8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT, INVESTIGATION AND AGREEMENTS1
8.1 Ownership of Waters
Finnish laws distinguishes the right of ownership of a water-area from the right of ownership of the water itself. (Water-areas are areas permanently covered by water.) The surface water of a waterarea is, in principle, res communis. However, the owner of the area has a priority for the use of the water, e.g., for domestic supply or power. In the use of man-made reservoir, the water is owned by the owner of the installation.
Currently, about 85 percent of all inland fishing areas are privately owned. Most often this means that water-areas inside village boundaries belong to the village, and are jointly owned by the landowners. However, the owner may also be the State, a private person, or an organization. This applies to both inland waters and to Finnish territorial waters. Water-areas outside village boundaries at sea and in the middle of large lakes are owned by the State and are known as public water-areas. A collectively owned water-area may also be parcelled and divided among the owners according to their shares. In each case, the proprietary rights are connected with the ownership of land; consequently Government-owned water-areas exist only where the Government owns land, primarily in eastern and northern Finland.
The extent of the village water-areas in the lakes and coastal waters has been fixed as follows. If the expanse of water is 8 km or more in width and length, a village shall control an area extending no farther than 500 m from the point where a depth of 2 m begins. Water beyond the 500 m limit is a public water-area. Small amounts of water on the coast or in the archipelagos as well as in the lakes belong to the village.
Table 16
Production for stocking purposes in Finland, 1987 (number of fish)a
| Number | |
| Cyprinids | 936 000 |
| Pike | 1 900 000 |
| Pike-perch | 2 760 000 |
| Whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) | 29 017 000 |
| Siberian whitefish (C. peled) | 2 131 000 |
| Atlantic salmon | 5 039 000 |
| Brown and sea trout | 4 263 000 |
| Other salmonids | 451 000 |
| Grayling | 2 026 000 |
| Total finfish | 48 523 000 |
| Crayfish (Astacus astacus) | 71 000 |
American signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) | 4 000 |
| Total crayfish | 75 000 |
a Excluding newly-hatched larvae
Source: Modified from Finland/EIFAC (1989)
Fishing rights. The basic legal provision in the use of waters is that the rights and obligations concerning a water-area belong to its owner. That is why, with minor exceptions, fishing rights in Finland belong to the owners of the respective water-areas. The ownership unit is primarily the village, and each landowner has his share in the jointly owned water-area and fishing rights according to the size of his estate.
According to the Fisheries Act, the fishery management of water-areas under joint ownership has to be organized by the owners who shall agree on a policy and define the extent of fishing rights for different shares. The owners are also responsible for conservation of fish stocks and management of the area.
The Government is the sole or joint owner of water-areas exceeding 0.5 million hectares which are administered by the National Board of Foresty. In granting fishing permits and leases for fishing rights, the Forestry Administration must give preferential treatment to the local inhabitants, especially to those who do not have fishing rights of their own. This especially concerns fisheries for subsistence and recreation. Permits may be given for short periods, e.g., one year, and leases are made from 2 to 25 years. When leasing rights, the authorities may impose management and conservation obligations on the lessee. These Government-owned areas include special sport fishing areas with permit fees and the Forestry Board also grants permits for angling.
There are also fishing rights which are not connected with the ownership of a water-area:
All citizens may fish in coastal off-shore areas outside the village boundary (i.e., in the public water-area). This also applies to recreational fishing by citizens of all the Scandanavian countries;
Inhabitants of a commune by a large lake may angle and do other hook-fishing outside the village boundary, and the commune may decide whether other methods may be allowed;
Inhabitants of a commune may angle (with minor restrictions) without permits issued by the landowner, or a general licence issued by the Government. In the outer archipelago and in an area facing the open sea they may net fish for Baltic herring, sprat and vendace; and
Inhabitants of a village are entitled, upon making a reasonable payment, to obtain a permit for subsistence and recreational fishing in jointly owned water-areas.
A personal fishing license and the permission of the water owner are generally required for every kind of fishing, but district licenses enable angling with natural bait and ice fishing with rods without the permission of the water owner.
Irrespective of the ownership conditions, owing to the jus regale, the Government monopolizes salmon and sea trout fishing in the Gulf of Bothnia and its rivers. Anyone who wishes to fish there for these species (except with rod and line) has to pay an annual assessment.
The Åland Islands have their own Provincial Government and can pass their own laws in the field of fisheries.
