4.1 Thematic papers
4.2 Country papers on NWFP

4.2.1 Cyprus
4.2.2 Iran
4.2.3 Jordan
4.2.4 Lebanon
4.2.5 Saudi Arabia
4.2.6 Sudan
4.2.7 Syria
4.2.8 Tunisia
4.2.9 Turkey

4.3 Presentations of invited organizations

4. SUMMARY OF PRESENTATIONS

4.1 Thematic papers

4.1.1 The State of Agriculture, Forestry and Environment in the Near East Region

Mr Adnan Al Fares, FAO Regional Forestry Officer, Regional Office for the Near East, Cairo

29 countries are, according to FAO's structure, members of the Near East: Afghanistan, Algeria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Djibouti, Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Kyrgyz Republic, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.

The region is characterized by a wide disparity in resources, physical geography and socio-economic conditions. Six of the countries of the region, Afghanistan, Djibouti, Mauritania, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen, are among the least-developed countries in the world (UNCTAD, 1990).

Population in the Near East increased from 265 million in 1970 to 474 million in 1991 and is expected to reach 936 million in 2020 (UN, 1989).

Although natural resources for agriculture are rather limited, the region is well endowed with crude oil and natural gas. These reserves amount to 61 percent and 28 percent respectively of the known reserves in the world.

Agricultural production increased at an annual rate of 3 percent in the 1970s, faster than population growth (2.7 percent), with declines in 1983, 1984 and 1987, and fairly strong rises in other years. Agricultural policies and performances and the contribution of agriculture to national economies vary from one country to another. From 1980 to 1988, agricultural GDP rose between 0.5 percent per year (Syria) and 6.6 percent (Morocco).

Today, the Near East has the world's most rapidly growing food deficit. Imports of cereals and other food commodities have risen strongly during the two last decades. Projections indicate that, if current trends prevail, the Near East will be importing 40 percent of its food needs by the year 2000. The attainment of self-sufficiency in food will remain a difficult objective, even in countries with high agricultural potential.

Most of the countries of the region are classified as either arid (less than 100 mm annual rainfall) or at best semi-arid (100 - 400 mm). The region includes countries with tropical semi-arid climate and summer rainfall, such as Sudan, Somalia, Yemen, Saudi Arabia and Oman, while most of the other countries could be considered as part of a Mediterranean climate, i.e. dry summers with winter rainfall.

Soils are generally poor. Only 8.3 percent of these have no major fertility limitations. The remaining land exhibits various physical and/or chemical constraints that need to be removed or overcome to enhance yields.

The total area under cultivation is about 87 million ha, of which 60 percent is rainfed. The main production is cereals and livestock. About 40 percent of the total cereal production is rainfed, while the balance is produced on irrigated areas.

About 62 percent of the land in the Near East can be classified as rangeland. It provides forage for nearly 500 million heads of cattle, buffalo, camels, sheep and goats.

Rangeland in the region is particularly prone to desertification or drying out, which can be caused or accelerated by droughts and/or overgrazing.

Many years ago, forest covered extensive areas of the Near East, especially in the Eastern Mediterranean region. However, much of this has been cleared by grazing, agriculture, timber and fuelwood extraction. In Lebanon, for example, the forest area has been reduced from 600 000 ha to 144 000 ha, whereas in Iran the forest areas was reduced from 19.5 million ha to 11.4 million ha during the last century. At present, forests and woodlands cover only 7.6 percent of the total land area in the Near East. Five countries - Iran, Morocco, Somalia, Sudan and Turkey - account for 80 percent of the natural forest in this region.

In the Near East, land is being subjected to varying degrees of degradation by different processes (wind and water erosion, excessive irrigation and improper water management practices, overgrazing, deforestation, etc.). Such degradation leads in the long run to desertification. In 1986, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) estimated that about 40 percent of irrigated land, 70-85 percent of rainfed cropland and about 85 percent of rangeland are affected by desertification.

At the core of the concept of sustainable development is the requirement that economic systems should be managed to maintain or improve living standards in the future. Rapid population growth, increased pressures on limited natural resources and other physical, socio-economic and policy factors are today jeopardizing this concept.

Context of Forestry

In the region, most of the main threats on forest resources have been caused by wrong land use practices and destructive interventions of local populations dependent on forest resources and lands for their livelihoods. Therefore, efforts for more active involvement of local communities, development and implementation of more participatory approaches and suitable community models, have been increased and are supported by international organizations in several countries. However, it is becoming more evident that elimination of pressures on forest resources can not be achieved depending only on forestlands and resources. It also requires the support and cross-sectoral collaboration and commitment of other partners (politicians, decision makers, NGOs, urban populations and private sector) in order to achieve a common goal: the development of sources of income and livelihoods of rural populations in forest areas.

The rapid rate of urbanization and seasonal or permanent migration of rural populations from mountainous regions to large cities and urban regions have started playing an important role in the reduction of pressures on the forest and on other natural resources during recent decades. As a matter of fact, in many forest and mountain regions, populations are now earning a significant part of their income from outside works; dependency on natural resources is decreasing to a certain extent. This trend is expected to continue, and as it happened in Europe during last century, urbanization and industrialization are expected to reduce the natural resource and forest dependant populations significantly in the Near East countries during the next 20 - 30 years. Therefore, efforts for the conservation of forest resources deserve the most special consideration during this period.

Rapid urbanization also creates new threats, such as deforestation for urban expansion, unplanned and uncontrolled tourism development, in particularly around large settlements and coastal strips in many parts of the region during recent decades. Adverse effects of air pollution on some forest areas in industrialized regions also require special consideration.

Regional disputes and wars have also been one of the main causes for the serious destruction of forests and nature in some region countries (i.e. Afghanistan, Iraq).

In recognition of increasing risks of desertification, to which most of the Near East countries are exposed, certain measures have been taken and/or implemented to control this phenomenon in several region countries (i.e. Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Iran). Recently, a regional FAO project on sand dune fixation was completed, which supported member countries in training, networking and information-sharing.

Economic difficulties in most of the Near East countries have been one of the main constraints for strengthening efforts and providing sufficient funds and resources required for more efficient conservation and sustainable management of natural resources, including forests. However, high-income level countries in the region (i.e. Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait) have been able to allocate considerable amounts of financial resources for the establishment of even small areas of green cover.

Near East countries are becoming increasingly aware and concerned about the important and multiple (protective, productive, environmental and socio-economic) roles and importance of their scarce forest resources. Growing global awareness and consequent international initiatives, in particularly following the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), have strengthened the interest and conviction for urgent action for a sustainable and multipurpose management of forest resources.

