shape, its extreme length is about 280 km (NW-SE); its greatest breadth is about 181 km (NE-SW). Its altitudinal range is from about -5 m to 693 m, but its mean elevation does not exceed 175 m.

Belgium is bounded on the northwest by the North Sea for 65.5 km, on the north and northeast by the Netherlands for 450 km, on the east by the Federal Republic of Germany for 162 km, on the southeast by Luxembourg for 148 km, and the west and southwest by France for 620 km.¹

¹ The lengths of these boundaries are taken from Annuaire Statistique de la Belgique, Tome 107, 1987. Belgium also has a tiny (7 km²) exclave completely within Dutch territory. This exclave, Baarle-Hertog, is 6 km north of the Belgian border

The northern part of the country is called Flanders and the southern part Wallonia, but physiographically, the country can be divided into: (i) Lower Belgium, a flat northern lowland; (ii) Central Belgium, a region of low plateaux, and (iii) High Belgium in the south and southeast.

Maritime Flanders, that portion of the northern lowland along the North Sea, has a straight, broad, sandy beach backed by dunes with few openings to the sea. Inshore are polders (reclaimed marsh lands), protected by seawalls, dunes and dikes, covering 494 km² and interspersed with drainage canals. Toward the interior the land rises gently, generally to not over 20 m.

In Central Belgium, the plateaux are split in half by the highly populated valley of the Sambre and Meuse Rivers which forms an industrial crescent between them. To the north of the valley is the Northern Low Plateau (80–100 m); to the south is the Southern Low Plateau (to 200 m), with more forest and pastureland.

South of the central region, there arises another more rugged plateau, that of High Belgium or the Ardennes, dissected by trout streams into an area of rounded hills, forests, pasture lands and moors. This is the highest land in Belgium, with hills from 400 to 693 m, but much of it is not over 330 m. The extreme south of the country is occupied by Belgian Lorraine, a continuation of the scarplands of Luxembourg. Population density in the Ardennes is only about 50 inh/km² as compared with over 1 000 inh/km² in the densely populated area to its north.

There is little natural vegetation on Belgium's cultivated lands, and forests have been largely removed except in areas of poor soil or steep slopes. About 55 percent of the trees are deciduous (beech, oak and birch) and 45 percent coniferous (imported Scots pine and spruce are common).

Soils vary from sand dunes, clays and fertile loess in the north to acid and eroded sandstones and shales in the south. The latter reflect their composition in the calcium-poor and neutral (pH 7) waters of the Ardennes.

The coastline is short, sandy and straight. It has few harbours, the beaches have high recreational use, and it is not suitable for aquacultural development.

4. CLIMATE

The climate is maritime, temperate and cold. It is mild and humid in the coastal area with hotter summers and colder winters inland.

The average annual temperature is 8.3°C; extremes are -12°C and 32°C. On the coast, the mean temperatures are 3.3°C in January and 16.6°C in July. They are similar in central Belgium (2.2°C and 17.5°C, respectively) but the extremes are greater in hilly regions.

The average annual precipitation is about 835 mm, ranging from 700 mm on the plain to over 1 000 mm in the Ardennes. Monthly rainfalls vary little throughout the year; fog and drizzle are the rule. Deficiencies may occur in the summer, however, causing low water flows.

The number of days with temperatures below freezing are about as follows: 30 on the coast, 60 in the central area and 120 in the Ardennes. Snow is common but rarely remains long. In Flanders there are about 15 days of snow; in the Ardennes about 30.

5. HYDROGRAPHY AND LIMNOLOGY¹

The total area of Belgium's inland waters aside from artificial fish ponds has been estimated as constituting about 25 900 ha (0.85 percent of the country's total area) composed of 24 000 ha of rivers and canals and 1 900 of artificial reservoirs.² Comparison of these data (derived from Belgium/EIFAC, 1975, 1977, 1980, 1989) with the estimate of the extent of inland waters shown in Table 2 (28 000 ha) indicates a reasonable agreement.

The approximate annual run-off in Belgium is 360 mm or 11 000 million m³. In receipt of an annual discharge of 5 000 million m³ from upstream countries, the annual river discharge leaving Belgium is 16 000 million m³ (Van der Leeden, 1975; ECE, 1978).

Most of the country drains to the northeast into the Netherlands through the Escaut/Schelde and the Meuse/Maas. A few streams such as the Sûre/Sauer in the eastern Ardennes are in the Rhine drainage. A small area (Oise) drains to the Seine in France. A few minor streams flow directly into the North Sea.