8.2 Administration and Management
In Finland, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry is responsible for both the inland and sea fisheries.
The Department of Fisheries and Game, within the Ministry, is the principal administrative agency for fisheries. It manages fishery policy, draws up the budget, prepares laws, deals with foreign states, safeguards the public interest concerning fisheries during stages of administrative measures and judicial proceedings concerning the use of waters, supervises management and research on fishing waters and fisheries, promotes fisheries, plans resource development, etc. (see section 8.3 concerning research).
In 1983, a new fishery law came into effect which expanded fisheries administration to include 11 districts each headed by a fishery biologist (Heikinheimo-Schmid et al., 1984).
The Department of Veterinary Medicine, also within the Ministry, is responsible for the control of fish diseases;
The National Board of Waters, under the Ministry, is the public supervisory authority (excluding fisheries) responsible for the protection, general planning, research and control of water resources;
The National Board of Forestry, also under the Ministry, administers more than 0.5 million hectares of different kinds of water-areas. The major part of these waters are used for subsistence and recreational fishing under a permit system of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. The fund from the permits are used for management and surveillance of fishing waters.
8.3 Investigation
The Governmental fishery research body under the Ministry is the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute which has a Fisheries Division. This Division carries out research on both inland and sea fisheries and on fish culture, prepares fishery statistics, and has charge of inland fish culture and research stations. Fishery research is also carried out at Finnish Universities such as, Helsinki, Kuopio, Oulu and Turko. For a review of Finnish fishery research, see Tuunainen (1983).
8.4 Other Concerned Agencies
8.4.1 Ministry of the Environment. This new Ministry has directed water pollution control measures in Finland since October 1983 (Heikinheimo-Schmid et al., 1984).
8.4.2 The Department of Fisheries and Game in the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has no official field organization. It therefore makes use of Government-sponsored organizations as unofficial field organizations. The following exist in the field of fisheries:
Federation of Finnish Fisheries Associations, the central organization for regional associations of professional fishermen and owners of fishing waters. Its programmes include the management and use of fishing waters, fishery technology, fish farming, fish handling and processing, and assistance to the Fisheries Administration;
Federation of Finnish Recreational Fishermen's Associations, the central organization for recreational fishermen, composed of more than 500 angling clubs and about 60 000 members circa 1982. Its programme includes promotion of fishing for recreation and subsistence, and management of fish stocks and fishing water; and
Finnish Fish and Game Association, a central organization for recreational fishermen and hunters, with a membership of about 6 000 circa 1982.
8.5 International Agreements1
Bilateral agreement exists between Finland and Norway concerning their fisheries in boundary waters. Special conventions have been made concerning fishing in the Tenojoki, and in the Näätämönjoki, a salmon river which travels through both countries.
Finland and Sweden established a joint Finnish-Swedish Boundary-River Commission for the drainage basin of the Tornionjoki in 1971, including monitoring and joint salmon cultivation. There is also an agreement between Finland and Sweden on water quality in the Gulf of Bothnia.
A trilaterial agreement concerning water regulation in Lake Inari exists between Finland, Norway and the USSR.
Finland and the USSR established a joint Finnish-Soviet Boundary Water Commission on the use of bundary watercourses in 1964. Its work is chiefly in Lake Inari and Lake Phyäjärvi (Karelia). They also have an agreement concerning water quality in the Gulf of Finland.
9. STATE OF THE FISHERY
9.1 Yield
The total reported catch of freshwater, brackish and diadromous fishes in Finland by all classes of fishermen has increased from 25 000 t in 1965 to 53 017 t in 1986. The total catch in 1986 in fresh water alone was 39 650 t.
All of the inland waters are, of course, not used for fishing, but if we use a rough estimate of 30 000 km2 as the area of fresh water in Finland, its total yield in 1965 was about 5.2 kg/ha/year, in 1972 it was about 6 kg/ha/year, in 1978 it was 10 kg/ha/year, in 1981 was 9.9 kg/ha/year, and in 1986 was 1322 kg/ha/year. Lind (1982) found a yield of about 10 kg/ha/year in a Finnish lake area of 580 km2.