Status and Trends in Forestry

a) Forest Resources

Forest and woodland resources cover only a small portion (0.7%) of the land area of the Near East countries. Of the existing 131 million ha of forests and woodlands, 80 million ha are located in only five countries of the region (44.2 million ha in Sudan, 20.2 million ha in Turkey, 16 million ha in Somali, 11.4 million ha in Iran and 8.4 million ha in Morocco), whereas the remaining 25 countries together possess only 40 million ha of forest and woodland resources. Four countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and Qatar) are devoid of any natural forest cover.

The steep topography and arid climate are the two major physical characteristics affecting the forest ecosystems in the region. Consequently, once destroyed and lost, it is difficult, very expensive, extremely long-time taking and in many cases even not possible, to re-establish and bring back forest vegetation in the region.

In vast areas, where natural forest cover is lacking, local populations have traditionally been planting fast growing and multi-purpose tree species such as poplars, eucalyptus, casuarina and cypress in their farming systems in order to meet their local needs for wood, protection of agricultural crops against wind damage as well as for creation of shelter and amenity. Such agroforestry plantations provide significant amounts of wood production in some countries (i.e. 4 million m³/annum in Turkey), and even greater wood production than natural forest in many countries (i.e. Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, Egypt and Iran).

However, the primary function of natural forests in the Near East is the protection of the environment. As a matter of fact, except Turkey, the Caspian Region of Iran and parts of Cyprus and Yemen, no commercial production is planned or implemented except illegal cuttings and uses. Forest areas play a vital role in the protection of soil and water resources as well as in the stabilization of the natural balance in fragile mountainous and watershed regions with steep slopes. In many regions, they also provide shelter, protection against wind damage and dust storms, enforcement of riverbanks and control of floods.

Amenity and recreation are another important function of the forest areas and are gaining increasing importance in all countries of the region. As a matter of fact, it is the main objective in many countries devoid of forest resources, including Kuwait, United Emirates, Oman and Saudi Arabia.

Conservation of biodiversity and genetic diversity of forest trees, wild fruit trees, fodder, medicinal and aromatic plant species and wildlife is also amongst important functions of the forest resources in all Near East countries.

The importance of wooden raw material such as roundwood and industrial wood is limited to some countries such as Turkey, Iran, Yemen and Cyprus.

Fuelwood and charcoal production, be it legal or illegal, meets important energy needs of the rural populations living within the forest regions, particularly in cold mountainous regions.

Forest resources apparently play an important socio-economical role and contribute to the generation of income and the livelihood of rural populations living in the mountain and forest regions. They provide grazing land, fodder, NWFP for local needs and revenue from collection and selling, fuelwood and charcoal for energy, wood for house construction and local needs, and employment in production and afforestation activities.

b) Forest Resources Development and Conservation

Forest protection and preservation of vegetation cover are considered the main activities of the forestry departments in many countries in the region. This includes combating forest fires, control of grazing, encroachment and illegal cuttings. Creation of awareness, training and acceleration of demarcation of forest borders has also been the activities given special importance in these programs during recent years.

Reforestation (on degraded forestlands) and afforestation (on non-forest lands) have been one of the main programs of the forestry departments and most of the resources and efforts have been spent for this purpose in many region countries (i.e. Syria, Turkey, Jordan, Egypt, and Iran). Most of these plantations are aimed to play protective and environmental roles rather than providing production and economic outputs. However, reforestation of degraded forestlands has been causing serious conflicts with local populations who used such areas as common grazing lands previously.

The use of and benefits from reforestation sites (mostly established with coniferous species and requiring long periods to reach production and utilization stages) for local people have been limited in most countries. They mainly provided employment opportunities for the establishment and maintenance of plantations. To overcome these shortcomings, some countries such as Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan started planting of multipurpose tree species (i.e. species suitable for fruit, fodder and honey production). Some of the countries started testing and establishing silvo-pastoral plantations (main purpose being forage production) on degraded forestlands. Planting of different species, including broad-leaved species in addition to coniferous species, is also expected to be environmentally more sound by avoiding disadvantages of mono species plantations.

Watershed issues are also of major importance in the region in order to conserve scarce water and soil resources and to protect agricultural lands, settlement areas and infrastructure. In recognition of this importance, countries suffering from the consequences of the destruction in large areas of fragile watersheds, have taken serious steps for the introduction and implementation of integrated (collaboration between different programs and institutions such as forestry, pasture, agriculture, rural development) and participatory approaches (involvement of local populations in planning and management of watershed resources and improvement of their land use systems). Such efforts were supported by significant loans and grants in some Near East countries (i.e. Eastern Anatolia Integrated Watershed Development Project in Turkey, Zarqa River Basin Project in Jordan, Watershed and Range Development Project in Iran).

Considering the growing demand for amenity and recreation of urban populations, many countries have been established a special programmes such as greenbelts, urban forestry and roadside plantations (i.e. Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Syria, Egypt, Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Kuwait).

There is a growing recognition of the importance of wild flora and fauna as natural assets, which require protection and proper management. This is closely connected with the growing attention now given to tourism as an economic prospect for many countries in the region. Some countries have recently adopted policy and implemented measures for the expansion and management of protected areas and national parks (i.e. Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Lebanon) and established new protected areas during recent years (i.e. 72 protected areas in Iran covering a total area of 7.6 million ha, 236 protected areas in Turkey on 2.5 million ha, in Cyprus on 11 644 ha, of which more than 10 000 ha were established during last five years).

Game animals are no more a significant source of food for the local populations in the region.

However, hunting tourism (especially foreign hunters) for increased populations of some wildlife species has become a good source of income (for rural and national economy) in some countries (i.e. wild goat hunting in Southern and bear hunting in Eastern Turkey). This situation caused a new debate among local people, foresters, NGOs and environmentalist groups on the sustainability of this kind of activities.

Forest Products and Industries

All Near East countries are largely, and on some countries completely, dependant on imports of wood and wood products. Even Turkey, which has the largest forest area in the region, is importing annually around 1.5 million m³ of roundwood.

Extent and capacity of the forest industries obviously depend on the existence of forest resources. Consequently, forest industry is only considered as a large sector in a limited number of countries (e.g. Turkey, Iran). In other countries, which largely depend on imports of finished and semi-finished products, forest industries are confined only to small-scale sawmills and panelboard factories.

