Forum global sur la sécurité alimentaire et la nutrition (Forum FSN)
Overall the V0 report does address all key issues on Food Security and Nutrition (FSN). The extension of the conceptual framework from six dimensions (availability, access, stability, utilization) to eight, including AGENCY and SUSTAINABILITY are partially important; Figure 1 is a great way of visualizing and explaining these dimensions. Furthermore the evolution of the conceptual approaches and thinking on FSN is explained well and wonderfully summarized in Table 1.
However, specifically on the two new dimensions - agency and sustainability - the following points should be reflected upon, that come from my research on Ghana and highlight some of the realities on the ground; many which also hold true for other countries in sub-Saharan Africa.
On Agency:
Inequality between and within states; the case of Ghana:
In section 3.12 (Declining public sector investment in agriculture) the draft V0 is misleadingly pointing out that “The share of public expenditure devoted to agriculture has declined in almost all regions since the 1980s”, as the early 1980s marked a historical peak in subsides that lead e.g. to the infamous butter mountains and lakes of milk in Europe. However, public sector investment continues to be high in Western countries (i.e. the EU and USA in particular), while developing countries have not been allowed to or in other cases seem to lack willingness to invest intensively in the agricultural sector to compete with the West in this arena. In Ghana, as in many other African countries, the WTO de minimis ceiling is 10 % is far from reached, with on average 3% of the budget dedicated to agriculture the last 15 years (Marston, 2017). This inequality has to be evaluated on the background of missing tax revenue, and some cases financial mismanagement in many African countries; But also lack of dedication/importance of the agricultural ministries, as monies invested in agricultural research and extension services can hardly be used on posters and ads during the next election campaigns by the decision-making politicians.
The section does note importantly, but again too briefly, the role of development assistance in Sub-Saharan Africa. The role of so called ‘Development Partners’ and aid continues to be of high importance for many African countries. In Ghana specifically they have invested the majority of funds made available to the agricultural (and health) sector the past 20 years. However, aid and how it is used greatly lacks transparency and, hence, accountability on the DPs end, as well as on the end of the government. While these shortcomings have long been known and discussed (e.g. with the Paris declaration on aid effectiveness in 2005), very little is being changed. The DPs role, and particularly their power based on the monies they use to woo cash-strapped African government has arguably had a substantial influence on FSN in various ways across the continent, which at the same time has the highest prevalence of undernourishment (PoU) worldwide (with almost 20% of the population suffering). The SOFI report of 2019 highlights that the PoU has been most alarming in sub-Saharan Africa,with a slight but steady increase in all subregions between 2015 and 2018 (FAO, 2019).
The importance of agency for small-scale farmers cannot be overemphasized in this regard. In the case of Ghana, they have been poorly organized and, hence, lack representation during policy, budget and implementation decisions. Many of them do not know their rights, or are afraid to enforce it, if e.g. prices are being changed last minute by off-takers/market women, as they have/feel they have limited options to sell and want to preserve the relationship, even if it is to their disadvantage.
Furthermore, the “one-size-fits-all” intervention approach, usually focused on high-external input agriculture, which has been used by many DPs and the Governments in Ghana alike, is flawed and inappropriate. Yet again proper research (and willingness to understand farmers) is missing. Unsurprisingly farmers believe that technologies are introduced to farmers without any idea of their needs and aspirations (Dittoh, 2018, unpublished).
In case decent projects are introduced to communities, women describe that these interventions are often hijacked by the more educated people in the communities, some of who are either “absentee farmers” or are not serious with farming. In the end the “real farmers” are sidelined and do not know what is happening and therefore do not adopt the technologies (Dittoh, 2018, unpublished). This inequality is even more true for large interventions finance, e.g. by the World Bank and USAID, in which chosen participants/beneficiaries have to have the needed ‘assets’ to apply in the first place, leaving it to well-connected and highly educated elites/investors that will be “absent” on the field, leaving the real work to the small farmers in models praised as Nucleus-Outgrower scheme, increasing existing inequalities among farmers even more (Marston, 2017).
Moreover, great misconceptions prevail about farmers as well as gender (a trendy aid category in recent years), as proper research is not undertaken at all, or not taken seriously. Generalizations in cultural diverse places are misplaced all over the continent, such as there being a defined women’s crops in Ghana, because what is usually considered women’s crops can differ from community to community, even within the same districts, i.e. a “women’s crop” in one location can be a “man’s crop” in another location. Dittoh et. al (2018, unpublished) show that inheritance, whether matrilineal or patrilineal, plays a very minor role in access to land for women, because a large majority of farmers in all the three southern regions are migrants. This in turn makes access to productive resources, such as land, by the farmers especially women, quite difficult and leads to tenure insecurity on the land the migrants hire for rent or take part in the sharecropping arrangement. Very important points, often completely ignored by decision makers in the capital(s).