¹ As Belgium has two official languages (French and Dutch) more than one name is used for some waters. The English equivalents of the major types of waterbodies are given in these two languages

² More exact figures are provided by Water and Forest Administration (1980): 12 752 ha of navigable or floatable watercourses and canals, and 10 646 ha in all other watercourses (non-navigable)

5.1 Rivers (Rivières/Rivieren)

The total length of Belgium's rivers is about 26 600 km; their total area including canals is about 24 000 ha (Belgium/EIFAC, 1975, 1977, 1980).

The discharge of 11 rivers in Belgium is shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Discharge of twelve Belgian rivers

Source: Van der Leeden (1975) after Hydrologisch Jaarboek van Belgie, 1971

The hydrographic system in Belgium is well developed and maintained by abundant rains except for summer deficiencies. With little slope in their lower courses, some of the larger rivers which meander over wide floodplains (6–8 km) have had their courses artificially stabilized to prevent floods. Near the coast is a maze of drainage ditches, some once tidal creeks. Pumping is necessary to maintain canal levels and pump excess water into the sea.

Belgian streams, as in France, are customarily grouped into four zones named by their most characteristic fish and dependent upon their gradient (hence strength of current), temperature, substratum and amount of aquatic vegetation. Popularized by Huet (1949, 1954, 1962) and proceeding generally downstream, these zones are as follows:

1. Trout zone - rocky and swift with well oxygenated water;

2. Grayling zone - less rocky and less swift;

3. Barbel zone - quiet water with vegetation;

4. Bream zone - very slow and tranquil, pond-like. Other fish: carp, tench, eel, perch, pike.

Not all Belgian rivers posses all these zones. A simpler classification lumps the first two zones as “salmonid” and the last two as “cyprinid”.

The higher parts of Belgium (Ardennes) are generally in the trout zone grading into the grayling zone as they descend, e.g., East and West Ourthe, Lesse, Amblève, Warche. The lower extent of the large rivers, Semois, Ourthe, Lesse and all of the Meuse are in the barbel zone. The Escaut basin is a cyprinid region, primarily a bream zone, and the lower river which is affected by tides is a smelt (Osmerus) zone.

The major river systems of Belgium are described briefly below.

Meuse/Mass. The major river of Belgium is the canalized Meuse/Mass, which enters from France on the south and proceeds northeasterly to form a 48-km segment of the Belgo-Dutch border and then continues into the Netherlands to empty into the North Sea at the end of its total journey of 950 km, of which about 192 km is in Belgium. En route, it has drained most of Belgium south of its valley. The Meuse has an annual discharge of 273 m³/sec, but can drop to under 30 m³/sec for over three months.

Within the confines of Belgium, the most important tributaries of the Meuse, proceeding downstream, are the 80-km Lesse entering from southeast Belgium, the 190-km Sambre (which originates in France) and the Our the, like the Lesse, a totally Belgian river. The Ourthe, which drains about 12 percent of the country, originates in the southeast from two branches, each about 50 km in length and proceeds north for 135 km to join the Meuse at Liège. Its main tributaries are the 93-km Amblève and its affluent, the 48-km Warche, and the 73-km Vesdre entering near its mouth. There are a number of reservoirs on these tributaries. Also originating in Belgium, but entering the Meuse in France, is the 180-km Semois.

Escaut/Schelde. Arising in France as the Escaut, this river enters Belgium west of Mons and flows north and east across the country. Its estuary, the harbour of Antwerp, joins the North Sea in the Netherlands. Of its total length of about 430 km, about 330 km are navigable through locks. Heavily used, at Antwerp where it has a mean annual discharge of about 80 m³/s, it is extremely polluted - having picked up industrial and sewage effluent from several centres such as Lille, Brussels and Ghent.

Much of lower and central Belgium is in the Escaut drainage. Proceeding downstream from the Belgo-French border, the major tributaries are as follows: the 214-km Lys (Leie) which rises in France and forms a small part of the Franco-Belgian boundary, the 88-km Dendre (Dender) and the Rupel. The Rupel, in itself only 12 km long, is formed by the confluence of the Nèthe (Nete) and the 97-km Dyle (Dijle).

Other drainages. The Sûre/Sauer, a trout and grayling river of 177 km, rises in southeastern Belgium and passes through Luxembourg to join the Moselle (Rhine basin).

The Oise, which also drains only a small portion of Belgium, flows south into France to join the Seine.

Finally, there are the streams of the coastal basin: the small Yser/IJzer, a canalized maritime river which enters from France, and several others which flow directly into the North Sea. Their flows are almost nil in summer.