In 1978, the yield from the fresh waters of Finland as a whole by non-professional (subsistence and recreational) fishermen alone was 8.1 kg/ha/year. Studies by Lehtonen and Salojärvi (1983) show that in that year the catches of these fishermen ranged from 4.4 to 28.5 kg/ha/year in different Finnish Fishery Statistical Areas. The highest yield came from the inland waters along the southern coast, the next highest (12.7 kg/ha/year) came from southeastern Finland along the Bothnian Sea, and the lowest of 4.4 kg/ha/year from northern Finland in Lapland. All of these yields were higher than those registered in 1975 by Lehtonen and Salojärvi (1978): the highest for a district in that year was 15.2 kg/ha/year and the lowest 4.4 kg/ha/year.
With respect to yields from all types of fishing, Salojärvi, Auvinen and Ikonen (1982) indicate that the yields from about 3 303 lakes with a combined area of 2 558 km2 in the Oulujoki Basin were 5.38 kg/ha/year in 1973 and 3.6 kg/ha/year in 1976. Another yield from all types of fishing for vendace whitefish, roach, pike, perch and burbot, was the 6.4 kg/ha/year in 1977 from the 188-km2 oligotrophic/oligohumic Lake Konnevesi (Toivonen, Auvinen and Valkeajärvi, 1982). Auvinen, et al. (1983) stated that the average catch for the lakes of the Vuoksi river drainage was 8.6 kg/ha/year. Lake Phyäjärvi, which lies within this drainage had a catch of 14.2 kg/ha in 1979 in its Finnish zone. This was due largely to the high catches of vendace, 9.9 kg/ha (Auvinen, 1987). Pitkanen (1975) said that the yield in most parts of Finland was from 5 to 10 kg/ha/year.
Lehtonen (1979) cited yields of pike-perch in the brackish waters of the Helsinki area of 1.67 kg/ha/year in 1970 and 1.48 kg/ha/year in 1971.
An exceptionally high production for a Finnish lake is that of another Lake Pyhäjärvi, a 154-km2 lake with a mean depth of 5.4 m in southwestern Finland. Sarvala, et al. (1984) states that its fish production is about 63 kg/ha/year, of which vendace forms 40 percent and whitefish 16 percent. This fish yield is considered to be almost one order of magnitude higher than the average for Finnish lakes.
With respect to yield in general, a study by Lind (1982), based on the period of 1953–77, found (as would be expected) positive correlations in Finnish lakes between yield and the rate of exploitation, growing season, alkalinity and conductivity. He found a negative correlation between yield and water colour, and presence of a predator (pike).
9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery
The extent of water available for freshwater fisheries in Finland is much greater and should continue greater than in most other countries of Europe. This is due not only to the original wealth of inland waters (almost 10 percent of the country's area), but the extension of low salinity areas into the Baltic Sea so that freshwater fishes are also caught here. Furthermore, with its very low population density, Finland's water resources are ample and evenly distributed except for the southern and southwestern coastal area where most of the population and industries are located.
Although drainage has diminished some lake areas, the limited agricultural use in Finland has been generally kind to its inland waters. There has, for example, been little withdrawal from streams for irrigation, and a high (although admittedly lessening) dependence upon public water supply from underground rather than surface sources has minimized demands on fishable water. The use of inland water for navigation or timber transport has diminished because of better land transportation, again a favourable factor in preserving environment.
The inland fish fauna is rather limited, it is true, but the fishes it contains are mostly desirable either for food or sport, e.g., the salmonids and coregonids, as well as coolwater species such as pike and pike-perch.
There is, further, a traditional interest in subsistence fishing which has linked the act of fishing with other uses of land and water such as farming and forestry, and has promoted a rational use of the aquatic resource.
There are, however, some elements (both natural and man-made) that have constrained the inland fishery. One of these is the natural water quality; another is its alteration by man.
As shown in sections 5 and 6 (see also Table 9), most of the water courses in Finland are as yet in almost natural condition, with unpolluted water satisfactory for the support of fisheries. Their mineral content is, however, low giving them weak buffering properties and making them subject to many quality changes.
Furthermore, the ice-cover of four to seven months prevents reaeration and self-purification and therefore weakens their resistance to pollution. A survey of 1962–68 on a drainage basin basis showed the following water quality: pH - 6.6; electrical conductivity - uS 69; suspended solids (mg/litre) - 13; KMn04 (mg/litre 02) - 56; total phosphorus (mg/m3P) - 58; total nitrogen (mg/m3N) - 800 (Mustonen, 1977).4
Alteration of the natural state of Finland's waters has been due in large part to the forest industry. According to Nilsen (1974), the share of the forest products industry in the load in Finnish water courses by man in 1970 was as follows: effluent quantity - 74 percent; BOD - 84 percent; phosphorus - 22 percent; nitrogen - 25 percent. Since that time, determined efforts have been made to reduce this load.