In the end there are huge gaps on yield on farmers field compared to the expected yield. The question that arises is if this is due to practices OR “because what is offered [via projects that use mostly high external input methods] is too far from the reality on the ground?” as a senior public servant asked.
Data for development
The Section 3.12 also makes mention of the importance of improved data, knowledge and information sharing as key conditions to development and sustainable food systems. Yet again these very important comments are mentioned only briefly, at the end of the section. These points, however, are again only mentioned briefly while of high significance and, hence, not underlined enough in the V0 draft – especially the importance of data and deficiency there of on the African continent. It usually starts with the lack of funds made available, continues with the missing capacity on the district levels (where information could be collected most efficiently), and ends with M&E structures not in place. Or, as an internal report of the ministry highlights, that there is ineffective implementation and monitoring of the agreed courses of action, if issues are identified (MoFA, 2014, unpublished).
Between the Censuses of Agriculture in Ghana lay over 30 years. In the meantime, and also to a large degree still today, agricultural data is at best based on rough estimations and at worst … pure fabrications. Not without good reason, the World Bank declared that the next World Development Report in 2021 would focus on Data for Development, as quality data is the foundation for meaningful decision- and policymaking. Evidently, we need better data to make better decisions to ensure that “no one is left behind”. I believe that this aspect has not been sufficiently appreciated in the V0 Draft yet.
On sustainability:
Some of the important issues pertaining to sustainability are, again, rather mentioned as a side note, e.g. in Box 2 (p.30). The lack of research and training for low-external agriculture is a serious issue in Ghana. All ag colleges and universities focus on high-external input methods, often with books and curricula from the West.
Lacking an international ‘role model’ in which sustainable approaches have successfully been feeding the masses is also a big problem. Maybe India will solve the issue.
In Ghana, as in many other African countries, the young generation migrates to the cities rather than continuing the agricultural practices of their parents. Labor, which is so important for sustainable agricultural methods, is a big constraint. Many farmers continue to have difficulties to hire labor during peak farming times, such as land preparation and harvesting times, and if so only for high costs. Therefore, sustainable agriculture methods are viewed as too labor intensive and too costly for small-scale farmers, especially women, that rely on hired labor.
In the meantime agro-chemicals, e.g. for weeding, are sold cheaply and ubiquitously. In combination with a one-sided application of inorganic fertilizers and improper use of land tillage machinery, the Savanna soils in Ghana are characterized by rapid degradation
When sustainable/ low-external input agricultural methods are offered to farmers, e.g. by DP projects, they often neglect to investigate previous projects’ successes and failures, hence, repeating the same mistakes all over again. When promoting organic crop production for export, as some DPs do, the problem is the extremely cumbersome and expensive certification process for organic produce, which is impossible for farmers to continue after a project has expired (WFP, 2017).
The case studies from India on the spreading of sustainable agricultural methods were a great addition. More research and more sharing of data can have a big impact on the most vulnerable people affected by food insecurity and malnutrition.
All in all, most key trends are well identified and highlighted in the draft V0. However, the realities on the ground in countries like Ghana should be kept in mind, particularly in regards to dimensions of agency and sustainability, which can be further defined and highlighted.
Thank you for giving us the opportunity to comment!
For further questions, comments or feedback feel free to reach out.
Dittoh, Saa (2018) Promoting Gender Equality and Mainstreaming within the Traditional and Cultural Settings of the Operational Areas of Selected Values Chains of GIZ MOAP and GIC in Ghana; funded by GIZ MOAP and GIC; unpublished.
FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2019) The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding against economic slowdown. Rome, FAO
Marston (2017) Aid and agriculture : a constructivist approach to a political economy analysis of sustainable agriculture in Ghana, Freidok, Uni-Freiburg, available: https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/data/16032
World Food Programme (WFP) and John A. Kufuor Foundation (2017) Addressing Sustainable Development Goal 2: The Ghana Zero Hunger Strategic Review; Full Report by Steiner-Asiedu, Matilda; Dittoh, Saa; Newton, Sam Kofi and Akotia, Chairty, Accra, July 2017.