5.2 Lakes and Reservoirs (Lacs/Meren, Lacs de barrage/Stuwmeren)

Belgium has no natural lakes although some of its reservoirs are called lakes. There are about ten artificial reservoirs mostly built for water supply and to produce hydroelectric power, with a total area of about 1 900 ha, and it is planned to double their capacity by the year 2000 (ECE, 1978).

Five of these are in the Ourthe drainage. The eutrophic Nisramont at the confluence of the east and west branches of the Ourthe with an area of 47 ha and a volume of 3 million m³ was formed in 1952. Four other reservoirs with a total area of 440 ha and total capacity of 71 million m³ lie on tributaries of the Ourthe. The largest of these (the largest reservoir in Belgium) is the oligotrophic Barrage d'Eupen on the Vesdre, over 125 ha in extent with a capacity of 25 million m³. Below it lies the 80-ha oligotrophic Barrage de Gileppe built on a tributary of the Vesdre in 1878; and two mesotrophic reservoirs, Robertsville and Butgenbach, are on the Warche. The Lake of Virelles, another reservoir over 125 ha in area, and the Eau d'Heure reservoir over 600 ha are situated in southern Belgium.

Fishing in Belgium's reservoir lakes is not generally good. For example, the reservoirs of Eupen and Gileppe have a pH of 5 and contain few fish.

5.3 Canals (Canaux/Kanalen)

Belgium has an extensive canal system linking its most important natural waterways, so that, in effect, any of its river or canal ports is linked with Antwerp, the Netherlands, Germany and France. In 1988, its navigable waterways totalled 1 537 km, of which more than half were canals.

Some are large ship canals, e.g., the Ghent-Terneuzen Canal has a minimum depth of 8.8 m and the Brugge-Zeebrugge Canal a minimum depth of 8 m; the canal linking Brussels with the Rupel and Escaut/Schelde rivers has a minimum depth of 5.8 m and width of 25 m, and the Albert Canal, connecting the Escaut and the Meuse, has a depth of 5.5 m and a width of 102 m. A total of about 320 km can accommodate vessels up to 2 000 tons, about 560 more km can take vessels of 600 t, and the smaller canals allow the passage of shallow draught boats of 3 to 15 t.

Both the navigation canals and the drainage canals of Flanders provide angling. Heavily used canals are usually muddy and without much plant growth. Modern canals with cement sides provide fewer fish than older canals, and canal pollution is quite heavy.

6. LAND AND WATER USE

Table 2

Pattern of land use in Belgium and Luxembourg, 1986^a

^a Highly representative of Belgium alone which represents 92.2 percent of the combined area of the two countries.

Source: 1987 FAO Prod.Yearbk., 41 (Publ. 1988)

Although Belgium is now considered to be about 97 percent urban, its small-farm intensive agriculture furnishes about 90 percent of its country's needs, although only a small part of its GNP. Beets, flax, potatoes and cereals are important crops, but with the basic orientation toward livestock there is a large amount of carefully nurtured pastureland.

In the northwestern area almost all of the land has been deforested, drained and tilled, and its shallow lagoons were filled in centuries ago - both naturally and with the aid of man. Fertilizer use is heavy: about 300 kg/ha/year (1984). The use of irrigation is mainly supplemental - during summer deficiencies and for frost protection and there are no large irrigation projects affecting fisheries¹. Agricultural water demand not only for irrigation but for animal production and dairying is, however, increasing.

¹ The FAO Production Yearbook persists in listing a use of irrigation in Belgium and Luxembourg of only about 1 000 ha between 1969 and 1986, although the Commissariat royal au problème de l'eau (1967) and Framji and Mahajan (1969) stated that 9 170 ha in Belgium were irrigated in 1965 and estimated that 49 000 ha would be irrigated by 1980.

There is some rather important forestry in the southeastern area, although Belgium/Luxembourg ranks only about nineteenth in European forest production.

Although Belgium's original industrial economy was partly based on its mineral resources, especially coal, most of its ores have been depleted.

Industrial development, which began in the early 19th century, is very intensive. On a per caput basis, Belgium (and Luxembourg) are the world's largest steel producers and a wide variety of non-ferrous metals are also produced. Machine building, metalworking, chemicals, food processing and textiles are other major industries.

In addition to the heavy load of effluents from these and other industries (including agriculture), much of the sewage of large cities and many small towns is still untreated - thus contributing further to the pollution problem. It is one of the most serious in Europe, but considerable efforst are made for water purification.