NWFP (i.e. fodder, game, honey, gum, fruits, mushroom, dyes, medicinal and aromatic plants) contribute, in addition to the satisfaction of local needs, to national economies. In several countries of the region, export revenues derived from NWFP exceed the revenues obtained through the exportation of wood products (e.g. Yemen, Turkey and Iran). However, good earnings from the export of some NWFP (mostly unprocessed) to developed countries causes serious threats for the extinction of some rare species (i.e. bulbed species) in some countries (e.g. Turkey).

Forestry Institutions

Forestry organizations at ministerial level only exist in Turkey. In most of the other countries, forestry is organized as a department under the Ministry of Agriculture (e.g. Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Cyprus, Yemen, Egypt and Iraq). In Iran, forestry and rangeland management are placed under the Ministry of Jihad e Sazendegi, whereas in Saudi Arabia they are under the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Water. In many countries, forestry administrations are lacking financial, staff and operational resources. This situation is aggravated by their isolation from the political power structure and limited public relations capacity. However, forestry is becoming a more prestigious profession in the region, in line with the increasing demands and awareness of their environmental roles.

Despite these generic problems, there have been some positive recent developments in forestry institutions in the region:

• Some countries have included desertification control (Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, United Emirates, Yemen) and watershed management (Turkey, Jordan, Iran, Cyprus) in their activities.

• In Iran, Jordan and Afghanistan, forestry departments are also responsible for pasture development and management;

• In Turkey, under the Ministry of Forestry, the General Directorate of Forest Villages Relations implements rural development plans in forest areas. These plans support the creation of create rural development co-operatives;

• In Iran, the Forestry and Range Organization, under the Ministry of Jihad e Sazendegi, gives special importance to rural development and people's involvement in harvesting and afforestation activities.

The countries of the Near East, with few exceptions, have been slow to adopt the worldwide trend of decentralization, involving the devolution of responsibility to lower levels and regionalization.

Well-established forestry research institutions do only exist in some countries in the region, such as Turkey, Iran, Yemen, Syria and Egypt. Most of the research efforts are still concentrated on technical forestry problems and need to be better adapted to environmental and socio-economic issues.

University level education institutions traditionally exist in Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Cyprus, Egypt and recently started in Syria and Jordan. The Forest and Range School in Lattakia for example is an important regional institution providing technical (technician) level education for Arab countries.

Although considerable progress was made in the field of forestry education and training, lack of skilled manpower is still a major constraint in forestry development and conservation in the region.

In spite of the considerable development they have shown during recent years, NGOs (involved in environmental issues) are still at low level and efficiency in most Near East countries. Nevertheless, they are becoming stronger and influential in some of the countries, such as the Turkish "Foundation for Afforestation and Combating Erosion", the Lebanese "Society for the Protection of Nature and The Friends of Nature" or the Jordan "Environmental Conservation Society and Royal Society for the Protection of Nature and Environment". This last NGO is unique, since it is authorized for the management of protected areas in the country.

Another important development has been the establishment of environment departments within the government structures in several countries during recent years (i.e. Ministry of Environment in Syria and Turkey, Department of Environment under different ministries in other countries). In general, these departments are lacking sufficient implementation capacities and experiences. However, they are expected to play important roles, particularly in the development of policies, legislation and awareness creation in relation to protection of environmental conditions and resources, including forests and protected areas.

Forest Policy and Planning

A favourable trend towards comprehensive development planning has been underway in the region. The role of the forestry sector, within the overall economic and social development, is being recognized in National Development Plans (NDPs). All countries in the region have either specific forestry plans or have forestry activities incorporated in their NDPs.

Many countries in the region have formulated forest policies and others are planning to do so. All forestry action plans in the region call for measures to: (a) reduce the negative effects of deforestation and land degradation, (b) involve community and private sector initiatives, (c) conserve the existing natural forests and expand forest areas by reforestation and afforestation, (d) increase attention to environmental roles and functions and expansion and proper management of protected areas.

Several countries in the region have updated their forest legislation and regulations (i.e. Lebanon, Iraq and Turkey). These changes give emphasize on environmental, socio-economic roles and community involvement (i.e. Afforestation Mobilization Law in Turkey, 1995; Law for Compulsory Windbreak and Tree Plantations in Farming Systems in Iraq, 1995), but they introduce at the same time heavier penalties against forest offences (i.e. new forest law (1995) in Lebanon; proposed amended forest laws, which are presently negotiated at the Parliament in Jordan and Syria).

Recently, there have not been any significant changes in forest ownership in most of the Near East countries. Most of the forests and woodlands in the region are state owned. Although the countries of the region have not yet followed the trend in many countries of the world toward privatization of forests and of expanding user rights over forest lands and products, they have been examining the pros and cons of such a course of action. This question was discussed at the 16^th session of Silva Mediterranea, held in Lamaca, Cyprus in June 1996, where the discussion centered on the effects of allocation rights over forest lands either on a collective (e.g. village forests) or on a private basis as a way of increasing people's involvement in, and benefit from, forest management.⁴

For the development of people's participation and suitable community forestry models, several projects have been designed and implemented, both at the national and regional level, with the external assistance provided by organizations such as FAO and the World Bank.

Recent Initiatives

The forestry sector is expected to be certainly affected by the major international developments following UNCED that link, directly or indirectly, conservation, management and sustainable development of forests and trees to sustainable development. In this context:

• Most of the Near East countries started national level initiatives in relation to implementation of the Chapter 11 (especially program element 1.4) of Agenda 21;

• Several countries have taken various initiatives for adapting their national forestry plans, policies and implementations to take into account the needs of societies for protective, productive, environmental and socio-economic roles and functions provided by forest resources;

• Most of the Near East countries have signed and become part for the Convention to Combat Desertification and the Convention on Biological Diversity;

• Following recommendations of the FAO/UNEP Expert Meeting on "Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management for the Near East", held in Cairo, Egypt in October 1996 and endorsed in principle by the 12^th Session of the Near East Forestry Commission later the same month, FAO assisted Near East countries to organize a follow-up workshop on criteria and indicators, held at the FAO Regional Office for the Near East in Cairo in June/July 1997. Regional organizations, including the Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD) and the Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD), participated in the meeting and provided policy level support to activities in the region. In the 1997 workshop, national coordinators, nominated by participating countries, reported on progress in the analysis, testing and implementation of the national level criteria and indicators developed within the framework of the Near East Process;

• The 11^th World Forestry Congress (main theme 'Forestry for Sustainable Development through the 21^st Century) was organized for the first time in the Near East (Antalya, Turkey) in October 1997.