Overall the V0 report does address all key issues on Food Security and Nutrition (FSN). The extension of the conceptual framework from six dimensions (availability, access, stability, utilization) to eight, including AGENCY and SUSTAINABILITY are partially important; Figure 1 is a great way of visualizing and explaining these dimensions. Furthermore the evolution of the conceptual approaches and thinking on FSN is explained well and wonderfully summarized in Table 1.
However, specifically on the two new dimensions - agency and sustainability - the following points should be reflected upon, that come from my research on Ghana and highlight some of the realities on the ground; many which also hold true for other countries in sub-Saharan Africa.
On Agency:
Inequality between and within states; the case of Ghana:
In section 3.12 (Declining public sector investment in agriculture) the draft V0 is misleadingly pointing out that “The share of public expenditure devoted to agriculture has declined in almost all regions since the 1980s”, as the early 1980s marked a historical peak in subsides that lead e.g. to the infamous butter mountains and lakes of milk in Europe. However, public sector investment continues to be high in Western countries (i.e. the EU and USA in particular), while developing countries have not been allowed to or in other cases seem to lack willingness to invest intensively in the agricultural sector to compete with the West in this arena. In Ghana, as in many other African countries, the WTO de minimis ceiling is 10 % is far from reached, with on average 3% of the budget dedicated to agriculture the last 15 years (Marston, 2017). This inequality has to be evaluated on the background of missing tax revenue, and some cases financial mismanagement in many African countries; But also lack of dedication/importance of the agricultural ministries, as monies invested in agricultural research and extension services can hardly be used on posters and ads during the next election campaigns by the decision-making politicians.
The section does note importantly, but again too briefly, the role of development assistance in Sub-Saharan Africa. The role of so called ‘Development Partners’ and aid continues to be of high importance for many African countries. In Ghana specifically they have invested the majority of funds made available to the agricultural (and health) sector the past 20 years. However, aid and how it is used greatly lacks transparency and, hence, accountability on the DPs end, as well as on the end of the government. While these shortcomings have long been known and discussed (e.g. with the Paris declaration on aid effectiveness in 2005), very little is being changed. The DPs role, and particularly their power based on the monies they use to woo cash-strapped African government has arguably had a substantial influence on FSN in various ways across the continent, which at the same time has the highest prevalence of undernourishment (PoU) worldwide (with almost 20% of the population suffering). The SOFI report of 2019 highlights that the PoU has been most alarming in sub-Saharan Africa,with a slight but steady increase in all subregions between 2015 and 2018 (FAO, 2019).
The importance of agency for small-scale farmers cannot be overemphasized in this regard. In the case of Ghana, they have been poorly organized and, hence, lack representation during policy, budget and implementation decisions. Many of them do not know their rights, or are afraid to enforce it, if e.g. prices are being changed last minute by off-takers/market women, as they have/feel they have limited options to sell and want to preserve the relationship, even if it is to their disadvantage.
Furthermore, the “one-size-fits-all” intervention approach, usually focused on high-external input agriculture, which has been used by many DPs and the Governments in Ghana alike, is flawed and inappropriate. Yet again proper research (and willingness to understand farmers) is missing. Unsurprisingly farmers believe that technologies are introduced to farmers without any idea of their needs and aspirations (Dittoh, 2018, unpublished).
In case decent projects are introduced to communities, women describe that these interventions are often hijacked by the more educated people in the communities, some of who are either “absentee farmers” or are not serious with farming. In the end the “real farmers” are sidelined and do not know what is happening and therefore do not adopt the technologies (Dittoh, 2018, unpublished). This inequality is even more true for large interventions finance, e.g. by the World Bank and USAID, in which chosen participants/beneficiaries have to have the needed ‘assets’ to apply in the first place, leaving it to well-connected and highly educated elites/investors that will be “absent” on the field, leaving the real work to the small farmers in models praised as Nucleus-Outgrower scheme, increasing existing inequalities among farmers even more (Marston, 2017).
Moreover, great misconceptions prevail about farmers as well as gender (a trendy aid category in recent years), as proper research is not undertaken at all, or not taken seriously. Generalizations in cultural diverse places are misplaced all over the continent, such as there being a defined women’s crops in Ghana, because what is usually considered women’s crops can differ from community to community, even within the same districts, i.e. a “women’s crop” in one location can be a “man’s crop” in another location. Dittoh et. al (2018, unpublished) show that inheritance, whether matrilineal or patrilineal, plays a very minor role in access to land for women, because a large majority of farmers in all the three southern regions are migrants. This in turn makes access to productive resources, such as land, by the farmers especially women, quite difficult and leads to tenure insecurity on the land the migrants hire for rent or take part in the sharecropping arrangement. Very important points, often completely ignored by decision makers in the capital(s).