Belgium has one of the most extensive rail and highway systems in the world, their respective densities being about 1 km/km² and 4 km/km². Even so, its navigable waterways, with a density of about 0.05 km/km², continue to carry an important cargo. The use of such waterways places great stress on the country's water resources and their potential fisheries. Their use involves barriers or deterrents to fish migrations, changes in natural levels and flows, channel dredging, other modifications of the substratum and the ensurance of wide distribution of pollutants throughout the network.

On the other hand, in this country of low terrain and limited volume of water, there is little development of hydroelectric power; there are only a few small stations, mostly in the Ardennes. In 1985, total installed electrical capacity in Belgium was 14 152 thousand kW, of which only 1 326 thousand (9.4 percent) was hydroelectric and 5 425 thousand (38 percent) was nuclear.

There is an active sea fishery but no commercial fishing for freshwater fish in Belgium. The supply of fish (mostly imported) for human consumption was 18.1 kg per caput in 1987.

With respect to over-all water use in Belgium, in 1972, 93 percent of its water was derived from surface sources, and 91 percent of all use was industrial (ECE, 1978). Recreational use of Belgium's inland waters is very high, including: sailing, motor boating, kayaking, water-skiing and angling.

7. FISH AND FISHERIES

The fishes occupying the most important place in Belgium's inland water fishery are listed in Table 3. Studies in the Ourthe drainage basin, which represents 12 percent of the entire country, show that 80 percent of its fish stock is composed of six species: barbel (23.5 percent), brown trout (21.5 percent), chub (13.4 percent), hotu (12.5 percent), grayling (5.2 percent) and dace (4.5 percent) (Phillipart, 1982).

Table 3

Most common exploited inland fisheries of Belgium

Other native fishes are, of course, caught in small numbers, and a number of fishes have disappeared from their original habitats. The Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) can no longer tolerate the rivers of Belgium, e.g., it disappeared from the Ourthe in 1930–40. Some introduced fishes are now present in limited areas: rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), American brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), two black basses (Micropterus dolomieu and M. salmoides), the American pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus) and American bullhead (Ictalurus sp.).

Several different species of crayfish, both native and introduced are resident in Belgian waters but are neither abundant or fished heavily. See Gerard (1986) for an account.

Some years ago, FAO Yearbooks of Fishery Statistics did not list catches of inland fishes in Belgium, merely saying that they were not available. Recent editions, however (e.g., from Vol. 41, published in 1988) list the annual “catch” of “freshwater fishes” in Belgium from 1970 to 1987 as “0”, a figure which is defined in the Yearbooks as more than zero but less than 50 t during the 1970–73 period, and since then as more than zero but less than half a ton.

Belgium/EIFAC (1975, 1977, 1980) and Timmermans (1986, 1988) all state that there are no inland commercial fishermen nor any inland commercial catch in Belgium. It could be assumed, therefore, that the FAO inland catch statistics for 1970–85 refer to the products of aquaculture, but reference to section 7.2 demonstrates that even if this were so, the early FAO statistics were grossly underestimated. From 1986 onward FAO breaks the catch down further (see section 7.2).

7.1 Capture Fishery (sport)

It must first be noted that there are two major classes of anglers in Belgium: those fishing in running waters under public fishing regulations (whose statistics are presented below), and those fishing in closed or private waters (see section 8.1).

The sport catch in Belgian rivers and canals circa 1974 was estimated to total about 466 t by about 240 000 anglers (Belgium/EIFAC, 1975). This did not include the unknown catch in private fishing ponds. Six years later (1980) the estimate of sport catch in Belgium was similar: 485 t by 220 000 licensed fishermen, primarily of cyprinids with an estimated value of 73 million Belgian francs (Admin. des eaux et forêts, 1982).

At a later date, Timmermans (1986) believed that the captures had not been augmented but estimated the number of anglers as about 300 000. Even later he (Timmermans, 1988) estimated the catch in public waters as being about 494 t in 1985 and 498 t in 1986 by about 210 000 anglers¹. The catch in private waters as well as the number of its anglers remained unknown.

¹ More exact figures as to the number of licenses delivered are: 212 190 in 1980 and 218 323 in 1981 (Inst. Nat. de Stat., 1982), 228 677 in 1984 and 224 889 in 1985 (Inst. Nat. de Stat., 1987)

Table 4 showing the catch in public waters in 1974 illustrates its composition. Although the reported catch in Belgium is composed predominantly of cyprinids, other “finer” fishes enter the sport catch. In fact, in order of preference both for capture and for eating, a study in the province of Liège (one eighth of the country) showed the following ranking: trout, roach, pike, graying and perch (Gilon, 1982).