Objectives and Expected Outcomes of Lebanon Meeting on NWFP

In May 1997, FAO/HQ and the RNE office organized in Cairo an International Expert Meeting on "Medicinal, Culinary and Aromatic Plants in the Near East". The meeting discussed the importance of NWFP and the potential that the promotion of their wise use can play for the development of the region. Furthermore, a number of priority actions were identified. Finally, it was recommended that FAO follow-up on these actions and prepares a proposal for a regional project on NWFP in the Near East to be submitted to interested donors.

FAO has since proceeded with the implementation of some of the major recommendations from the Cairo meeting, such as: development of a regional directory on agencies dealing with NWFP, the preparation of draft country briefs describing the importance of NWFP, and a draft framework for a regional NWFP project.

Since the Cairo Expert meeting, other activities in the field on NWFP have taken place or have been planned in various parts of the region by FAO and other organizations. For example:

• FAO, under the framework of Silva Mediterranea, has worked on a project idea for the establishment of a NWFP research network for the Mediterranean region;

• MEDUSA, the Network on the Identification, Conservation and Use of Wild Plants in the Mediterranean Region, has strengthened its networking activities in the region through a workshop in Tunisia (1997) and Portugal (1998);

• WWF Mediterranean Office is working towards the establishing a network for the sustainable use of NWFP in the Mediterranean.

In order to keep the momentum generated by the Cairo Expert meeting, a second international meeting on NWFP will be organized with the following objectives:

1. to inform participants on new developments in the region on NWFP and to discuss and exchange experiences among actors involved in NWFP in the region;

2. to review the status of implementation of the recommendations from the Cairo Meeting; especially to discuss, validate and complement the draft country briefs on NWFP, the regional directory on agencies dealing with NWFP, and any other as appropriate; and

3. to present a draft framework for a regional project on NWFP development in the Near East and to seek inputs and consensus from the participants.

Table 1. Forestry statistics for the Near East

COUNTRY	Population in 1000 1994 (l)	Area km² 1993 (l)	GNP US$ per capita 1994 (2)	Forests and woodlands in 1000 ha 1993
Afghanistan	18 879	652 090	280	1 900
Algeria	27 325	2 381 740	1 650	4 000
Azerbaijan	7 472	86 660	500	950
Bahrain	549	680	7 460	n
Cyprus	734	9 250	10 260	123
Djibouti	566	234 200	C	6
Egypt	61 636	1 001 450	720	31
Iran	65 758	1 648 000	n	11 400
Iraq	19 925	438 320	f	192
Jordan	4 205	89 210	1 440	70
Kuwait	1 633	17 820	19 420	2
Kyrgistan	4 667	198 500	630	700
Lebanon	2 915	10 400	f	80
Libya	5 225	175 540	d	840
Malta	360	320	d	n
Mauritania	2 217	1 025 520	480	4 410
Morocco	26 488	446 550	1 140	8 970
Oman	2 077	212 460	5 140	n
Pakistan	136 645	796 100	430	3 480
Qatar	540	11 000	12 820	...
Saudi Arabia	17 451	2 149 690	7 050	1 800
Somalia	9 077	637 660	c	16 000
Sudan	27 361	2 505 810	c	44 240
Syria	14 171	185 180	f	650
Tajikistan	5 933	143 100	360	537
Tunisia	8 733	163 610	1 790	676
Turkey	60 770	779 450	2 500	20 199
Turkmenistan	4 010	448 100	n	4 000
U.A.E	1 861	836 000	n	3
Yemen	13 873	527 970	280	2 000
TOTAL	553 061	16 84 880

Sources: (1) FAO Production Yearbook 1994, (2) World Development Report 1996. From Plan to Market, The World Bank.

Symbols:
c: Estimated to be low income (US$725 or less);
d: Estimated to be upper middle income (US$ 2,896 to US$ 8,955);
f: Estimated to be lower middle income (US$726 to US$2,895);
n: No figures available.

4.1.2 Participatory and Integrated Forest Management in the Near East Countries

Mr Michel Khouzami, Consultant

Overview

"The concept and applications of participatory and integrated forest resource management in the Near East countries have only recently been introduced in a few countries in the region". This was the conclusion of the FAO/UNEP "Expert Meeting on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management in the Near East", held in Cairo in October 1996.

The majority of the forest areas are under the ownership and management of governments, only some forests are under communal, corporate or private ownership. In large areas of the state forests, local people have recognised rights to undertake activities such as agro-pastoralisme or collection of NWFP.

NWFP contribute substantially to the local and national economy of the countries in the region by providing fodder, shade, honey, gums, shelter, medicinal and aromatic plants, cork, mushrooms, tourism, etc.. Fuelwood supplies the bulk of energy requirements of the population of many countries.

The forests in many countries of the region house a number of endemic species of wild life. Although some areas have been proclaimed as "protected" in many Near East countries, wildlife is facing grave threats in most countries.

Policymakers, urban and rural populations in the region started to show an increasing interest in the protection and multiple use of forest resources. However, the awareness is yet to be expressed in institutional and financial support in order to enhance sustainable forest management.

Interest and contributions of rural communities and grassroots participation for the conservation and development of forests and forestry should be extended and improved. Competing interests and needs of a growing population with a dwindling natural resource base, have developed serious conflicts among owners and users of the resources.

Constraints

In almost all countries of the region, the conflicts relate to two main constraints:

1. A lack of attention to the process of involving local people and other stakeholders, who care about forest development, management, planning, and decision-making.

2. People in nearby communities have specific needs (for fodder, fuelwood, building materials, medicinal plants or hunting) that conflict with the objectives of forest management policy.

Towards Improvement of the Participatory and Integrated Forest Resource Management

All existing conflicts must be addressed within a particular cultural, political and social context. Any conflict management approach must be appropriate for the context, in which it takes place and must take local conflict resolution customs and institutions into account. Nevertheless, there are three general principles that should be applicable to the majority of forest management conflicts in the countries of the Near East:

1^st Principle: Focus on Underlying Interests:

A major challenge in resolving conflicts is to address the underlying interests that are really at stake rather than getting stuck arguing over positions. This refers to people's fundamental needs and concerns.

A conflict management effort, in which all interests are satisfied, is much more likely to result in a lasting and satisfactory resolution than one, in which the interest of only one side are addressed. To do so involves some amount of compromise.

