[We could comment on aquaculture under the section of “Governance and food security”]
Shrimp aquaculture is often omitted in literature when it comes to food and food security. This is because; shrimp aquaculture in particular is oriented for export and not for local consumption. Benefits go to large companies and not to local communities.
However, we have found small-scale shrimp aquaculture in northwestern Sri Lanka operated in a different way (Thesis: Galappaththi 2013) http://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/handle/1993/22107?mode=full.
The case provides a unique governance model with implications for aquaculture and food security in general. The shrimp farmers co-operate with each other by working collaboratively and collectively to overcome common challenges (mainly shrimp diseases). The governance system may be characterized as a mixed commons regime. It is a multi-layered community-based institutional structure, which has been developed by shrimp farmers themselves in cooperation with the government. The top institutional layer is represented by a joint body of government and the sector association. Farming operations are owner-managed under community-level institutions (Samithi=co-op), with government oversight and coordination. Each and every shrimp farmer in the community has to be a member of this particular community association to operate their shrimp farms. Community-level shrimp farming associations formulate and implement their own rules to manage community-level resources.
This private-communal-state mixed commons management regime has evolved as a response to shrimp diseases and their devastating impacts. White Spot Syndrome (WSS) is one of the most critical shrimp diseases. In 1996, the WSS disease outbreak accounted for a huge loss of shrimp harvest and had lasting negative impacts. As a result, many medium and small scale farmers quit the industry and their livelihoods were badly affected. Later, shrimp farmers, industry, and the government collectively managed to develop a mechanism that is capable of battling the spread of shrimp diseases by way of controlling the medium through which the diseases spread -- water. This mechanism is a remarkable achievement of the current governance regime and contributes to securing the livelihood well-being of the community.
Most of the shrimp production is for the export market, but profits and benefits stay in the local community and contribute towards local development and local needs. In 2012, a significant portion (more than 35%) of annual shrimp harvest was sold at the local market. Prevailing market prices offered by shrimp processing companies and local buyers (or middlemen), and size and quality of shrimp determine how much of the shrimp is sold in local markets. Local households and the restaurants tend to buy small shrimp to make curried shrimp to go with rice (staple food of Sri Lanka). We have found that some shrimp farmers cater only to local markets because quality standards for international markets are difficult to meet.
The study area, aquaculture shrimp contribute to food security because aquaculture owners are mostly families and community households. Shrimp harvesting is done in a collective manner with the participation of family members, relatives, and neighbours. Contribution of women is apparent during shrimp harvesting operations, especially, towards the later stage of harvesting, where women hand pick shrimp from muddy pond bottoms. As a means of gratitude, farmers share small portions of harvest with neighbours and relatives. Another small portion is kept for household consumption..
The Sri Lankan shrimp aquaculture governance model is based on strong traditions of collective action and cooperatives, and may not be appropriate for other countries or regions. However, as practiced in our study area, it appears to be a viable model for food security and sustainability.
Eranga Galappaththi* and Fikret Berkes**
Natural Resources Institute
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Canada R3T 2N2
Eranga Galappaththi