Sport fishing in Belgium is essentially practised by angling either with bait or artificial lures. Sport fishermen may also use devices such as nets, pots and crayfish and eel traps, but only in very limited areas..

Table 4

Sport fishing catch in public waters of Belgium, 1974

Source: Brown (1977, 1983). Although originally presented as the catch in Belgium and Luxembourg, it is understood from Belgium/EIFAC (1980) that only the Belgian catch is represented.

The number of sport fishermen in Belgium based on licence issue has risen from 130 931 in 1948 to 224 889 in 1985. This constitutes about 2.2 percent of the total population. Although this percentage is not large, one must take into consideration the relatively small original area of inland water in Belgium and its degradation through industrial, agricultural and domestic use. Given the opportunities, the Belgian fisherman has apparently sought out the possibilities within his country. Circa 1980, his average annual expenditure for fishing gear and equipment was estimated to be BF 5 227. Furthermore, the Belgian tourist agencies, including the National Tourist Office, issue very explicit information on angling to attract foreign visitors. It has, however, been noted that many of the more affluent Belgians seek fishing in other countries where the water is in better condition, and that the total number of anglers within Belgium itself seems to have stabilized.

7.2 Aquaculture

Exact data on aquaculture in Belgium are difficult to obtain. Belgium/EIFAC (1980) states that there are about 12 500 artificial fish ponds in Belgium totalling about 9 400 ha in area. These ponds are of two general types: angling ponds and production ponds. Most of the ponds are fishing ponds. Some of the production ponds are run by amateur fishculturists, i.e., by anglers or angling societies who use extensive methods to raise fish to stock angling waters. The other production ponds are run by professional fishculturists who practise more intensive means of cultivation. There is no exact information on the number, size of ponds, or production for the different categories of fish which are produced in Belgium.

Nevertheless, some specific information provided by Brown (1977; 1983) is detailed below. In 1975 there were 18 rainbow trout and brown trout farms in Belgium using both pond and raceway units. About 300 t of rainbow trout were produced in 1979, mostly from eggs imported from Italy, Denmark and France. Most of the rainbow production was used as food although a few catchable-size fish were stocked in public waters for angling. All of the brown trout were destined for restocking both public and private waters either as fingerlings or small adults.

With respect to cyprinids, Brown (1977 and 1983) states that in 1975 there were 19 culturists of fish such as common carp, tench and roach who also raised small quantities of pike. The carp, produced in earthern ponds, were destined primarily for stocking in private angling ponds or streams, but a few tons were sold for food. The supply of domestically raised carp was estimated at less than 100 t annually. About 213 t were imported, mainly from France, and about 416 t were exported, mainly to the Federal Republic of Germany. Tench and roach, also cultivated in earthern ponds with little or no feeding or fertilization, achieve an annual production of between 200 and 300 kg/ha resulting in a total yield of about 200 t. About 700 t are imported. Only a few tons of this amount are destined for immediate food consumption; the remainder of these fish are used for stocking fishing waters. The released fish are at catchable sizes of 250 to 300 g.

Brown further states that although there is no separate culture of pike or pike-perch in Belgium, most carp producers stock a few fingerlings of these predators in their ponds to be harvested at the end of the first or second summer of growth. The total production of these two species is probably not over 20 t. About 50 t are imported and about 10 t are exported. Only small quantities, 2–3 t, are used as food; the remainder are used for stocking fishing waters.

Despite the general statement above concerning fish production in Belgium, and since Brown's figures seems to be rather old, are not always specific as to what year they relate, and have not been verified, various other estimates follow. Belgium/EIFAC (1980) estimated that collectively about 1 500 t of cyprinids were produced annually in Belgium's artificial ponds and reservoirs using a theoretical estimate of production of about 150 kg/ha/year. They also estimated that the professional fishculturists produced about 500 t of these cyprinids, mainly common carp, tench and roach, with an average production of about 350 kg/ha/year.

It was also estimated by Belgium/EIFAC (1980), the European Federation of Salmonid Breeders (FES), and others that trout production by professionals is about 300 t annually, but for the most part, Belgian trout culturists sell imported trout, about 2 800 t annually. Giorgetti and Ceschia (1982) list an annual production of 300 t of trout in Belgium during the 1974–78 period. Fish Farm.Int. (1982) lists Belgium's annual trout production as 300 t for 1978–81 and as 400 t in 1982, and Fish Farm.Int. (1984) lists it as 400 t in 1983.