2^nd Principle: Involve all Affected Stakeholders in a Fair and Respectful Process:

Stakeholders are those individuals or groups who are directly involved in the conflict or who may be affected by how the conflict is resolved. People want to be involved in the decision-making process when their interest is at stake. They want to have their opinions and ideas heard and valued and they want to be respected as individuals.

3^rd Principle: Integrate all Forest Resources in a Sustainable Way:

Forest resources management is generally integrated or so called "multifunctional". It tries to satisfy all the social demands concerning protection, production, agreement and landscape, and at the same time respecting the integrity of the heritage and its potentialities.

All the forms of social demands can be accomplished simultaneously and can be, within a certain equilibrium, satisfied. Often, functions of the forest are not exclusive of each other, but rather one promoting the others.

In addition to the supply of the wood industry, the production offers the owner the necessary means to improve the conditions of recreation and landscape, to conserve the biodiversity and to render the forest fit to accomplish efficiently its diverse functions of protection; maintaining biodiversity at a good level so it assures the stability of the ecosystems and the sustainability of all the functions of the forest. The more spread-out the territory is and the surroundings diverse, the easier it is to conserve all types of ecosystems and entire species.

A specialization of the forest functions according to the territories is not useful, since the diversification of the social demands vary with time, and we ignore what they will be in the long term.

However, it is not always possible to reconcile all the demands in the same area and often it is impossible to favour all of them simultaneously. So, the same management does not allow us to get the highest level of production, the best conditions for receiving a numerous public and the most efficient protection from, for example, soil erosion.

For each management land unit/group, the objectives need to be set out. The determining objective should not be called the main objective, which would imply that the others associated objectives are secondary, which is not necessarily the case. Thus to say, the determining objective is the ligneous production, which means that this production will be optional, but dose not mean, often, that the protection of the environment and the landscape are of a secondary importance and will not be assured in a compatible and implicit manner.

How to Address Conflicts?

Given the difficulty, complexity, and variety of conflict situations that occur in the different countries of the Near East, each situation will require a specifically tailored response that recognizes and adjusts for the cultural, legal and social context of that country and for the particular dynamics of the conflict.

To address conflicts, the following components can constitute a framework, which may include both short and long-term time horizons:

Assessment

The conflict assessment is the systematic collection of information to be used in designing a conflict resolution process. The first step in designing a conflict assessment is to decide what information to collect.

The questions most commonly asked in a conflict assessment are:

• What are the issues at stake in the conflict?
• Who are the significantly affected stakeholders?
• Who are their leaders?
• What are their underlying interests?
• What position have they adopted?
• What are their incentives and disincentives to resolve the conflict?
• What is known/unknown about the scientific and technical aspects of the conflict? How much information do the various stakeholders have?
• What is the institutional/legal contest for the conflict and what institutional/legal avenues are there for resolving it?
• What resources are available to deal with the conflict: financial, human, institutional, etc.?

Involving Affected Stakeholders

The design of a process to involve affected stakeholders will be based on the assessment described above. In any case, the authority to make the final decision on how to resolve the conflict, usually remains with the forest management official authority.

Dealing with Factors Outside the Forest Area

Many of the factors that give rise to and affect the management and resolution of forest area conflicts are located outside forest area boundaries and are largely beyond the control of forest management staff. These sectors include institutions, legal, political, and economic influences and environmental impacts from non-forest areas.

Finding the Resources to Pay for Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution usually has some costs associated with it, such as meeting costs, conducting research that could help settle the conflict, building up of a enforcement capacity, implementation of the solutions to the conflict, etc..

Providing benefits to local people are the key to address conflicts in many situations. Some of the approaches include:

• Providing access to resources in forest on some controlled basis;
• Providing local people with alternatives so that they do not (only) have to depend on forest area resources;
• Offering employment;
• Improving the socio-economic conditions of local communities.

Enforcement

In most cases, enforcement will be a necessary compliment to the conflict resolution effort. It may provide an incentive for violators to enter into discussions about how to resolve the conflict; it is usually necessary to ensure that agreements arising form a conflict resolution effort are implemented.

Education and Public Relation

Local people and forest users may not be aware of the value of the forest. It is unrealistic to expect them to support management measures or accept compromises, unless they have a sense of those values. In addition, educating the people about their responsibilities as forest users can be critical in safeguarding forest resources.

Involving Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

NGOs can play an important role in conflict resolution. Their influence will depend a great deal on what the NGOs set out to do, its credibility among local people and the government and its vision and resources.

They may be able to apply pressure to high-level decision-makers in the government, and they are often successful in gaining local support for their activities, especially since they operate primarily at the local level.

4.1.3 Non-Wood Forest Products - Resources and Potential

R. Baalbaki, N. Nemer, E. Abou, F. Hammad, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon

Introduction

The nature of products and values derived from forests and plantation trees vary widely. In industrial countries, the major need is usually for industrial wood for the production of reconstituted wood and pulp products and wood for general and construction purposes. In such countries, the quantity of wood used, as fuel wood is small and in declining. In less-developed countries, the pattern is almost reversed. The primary use of wood is as an energy source as fuelwood, with construction wood only second in importance. In these counties, trees are also important sources of animal feed, traditional medicines, oils, fruits and nuts. Obviously, many forest products are not directly related to timber production and utilization. The term non-wood forest products (NWFP) emerged as an umbrella term to recognize these various goods and services from forest resources.

Although the importance of NWFP was not recognized in the past in the region, the last few years have witnessed expanding interest and understanding of the role of NWFP in rural development and as a source of potentially steady income that, in many cases, replaces that from traditional agriculture. The knowledge base regarding the traditional use of NWFP has continued to grow and the potential for new and innovative uses to generate income and pursue conservation objectives exist (Taylor, 1996).

Unfortunately, the utilization of forest wood products is often at odds with non-wood uses of forests. In other words, the cutting and clearing of trees for use as fuelwood or as reconstituted wood and pulp products leads to the elimination of the possibility of using trees for other purposes listed as non-wood uses. If the leaves of a tree are traditionally used for medicinal purposes, the cutting down of that species for use as timber will eliminate the possibility of continued use of that species as a medicinal source. Therefore, an examination of the trends related to the use of forest wood products would in itself help explain the extent to which forests can be used for purposes other than wood production.

The Near East Region

The Near East includes 26countries, stretching over 17.5 million km² in Africa and Asia, from the Atlantic coast to Mauritania and the southern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, across the northern half of Africa, eastwards over the Arabian peninsula, the Iranian and Afghan plateau to Pakistan. It includes Cyprus and Turkey in the north, and Somalia and the Sudan in the South (FAO, 1993).