Eutrophication of waters has been one of Finland's aquatic problems. Interestingly enough, circa 1988 the discharges from Finnish fish farms contributed 55 t of phosphorous and 300 t of nitrogen to the environment annually. This represented less than 4 percent of the phosphorus and 2 percent of the nitrogen from all sources in the country.
As in many countries, the bioaccumulation of toxic substances in fish is also a problem. A national programme to monitor concentrations of chlorinated hydrocarbons and heavy metals has been in progress for some time, and although the mercury content in fish is still a severe problem (e.g., it may enter the water because of its use in slimecides), the direct release of mercury into water has been greatly reduced (Lodenius, 1988).
In brackishwater areas, the Gulf of Finland for example, the chief pollutants are from population centres, wood-processing, and oil-based industries. Slight eutrophication from sewage has increased the stock of some cyprinids and pike-perch, while stocks of coregonids, burbot, and pike have decreased. Sewage has also fouled fishing gear and lowered oxygen. Wood-processing industries have produced effluents which have had a mechanical effect on adult fish, affected the spawning grounds in rivers, and harmed bottom organisms. Oily effluents, toxic substances such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, cadmium, and mercury have also affected fish stocks both in the Baltic and its entering rivers (see Lehtonen and Hildén, 1980).
In a paper presented in early 1982, Westman et al. (1984) stated that some 20 percent of the total surface area of Finnish lakes was significantly affected by wastewater, that about 1 400 km2 of the coastal waters had been changed from their natural state, and that the major portion of the largest Finnish rivers, about 9 000 km combined length, was at best only in satisfactory condition from the point of view of fisheries. Two years later, Heikinheimo-Schmid et al. (1984) considered that only 700 km2 (2.2 percent) of the lake area in Finland were badly polluted, some 10–15 percent of the lake area was polluted to some extent, and about 2 200 km of the rivers were polluted.
Due to extensive water protection measures, Heikinheimo-Schmid et al. (1988) found that water pollution had even more strongly diminished in Finland. They stated that about 80 percent of the lake area could be classified as good or excellent, that 18 percent of the lake area was satisfactory and that in only about 2 percent of the lake area the water quality was either passible or heavily polluted by industry or sewage.
On the credit side, the level of oxygen is still generally high in Finnish lakes and rivers due to large areas of water surface, and the long coastline and concentration of cities on the coast further diminishes the effects of pollution. Furthermore, the volume of surface water available in Finland is about 20 940 m3 per caput, which provides for a very large dilution of effluent discharge. Such a figure is, of course, somewhat misleading in that the volume per caput is much less in the most populated areas of the country where industrialization as well as the demand for dilution of sewage water is high.
The fisheries of Finland have suffered severe losses not only from pollution but from physical damage to the rivers. During the first half of the century, most of the rapids in large Baltic rivers were cleared for timber-floating, diminishing spawning and nursery areas. Narrow channels were cut through some rapids, other areas were left dry, and erosion has caused pools to silt up (see especially Jutila, 1985).
The production of hydroelectric power has also devastated stocks. Dams have barred access to spawning grounds, and severe regulation of water levels by power stations has dried out rivers or frozen their shallows. The Kymijoki, for example (once Finland's most important salmon river flowing into the Gulf of Finland), enters through five outlets, all of them dammed. Some fish ladders are in use, but not only have the stocks of Baltic salmon been greatly reduced, but important strains from some of the rivers are now extinct. Other migratory fishes have also been affected, e.g., the lampern, eel, sea trout, and river-spawning whitefish.
Transportation from the fishing areas to the markets is one of the chief factors limiting the use of fish from inland waters.
Fluctuation of water level in regulated lakes (such as Inari) has also been cited in several publications as causing damage to fisheries.
Aside from the man-made influences listed above, a number of natural factors also limit the yield from Finland's fisheries. Despite the wealth of lake and stream complexes, the short growing season and deficiency of nutrients in the water will keep fish production low even under the best of circumstances. The yield from fishing is further limited by the long periods of darkness, and because both lakes and coastal waters are generally frozen for many months.