In the end there are huge gaps on yield on farmers field compared to the expected yield. The question that arises is if this is due to practices OR “because what is offered [via projects that use mostly high external input methods] is too far from the reality on the ground?” as a senior public servant asked.
Data for development
The Section 3.12 also makes mention of the importance of improved data, knowledge and information sharing as key conditions to development and sustainable food systems. Yet again these very important comments are mentioned only briefly, at the end of the section. These points, however, are again only mentioned briefly while of high significance and, hence, not underlined enough in the V0 draft – especially the importance of data and deficiency there of on the African continent. It usually starts with the lack of funds made available, continues with the missing capacity on the district levels (where information could be collected most efficiently), and ends with M&E structures not in place. Or, as an internal report of the ministry highlights, that there is ineffective implementation and monitoring of the agreed courses of action, if issues are identified (MoFA, 2014, unpublished).
Between the Censuses of Agriculture in Ghana lay over 30 years. In the meantime, and also to a large degree still today, agricultural data is at best based on rough estimations and at worst … pure fabrications. Not without good reason, the World Bank declared that the next World Development Report in 2021 would focus on Data for Development, as quality data is the foundation for meaningful decision- and policymaking. Evidently, we need better data to make better decisions to ensure that “no one is left behind”. I believe that this aspect has not been sufficiently appreciated in the V0 Draft yet.
On sustainability:
Some of the important issues pertaining to sustainability are, again, rather mentioned as a side note, e.g. in Box 2 (p.30). The lack of research and training for low-external agriculture is a serious issue in Ghana. All ag colleges and universities focus on high-external input methods, often with books and curricula from the West.
Lacking an international ‘role model’ in which sustainable approaches have successfully been feeding the masses is also a big problem. Maybe India will solve the issue.
In Ghana, as in many other African countries, the young generation migrates to the cities rather than continuing the agricultural practices of their parents. Labor, which is so important for sustainable agricultural methods, is a big constraint. Many farmers continue to have difficulties to hire labor during peak farming times, such as land preparation and harvesting times, and if so only for high costs. Therefore, sustainable agriculture methods are viewed as too labor intensive and too costly for small-scale farmers, especially women, that rely on hired labor.
In the meantime agro-chemicals, e.g. for weeding, are sold cheaply and ubiquitously. In combination with a one-sided application of inorganic fertilizers and improper use of land tillage machinery, the Savanna soils in Ghana are characterized by rapid degradation
When sustainable/ low-external input agricultural methods are offered to farmers, e.g. by DP projects, they often neglect to investigate previous projects’ successes and failures, hence, repeating the same mistakes all over again. When promoting organic crop production for export, as some DPs do, the problem is the extremely cumbersome and expensive certification process for organic produce, which is impossible for farmers to continue after a project has expired (WFP, 2017).
The case studies from India on the spreading of sustainable agricultural methods were a great addition. More research and more sharing of data can have a big impact on the most vulnerable people affected by food insecurity and malnutrition.
All in all, most key trends are well identified and highlighted in the draft V0. However, the realities on the ground in countries like Ghana should be kept in mind, particularly in regards to dimensions of agency and sustainability, which can be further defined and highlighted.
Thank you for giving us the opportunity to comment!
For further questions, comments or feedback feel free to reach out.
Jasmin Marston
[email protected]
Resources:
Dittoh, Saa (2018) Promoting Gender Equality and Mainstreaming within the Traditional and Cultural Settings of the Operational Areas of Selected Values Chains of GIZ MOAP and GIC in Ghana; funded by GIZ MOAP and GIC; unpublished.
FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2019) The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019. Safeguarding against economic slowdown. Rome, FAO
Marston (2017) Aid and agriculture : a constructivist approach to a political economy analysis of sustainable agriculture in Ghana, Freidok, Uni-Freiburg, available: https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/data/16032
World Food Programme (WFP) and John A. Kufuor Foundation (2017) Addressing Sustainable Development Goal 2: The Ghana Zero Hunger Strategic Review; Full Report by Steiner-Asiedu, Matilda; Dittoh, Saa; Newton, Sam Kofi and Akotia, Chairty, Accra, July 2017.