Many regions of the world contain a wealth of biological diversity and unique cultural resources that offer a special opportunity to develop income generating activities based on NWFP, such as the collection and sale of medicinal plants or other valuable products, or the development of small enterprises based on ecotourism (Taylor, 1996). Countries in tropical areas are particularly suited for such activities.

While Near East countries can also posses a considerable amount of diversity of both plants and animals, their forests are generally in crisis. Countries in the Neat East are characterized by highly degraded forests as a result of centuries of overuse and high human and animal pressures, exacerbated by harsh environmental conditions. The role of forests in maintaining fragile ecosystems, providing energy, food and shelter to rural and sometimes urban populations, and conserving the biodiversity, is diminishing at an alarming rate in the Near East. Unlike many industrialized countries, the forests in the Near East are largely on public land and governments assume the responsibility and authority of maintaining them (FAO, 1993). Due to the limited resources, this has sometimes led to neglect and lack of proper supervision, often leading to gradual but steady deforestation.

The climate of most countries in the Near East can be characterized as arid. With few exceptions of high altitude areas, some 75 percent of the total area of the region are desert and 15 percent are arid and semi-arid and cold mountainous lands. Ecologically, these zones are fragile and difficult to develop and use. Except in limited areas, the vegetation of arid areas is sparse and usually highly specialized, both morphologically and physiologically. Cutting trees and clearing of forests in these fragile ecosystems usually causes damage that is rather difficult to rectify.

The imports of wood products in the last few years, when compared to exports, illustrate the pressure on the forest systems in all Near Eastern countries (see table 2). No Near Eastern country exports more wood products than it imports, and most have no exports at all. In terms of percentages, countries import thousands times more wood products than they export. The significance of these numbers is that they illustrate the tremendous pressure the forest systems are under where they exist in Near Eastern countries.

Since all Near Eastern countries are in a wood-deficit situation, sustainable forest growth becomes difficult and making a sustainable production of NWFP less likely. Obviously, the need to develop the production and use of NWFP has to be assessed in light of the continuously diminishing forest resources.

Table 2. Imports of wood and derived forest products into selected Near Eastern countries

	Imports (US$ 1000)					% of Exports¹
	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996
Africa
Algeria	253 542	335 458	384 490	425 893	324 975	Almost no exports
Djibouti	1 727	1 856	1 787	1 184	1 066	No exports
Egypt	787 395	745 567	747 798	965 005	738 575	7 789
Libya	36 600	55 481	49 073	44 781	48 306	No exports
Mauritania	1 224	1 201	1 201	711	2 649	No exports
Sudan	11 011	9 500	13 113	20 924	27 148	No exports
Tunisia	213 219	123 297	214 806	239 445	172 516	1 020
Morocco	300 650	267 382	340 454	431 598	329 727	572
Somalia
Asia
Afghanistan	1 087	1 590	1 201	1 040	1 183	No exports
Bahrain	23 760	17 081	22 602	33 281	29 314	No exports
Cyprus	106 637	84 604	96 061	121 563	91 711	2 824
Iran	386 416	102 443	234 453	253 377	273 335	Almost no exports
Iraq	1 788	606	439	439	148	No exports
Jordan	141 637	166 832	116 332	177 112	181 217	2 230
Kuwait	102 349	83 647	101 130	78 075	93 985	No exports

	Imports (US$ 1000)					% of Exports¹
	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996
Lebanon	76 643	74 343	115 766	91 756	150 232	1 621
Oman	50 480	52 387	34 770	53 403	48 316	Almost no exports
Pakistan	191 580	155 089	184 551	154 902	194 159	No exports
Qatar	13 117	8 881	11 306	10 332	11 781	No exports
Saudi Arabia	569 392	634 368	953 925	925 656	645 086	7 184
Syria	113 099	72 196	96 729	68 335	74 196	Almost no exports
Turkey	472 048	839 425	517 354	815 162	737 487	1 150
United Arab Emirates	203 070	237 577	306 296	273 929	256 169
Yemen	61 554	40 402	22 900	4 9018	46 009	Almost no exports
Europe
Malta	41 584	37 052	59 159	63 823	45 881	No exports

Source: FAO yearbook. Forest Products, 1996.

¹ Based on comparisons of imports and exports in 1996.

One way of conserving forest trees and developing the use of NWFP is to demonstrate the value of such products. The idea that wood products are more valuable than NWFP is not always correct and needs further examination, taking the country specific conditions under consideration. Though no such studies are available for the Near East, in the Peruvian Amazon, the non-wood value of forest was found to exceed that of timber values over the long term by a factor of 2-3 (Peters, 1989). Similar results may apply to some Near Eastern countries. Bearing in mind the many indirect or hidden forest products, discussed later, the values of NWFP may indeed be much higher than previously estimated.

Non-Wood Forest Products in Lebanon

NWFP include fruits, nuts, silk, resins, other exudates, fibres, wildlife, medicinal plants, herbs and dyes, as well as processed products such as turpentine, essential oils and silk (FAO, 1995). All such products can be classified as based on extractive activities. However, NWFP can also include the non-extractive based activities, which includes e.g. research on biological resources and eco-tourism. Environmental influences such as shade and shelter, and the ameliorative effects of windbreaks and shelter beds in reducing wind velocities and thus reducing erosion and evaporation are also among the non-extractive products of forest. Table 3 lists extractive and non-extractive NWFP.

Table 3. Different types of NWFP

Extractive	Non-extractive
Food	Soil improvement and protection
Forage	Eco-tourism
Pharmaceuticals, medicinal	Biodiversity
Toxins	Aesthetic, amenity
Aromatics	Parks and reserves
Biochemical	Shade and shelter
Fibres	Moderate stream flow
Ornamentals
Wild animal
Insects

Of the above list, extractive and non-extractive NWFP categories such as food forage and fibre as well as soil improvement are well known and documented. We will therefore only quote some specific cases in which a particular NWFP category has been used or studied in Lebanon.

a) Medicinal Uses

Table 4 lists the primary trees found in Lebanon with reported or suspected medicinal properties.