Private ownership of most waters tends to minimize commercial fishing - fishing normally being the work or sport of riparian owners who control the fishing rights. Furthermore, the number of commercial fishermen has fallen off decidedly, being less than half of what it was in the early 1950s1. Many have moved into other types of work and have left the lake districts, and few young people now choose fishing as an occupation. However, even though the number of commercial fishermen has decreased in Finland, better gear is now being used and their individual catch has improved (see section 9.3). Furthermore, there is a continual demand for fish by man, consumption in Finland being about 34 kg per caput annually, a total amount which exceeds the entire Finnish domestic catch in both inland and marine waters.
9.3 Prospect
Although there has been damage to the inland aquatic environment in Finland, particularly through log-transport, erection of hydroelectric installations, and pollution, a considerable effort has and will continue to be made to offset these unfavourable factors. For example, attention has been paid to improving areas damaged by dam construction or timber floating, e.g., the Simojoki considered one of the largest rivers in Europe to be restored to natural condition. There has also been a nationwide pollution control programme. The latter has included a wastewater charge which has decelerated the rate of growth in water consumption. Finland does have hundreds of acidifying lakes in the south, and although their roach populations (and to a lesser extent perch) have been affected, acidification of inland waters has not yet caused the drastic alterations in fish stocks apparent in Norway and Sweden. Crayfish populations have also been affected by acidification.
In addition to improvements in the environment itself, intensive efforts have been made to increase the stock of Baltic salmon through release of smolts. By rearing brood fish of valuable threatened strains and releasing their young into the original waters, it is hoped that economically viable populations can be at least partially restored. Effective regulation of offshore salmon fishing, at both national and international levels, will also be necessary to improve the fishery.
It has been considered that many Finnish inland waters are still underfished, and that they could be exploited to a greater degree, especially during the winter. Over fifteen years ago it was estimated that the annual fish catch (including domestic sea catch) could be almost doubled without harm to the stocks (Bank of Finland, 1974). As has been shown, the total Finnish fish catch has increased decidedly, in 1981 it was already seven times that reported in 1974. Although the number of professional fishermen has declined, their use of improved gear and methods has tripled their catch in inland waters and quadupled it in the sea. In 1983, it was estimated that fishing of a larger number of stocks could be continued at the current rate in certain areas, and even increased in certain other areas. However, recommendations were also made by the same author (Sjöblom, 1983) for reduction in fishing for several stocks, and the state of the vendace (Coregonus albula) stock in the Bothnian Bay has become a matter of concern in Finland. The catch shows a rapid and almost continuous decline, variously attributed to intensification of Swedish trawling during the vendace's spawning period, or recruitment overfishing in the Finnish parts of the Bay (Hildén, Lehtonen and Böhling, 1984). Careful attention to desirable fishing effort for individual fish stocks is a noteworthy part of Finland's management programme.
Aquaculture was slow to develop in Finland, but the production of rainbow trout for food more than tripled between 1978 and 1986. FES (1989) which stated that the production for food of trout in Finland was 15 000 t in 1988 and 18 000 t in 1989 has forecasted a production of 19 000 t in 1990 or about six times the production in 1978. It can certainly be increased both for domestic use and export, especially by using brackish water and cooling water from power stations. It can also be increased by improving the quality of aquacultural effluent water which has been the most serious factor in limiting the expansion of aquaculture. Finish water authorities have strict regulations and have limited fish farm production. An important programme is to reduce the phosphorus content of dry fish feeds and remove effluent solids.
There will, of course, be continued water demands which will be detrimental to Finnish fisheries. At present, extensive desalinization has been rejected as a means to increase the supply of fresh water, so there may eventually be conveyance of raw surface water to other areas, accompanied by the usual dangers to fish.
Fishery management in Finland is primarily financed by fishing communes (privately owned waters), hydroelectric power companies and other groups who have been ordered by Water Courts to repair damage they have caused by fish stocks, and the State. It should be noted that public spending by the State for the management of fisheries exceeds the income it receives from that sector of the economy, be it commercial or recreational. It is considered, however, that the Government has an obligation to those who own no fishing waters (recreational fishermen), and should also aid in compensating for stresses in stocks engendered as a result of damage to watercourses incurred for so-called “public benefit”. Preservation of native fish stocks, improvement of benefits from employment, and maintenance of social infrastructure are also considered Governmental obligations (Salojärvi, 1984).
Generally speaking, the Finn's traditional interest in fisheries, coupled with their industry and scientific direction augur well for continued development.
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