The most recent estimates for Belgian trout production available to me are: those of Timmermans (1988) who estimated about 500 t in 1985 and about 650 t in 1986, FAO (1989) which listed the annual rainbow trout “catch” in 1986 as 350 t and that in 1987 as 380 t, FAO Fish.Info.Data and Stat.Serv. (1989) using the same figures (but calling them “aquaculture production”), and Belgium/EIFAC (1989) which estimated a production of 600 t of trout in 1988.

With respect to the production of “Cyprinidés et voraces” (cyprinids and predatory fish such as pike, pike-perch, and perch), Timmermans (1988) estimated a production of about 575 t in both 1985 and 1986. FAO (1989) listed the annual “catch” of common carp as 20 t in both 1986 and 1987, and FAO Fish.Info.Data and Stat.Serv. (1989) used the same figures but called it “aquaculture production”.

Timmermans (1988) also estimated the aquacultural production of cichlids (“tilapias”) and other warm-water fish in Belgium to be about 100 t in 1985 and 200 t in 1986. The Belgian “Tilapia” “catch” in both 1986 and 1987 was 200 t according to FAO (1989), and 160 t in both 1986 and 1987 according to FAO Fish.Info.Data and Stat.Serv. (1989).

One can only conclude that aquacultural production in Belgium is relatively small and relatively static. The value of the entire aquacultural production (finfish only) of Belgium during the 1984–87 period ranged from US$ 547 000 (1984) to 1 872 000 (1987) (FAO Fish.Info.Data and Stat.Serv., 1989).

Ackefors (1989) states that there are 36 production fish farms in Belgium: 22 for trout and 14 others which produce mainly carp but also species such as cichlids, tench and roach.

One of the newest aquacultural developments in Belgium is the trial use of industrially heated water from unclear power stations to rear fish: eel, carp, trout and cichlids. European eel has not been normally cultivated in Belgium although for some time small quantities of elvers have been captured in its rivers to be restocked in other inland waters. However, in 1988 there were five eel farms in Belgium, using recirculation systems with a scheduled annual production of 72 t and 2 more farms planned to produce 63 t annually. Cichlids are well accepted as food by many Belgians and several species are used: Sarotherodon niloticus, Tilapia aurea and T. hornorum. Lately, some fish culturists have started to raise bait fishes and a pilot plant has started to raise crayfish.

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT, INVESTIGATION AND AGREEMENTS¹

8.1 Ownership

There are two classes of fishing waters in Belgium:

1. Closed waters which do not communicate with running waters or are separated from them by screens which block the passage of fish. These waters are not under fishing regulations, except for public closed waters, and

2. Running waters, sub-divided into: (a) navigable and floatable waters which are regarded as part of the Public Domain and designated as such where the fishing right belongs to the State, and (b) non-navigable or non-floatable waters where the fishing right belongs to the riparian owner or a fishing society (see section 5). These waters are under fishing regulations.

Fishing in running waters in Belgium is exclusively for the sport fisherman. It is necessary to have a State licence or permit to fish in running waters and in the case of non-navigable waters to also obtain authorization from the holder of the fishing right. Belgium issues a variety of fishing permits, dependent upon the method used, area, etc. They are obtainable at post-offices.

8.2 Administration and Management

The three Regional Administrations (Flenders, Wallonice, Brussels) are responsible for the administration (policing, monitoring and conservation) of inland fisheries in Belgium.²

In addition to these administrations, there are the following:

1. The Fishery Funds controlled by the Administrations which are used to restock inland waters, enforce protective laws, and improve the fishery in general.

2. Provincial Fishery Commissions (one for each of Belgium's nine provinces) to administer the above funds, coordinate the efforts of local fishing associations, and execute other measures to improve inland fishing.

3. A Central Committee which controls and coordinates the activities of the Provincial Fishery Commissions and submits propositions for the use of the Fishery Funds.

A special service for inland fisheries has been created for some years, within the Administrations to be supported both by the government and fishermen.

8.3 Investigation and Education

The Belgian Government has a Water and Forest Research Station, composed of two sections: (i) Forest Biology, and (ii) Animal biology including Wildlife Biology and Fishery Biology. Activities of the latter section include: limnology and fishery biology, pond culture, stocking of inland waters, and protection of inland waters including pollution, aquatic plants, fish diseases and predators.

Training in fishery biology, aquaculture and allied subjects, is carried out at several Belgian universities.

8.4 Other Concerned Agencies

The Ministry of Health occupies itself with fishery problems when they are concerned with water pollution. Circa 1980, about 40 000 fishermen were grouped into about 600 local fishing societies to improve the protection and use of fishery resources. These societies are often grouped into federations.