Table 4. Some medicinal trees found in Lebanon and their common uses

Species	Habitat	Medicinal uses
Alianthis altissima	West mountains of Mount Lebanon, between 0 and 2000 m altitude; in Bekaa, South Riyyak and in the South of Lebanon	Powdered bark used to treat intestinal tapeworms and for dysentery and other stomach trouble
Ceratonia siliqua	Coastal areas and on the inferior slopes of coastal mountains, between 0 and 1 000 m altitude	The pulp has anti-diarrhoea properties, the gum serves as a suspending agent, absorbent demulcent, lubricant
Clematis vitalba	Localized in the northern part of the country, between 0 and 1 000 m altitude	External usage against varicose ulcers
Cupressus sempervirens	West and East mountains of Mount Lebanon, between 300 and 2 000 m altitude	Mostly used to treat blood circulation disorders
Ficus carica	Spontaneous	Laxative
Fraxinus ornus	Between 0 and 2 000 m altitude	The extracted mannitol is used as an osmotic diuretic and as excipient.
Juglans regia	West mountains of Mount Lebanon, between 300 and 2 000 m altitude; in Bekaa, South of Zahleh and towards Baalbek and in Hermon	Leaves are astringent eupeptic with a hypoglycaemia action. The extracted juglone is antiseptic and keratinizing.
Juniperus sp.	Between 1 000 and 2 800 m altitude	Diuretic and eupeptic
Laurus nobilis	Coastal areas, between 0 and 2 000 m. and in South Lebanon	External usage, stimulant
Melia azadarach	Coastal areas and mountains, up to 1 000 m altitude	Anti-helminthic remedy for intestinal worms and parasitic skin diseases
Myrtus communis	West mountains of Mount Lebanon, between 0 and 1 500 m	Mostly antiseptic, for pectoral (respiratory) infections
Quercus infectoria	Western mountains of Mount Lebanon, up to 1 600 m altitude	Astringent for external and internal usage
Rhamnus cathartica	West mountains of Mount Lebanon, between 1 400 and 2 000 m altitude	Laxative and purgative
Ulmus minor	Sub-spontaneous	Tonic, astringent

It should be noted that not all of the above plants are accepted as official medicinal plants in the pharmacopoeias and some reflect the traditional usage. Nevertheless, there is a growing market in the western world for the use of natural medicines in preference rather than synthetic pharmaceuticals. International pharmaceutical companies are ready to spend millions for clinical trials and for the development of new and naturally based drugs.

The estimated market value of medicinal and aromatic plants produced by forests in Lebanon is US$18 600 000 based on 1994 figures (Biological Diversity of Lebanon, 1996). The varied Lebanon climate had lead to a rich abundance of many wild plant species, including medicinal trees. However, only recently a study on the possible uses and potential of those plants has been undertaken. A recent agreement between Earth University in Costa Rica and the Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences of the American University of Beirut has been signed, which aims at exploring the efficacy of some endogenous medicinal plant species and the commercial development of new drugs based on these species.

b) Ecotourism

Ecotourism refers to low impact tourist services to sites of natural and cultural interest. It is the fastest growing sector in the tourism industry world-wide (Taylor, 1996). Ecotourism seems to be gaining more recognition in Near Eastern countries as a potential source of income. The Bsharre cedars proved a good example of the development of ecotourism in Lebanon. Based on a study at the American University of Beirut, revenue from tourism visiting the cedars in 1992 was only US$1 898, but rose to US$52 590 in 1995. Overall park visits in 1993 generated US$29 660 (Biological Diversity of Lebanon, 1996). Though the generated income is relatively small, they reflect the potential of ecotourism and their sustainable and non-destructive nature.

c) Genetic Resources and Biodiversity Research

Research on biological resources, or biodiversity, research, funded by pharmaceutical firms or research agencies, is proceeding in a number of countries. Forest biological resources have been the subject of several agreements between Lebanese institutes and international organizations. Several studies have been funded by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute for surveys, collection and description of plant genetic resources of Lebanon. Specific studies include a survey on local genetic resources of pistachio, characterisation of the diversity of Pinus pinea and a survey and classification of Lebanese almond germplasm.

d) Natural Toxins as Pesticides

Insecticides of plant origin, which are readily biodegradable, are perceived to be environmentally safe and ecologically acceptable. Several studies have been conducted at the Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences of the American University of Beirut on the biopesticidal properties of Melia azadarach. This tree species contains several liminoids that act feeding deterrents and growth regulators of insects. Leaf and fruit extracts were found to repel white fly adults. Aqueous extracts of leaves and fruits were found to be comparable in their efficacy to certain tested commercial biorational and synthetic pesticides against the pea leaf minor.

Based on the above, it should be desirable to combine wood and non-wood products and increase returns from natural forests. Clearly, the marketing potential for NWFP has not been full realized. Experience in developing countries shows that income from NWFP improves the economic growth that capitalizes on their inherent values and concurrently encourages conservation and sustainable management of resources. The pursuit of NWFP therefore can be a way to achieve the goal of environmental protection as well (Taylor, 1996). NWFP activities for income usually start with a product that local communities already harvest form forests for their use. Any surplus after meeting the local needs can be sold locally or prepared for sale to another market. As long as NWFP do not exceed the natural rate of regeneration or have harmful effects on other species, the enterprise may be considered biologically sustainable (Taylor, 1996).

In cases where the natural forest system is too degraded, or when minimum interference in natural ecosystems is highly desirable, establishment of plantations can take the pressure off natural forests. Tree plantations in the Near East currently represent the main means of extending forests, and significant resources have been devoted towards that end in many neighbouring countries (FAO, 1993). Countries like Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Cyprus and Turkey have established plantations over significant land areas. Plantation efforts in Lebanon, managed by Green Plan, have of course suffered because of the civil strife, and recent efforts at plantations and reforestation have had limited success. The limitations of plantations, especially with regards to environmental issues, should be kept in mind. Table 5 compares plantations to natural forests according to several criteria.

Table 5. Comparative advantages of natural forests and plantation in providing environmental services.

Functions	Natural Forests	Plantations
Biodiversity	High	Low
Regulation of soil and water	High	Low
Conservation of nutrients	High	Low
Maintaining water catchments	Good	Poor
Incidence of pests and diseases	Low	High
Carbon	Effective	Effective

Source: DaSilva and Appanah (1993)

References

D Silva, E. & S. Appanah, 1993. Forests management for sustainable development. An EDI policy seminar report, number 32, The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
FAO. 1998a. Forest products. FAO Yearbook 1996. Rome.
FAO. 1998b. Production, vol. 51 FAO Yearbook 1997. Rome.
FAO. 1998c. Forest products 1992-1996. FAO Forestry Paper, 125. Rome.
FAO. 1996. Income generation from non-wood forest products in upland conservation, by Taylor, D.
FAO. undated. Conservation Guide, 30, Rome.
FAO. 1995. Forest resources assessment 1990. Global synthesis-FAO Forestry Paper, 124. Rome.
FAO. 1993. Forestry policies in the Near East region: analysis and synthesis. FAO Forestry Paper, 111. Rome.
FAO. 1991. Non-wood forest products: The way ahead. FAO Forestry Paper 97, Rome
FAO. 1986. Some medicinal forest of Africa and Latin America. FAO Forestry Paper 67, Rome.
Peters, C.M., Alwyn, H.G. & R.O. Mendelsohn. 1989. Valuation of an Amazonian forest. Nature, 339:655-56.
Republic of Lebanon, Ministry of Agriculture & UNEP. 1996 Biological diversity of Lebanon. Publication No. 7.
Republic of Lebanon, Ministry of Agriculture & UNEP. 1996. Agricultural and livestock habitats and nature reserves, Publication No. 8. Commercial Business. Beirut, Lebanon.