8.5 International Agreements

The outlines of an international statute dealing with the Meuse/Maas and Escaut/Schelde with respect to their use by Belgium and the Netherlands was laid down in 1839 and amended since then. Negotiations with respect to new treaties were still in progress in 1983. A Belgian-Dutch Commission was established in 1978 to study matters arising from the management of small rivers and ground water extraction.

A trilateral agreement concerning boundary streams exists between Belgium, France and Luxembourg.

¹ Based mainly on Gaudet (1974), material received by EIFAC from Belgium in 1979, Aptekman (1979), Admin. des eaux et forêts (1982) and Gilon (1982) and updated by Belgium/EIFAC (1989). Aptekman's interpretation of section 8.1 differs somewhat from the others, but does not materially affect the conclusions.

² It may be noted that in the past it was the Ministry of Agriculture, acting through its Direction générale des Eaux et Fôrets, that bore this responsibility

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

9.1 Yield

The yield from angling in Belgium rivers and canals in 1986 was estimated at about 498 t (see section 7.1). On the basis of a river and canal area of about 24 000 ha (section 5.1), the angling yield would then be about 20.7 kg/ha/year. As much of Belgium's lower river and canal area is polluted and the upper sections of the higher streams not very fertile, it is obvious that the yield in more productive areas of Belgium is much higher.

The estimated yield of 350 kg/ha/year (section 7.2) for carp and other cyprinids by professional aquaculturists is not high.

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

The total extent of inland waters in Belgium, less than one percent of the country's total area, is not large, and since it consists primarily of rivers and canals cannot offer as much variety nor as productive fishing as can a country with natural lakes or many reservoirs.

The fish fauna is relatively diversified, although lacking in anadromous fishes, and water pollution has caused replacement of some of the more desirable and sensitive fishes by more tolerant species of less angling interest. For example, trout, grayling and barbel have been partly displaced in some areas by chub and dace.

The trout streams of Belgium lie in an area where the terrain is generally acid - therefore not very productive - and in the richer lower areas pollution has damaged water quality. On the credit side, there is a reasonably long growing season for fish judged from overall climatic conditions.

With therefore, no more than average natural conditions for the development of inland fisheries, the factors affecting Belgium's fisheries are primarily those determined by land and water use. In relation to its size and population (density 326 inh/km²), it is the most highly industrialized country in Europe. With its very short coastline, no great rivers and most of them slow-moving, with much untreated sewage and many industrial wastes, intensive agriculture, maximum use by shipping of internal waterways and a recipient of waste from riparian states, Belgium's water pollution problems are severe - especially in the lower rivers. Circa 1970 its pollution of rivers and canals was considered the worst in Europe, and in 1972, over 50 percent of its rivers were considered polluted (Holden and Lloyd, 1972). Since that time, a considerable effort has been made to alleviate water pollution and the situation has improved. Still, with an annual runoff of only 1 608 m³ per caput, water pollution, often of a complex nature, is a major deterrent to the maintenance of inland fisheries in Belgium.

Although the role of agriculture in Belgium continues to decline, its water demands are increasing as are those of other industries and domestic supply (see section 6). Furthermore, although underground water is preferred for many uses, it has to be piped long distances. Consequently, greater reliance is being placed on water from surface sources.

Although not used to any great extent for the production of hydroelectric power, where streams have been used for this purpose there has been an effect on fisheries through creation of barriers to migration, and changes in water fluctuation and stream habitat. The generation of power by other means (thermal and nuclear) does, however, require the use of large quantities of water and results in the production of thermal and some nuclear effluent.

Forests which cover about one fifth of the country are now used largely for recreation. They aid the watersheds and hence the fisheries.

Finally, there is the direct effect of fishing upon the resource and its supplementation by stocking. Although the percentage of licensed anglers to total population is not high in Belgium (only about 2.3 percent are licensed), it is high in relation to the amount of inland fishing area. Furthermore, the accessibility to fishing areas in Belgium is extremely high. There is a very dense network of roads, 94 percent of them are paved, and there is about one bridge (or potential fishing spot) for each 16 km of road. Belgium has about 339 private automobiles per 1 000 (1986) people, and (based on Gilon, 1982) about 77 percent of the people use a private car to reach their fishing areas. In the Ourthe basin, it is considered that anglers remove about 20 percent of the standing stock of fish annually (Phillipart, 1982). It appears that the overall possibility of over-use of the resource is high. This, however, is true with all uses of the country's aquatic resources - industrial, agricultural, domestic or recreational. Fishing is only one of the latter uses; it must compete with other sports often occupying the same areas, e.g., sailing, canoeing, kayaking, motor-boating and water-skiing, most of which are highly organized in Belgium.

9.3 Prospect

In view of the intense use of limited surface water resources, coupled with extreme and complex pollution, no development of commercial capture fisheries for food can be anticipated. Similarly, and also in view of topographic and climatic conditions, neither the prospects for coastal or interior aquaculture are promising.

The best hope in Belgium is maintenance of recreational fishing in the higher areas with low population density, and further extension into lower areas when pollution is abated. Steps which may improve the inland fisheries include lessened dependence on fresh waters by industry through desalinization, maintenance of more stable reservoir levels, use of heated effluents to raise fish, and greater stocking of public waters. Nevertheless, the way is long.

10. REFERENCES SPECIFIC TO BELGIUM

Administration des eaux et forêts, 1982 Division chasse et pêche, Belgian national report. In Allocation of fishery resources. Proceedings of the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, held in Vichy, France, 20–23 April 1980, edited by J.H. Grover. FAO/American Fisheries Society, pp. 537–8

Aptekman, T., 1979 Belgium. In Water law in selected European countries. Vol.1, compiled by Agrarian and Water Legislation Section, Legislation Branch, Legal Office, FAO. Legisl.Stud., (10):257 p.

Belgian National Tourist Office, 1982 Fresh and salt-water fishing in Belgium. Brussels, Belgian National Tourist Office. 10 p.

Belgian National Tourist Office, 1982a Aquatic sports in Belgium. Brussels, Belgian National Tourist Office, 121 p.

Belgium/EIFAC, 1975 Information on inland water fisheries production in Belgium. (Response to a questionnaire, EIFAC/74/Circ.10, Nov. 1974). (Unpubl.)

Belgium/EIFAC, 1977 Information on inland water fisheries in Belgium. (Response to the EIFAC Secretariat, revising Dill, 1976) (Unpubl.)

Belgium/EIFAC, 1980 Information on inland water fisheries in Belgium. (Response to the EIFAC Secretariat, revising a manuscript by Dill, 1979) (Unpubl.)

Belgium/EIFAC, 1989 Information on inland water fisheries in Belgium. (Response to the EIFAC Secretariat.) (Unpubl.)

Gerard, P., 1986 Les différentes espèces d'écrevisses en Belgique et leur répartition géographique. Trav.Stat.Rech.Forest.et Hydro., Groenendaal, Serie D. (54):25 p.

Gilon, C., 1982 Enquête exploratoire sur la pêche sportive en Belgique. In Allocation of fishery resources. Proceedings of the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources held in Vichy, France, 20–23 April 1980, edited by J.H. Grover. FAO/American Fisheries Society, pp. 146–53

Institut National de Statistique, 1982 Ministère des Affaires Economiques, Annuaire statistique de la Belgique. Bruxelles, Institut National de Statistique, Tome 102:800 p.

Institut National de Statistique, 1987 Annuaire statistique de la Belgique. Bruxelles, Institut National de Statistique, Tome 107:818 p.

Keefe, E.K. et al., 1974 Area handbook for Belgium. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, DA PAM 550–170:266 p.

Philippart, J.C., 1982 Essai d'évaluation des resources ichtyologiques actuelles et potentielles dans le Bassin de l'Ourthe (Bassin de la Meuse) en Belgique. In Allocation of fishery resources. Proceedings of the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, held in Vichy, France, 20–23 April 1980, edited by J.H. Grover. FAO/American Fisheries Society, pp. 298–307

Philippart, J.C. and Ch. Melard, 1980 Belgian power station heats tilapia tanks. Fish Farming Int., 7(2):14–5

Timmermans, J.A., 1982 Belgium. In Country reports of EIFAC member countries for intersessional period 1980–82, edited by K. Tiews. Rome, FAO, EIFAC XII/82/16:2–3 (mimeo)

Timmermans, J.A., 1986 ¹ Belgique. In National reports of EIFAC member countries for the period January 1984–December 1985 (edited) by European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission. EIFAC Occ.Pap./Doc.Occas.CECPI, (16):1–2

Timmermans, J.A., 1988 Belgique. In National reports of EIFAC member countries for the period January 1986–December 1987 (edited) by European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission. EIFAC Occ.Pap./Doc.Occas.CECPI, (20):1–4

Water and Forest Administration, 1980 Belgian national report. Meeting (Country Review) paper, Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, Vichy, France, 20–23 April 1980. 8 p.

¹ Mistakenly printed as J.A. Timmermans