4.2 Country papers on NWFP

4.2.1 Cyprus

Mr G. Georgio, Ministry of Agriculture, Nicosia, Cyprus

The forest areas of Cyprus are mainly used for recreation purposes. Scattered aromatic and medicinal plants in the forest are used by local people but they do not represent an important economic activity. This report therefore will be concerning our activities with cultivated aromatic and medicinal crops.

In Cyprus, there are over 280 wild aromatic and medicinal plants. Until recently, the inhabitants of villages bordering forest areas gathered and used these plants for both local and foreign trade.

This use of wild species has, however, been reduced to a minimum for two main reasons: First, production has been restricted by persistent droughts prevailing in Cyprus. Secondly, trade in aromatic plants can not be carried out only based on dry aromatic plants from the forest, since they are restricted in quantity, quality and type.

In addition, it must be noted that, with our future accession into the European Union, most agricultural products will undergo a tremendous pressure and one of the alternative solutions will be the cultivation of aromatic and medicinal plants because the soil and climatic conditions are ideal for the production of top quality aromatic plants.

For this reason, the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment has created and put into effect the "Project for the Development and Cultivation of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants in Cyprus".

Briefly, this Project entails the following:

• The establishment of trial plantations with both local and imported aromatic plants in different locations of Cyprus;
• The establishment of mother plantation for the production of propagating material;
• The establishment of a nursery and seedling stock production unit to meet the farmer's requirements;
• Installation of a distillation unit for distillation trials;
• Establishment of botanical collections;
• The foundation of a section in the Department of Agriculture dealing with aromatic and medicinal plants, which is in charge of above project.

The project has been in effect as from 1991 and the main aromatic plants that are promoted by the Department of Agriculture are: oregano, sage, mint, basil, tarragon and lavender, and to a lesser extent marjoram, bay, dictamus, rosemary, melissa, thyme and salvia.

The project can be divided into three categories:

• Production and marketing of dry and aromatic plants;
• Production and marketing of fresh aromatic plants;
• Production of essential oils by distillation.

The results of the implementation of the above project are the following:

1. Farmers of mountainous and semi-mountainous areas have exhibited a great interest in the project. Many of them have established plantations for the production of dry aromatic plants, which are sold on the internal market both to the local population, tourists and to the industry, which processes the packing of aromatic plants.

2. In villages close to forest areas, small production units have been created in order to enhance both, local and foreign trade in aromatic and medicinal plants.

3. Most importantly, the project initiated the cultivation of fresh aromatic herbs and plants like basil, tarragon, mint and thyme. All quantities produced are exported to countries within the European Union.

Demand by consumers could be increased through the dissemination of information on aromatic herbs through electronic and printed media on the subject and schools, hotels and municipal corporations have already started planting of aromatic plants in their gardens.

The most important obstacle for the further development of the sector is the organization of the market. The Ministry of Agriculture has already embarked in a survey of the market and it has, at the same time, established a co-operative society for the marketing aromatic and medicinal plants.

4.2.2 Iran

Mr M. Imad, Director of Commerce and Marketing

Medicinal plants are among the most important NWFP in Iran and provide income to rule people. Their potential value might be as high as the economic benefits derived from the Iranian oil industry.

Another important NWFP, which has been discovered recently by the industry, is homa gum.

At present, more than 3 000 species have been identified in Iran and more research is being carried out in order to identify new species. Research needs have also been identified related to the sustainable management of NWFP.

For the entire Near East region, important issues related to the sustainable use of NWFP are i) processing and ii) their contribution to income-generation, especially in rural areas.

4.2.3 Jordan

Mr. M. Al Wadi Al Abbadi, Director of Forests, Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture, Jordan

The Country

Jordan is a small country, situated at about 100 km distance to the South Easter coast of the Mediterranean Sea, with a land area of about 89 200 km². According to the 1994 census, the population is 4.1 million, with high annual growth rate of 3.5 percent. About 30 percent of the total population live in rural areas and roughly 45 percent are below 15 years of age.

Physiography and Precipitation

The country can be divided into four main topographic regions, each with distinct agro-climatic characteristics as follows:

a) The Semi Arid and Sub Humid Zone (Highlands)

The highlands, which are a succession of water catchments and sub catchments, comprise of the semi-arid zone (350 - 500 mm annual rainfall) and a small sub-humid zone (more than 500 mm of annual rainfall).

The highland zone is dominated by the mountainous and high areas that run form north to south with an altitude varying from 600 to 1 000 m above sea level. The erosion phenomena combined with some agriculture malpractices are considered the most important factors leading to the impoverishment of both the soil and the rural population as well as to the degradation of the environment. In terms of agriculture use and slopes, highland zones are divided into three sub-zones:

• The sub zone with less than 9 percent slope, where main crops are wheat, field crops and summer vegetables. In this zone cereal production depends on the rainfall and more importantly on is distribution throughout the season.
• The sub zone with slopes ranging between 9 and 25 percent, where fruit trees, especially olive trees, are the main crops.
• The sub zone with more than 25 percent slope, where forests and fruit trees are dominant. Most of the forest resources are located in this zone.

b) The Arid Zone (Plains)

This zone comprises the plains extending between the Badia (semi desert zone) and the highlands. Rainfall ranges between 200 mm in the east and 350 mm in the west. More than 50 percent of the arable lands in Jordan lies in this zone and rainfed crops cultivated are mainly barley (areas of 200 - 300 mm of rainfall), wheat and fruit trees (areas where rainfall ranges between 300 and 350 mm).

c) The Rift Valley (Ghor)

This zone constitutes the Jordanian part of the continental shelf extending from Aqabal in the South to the Adasiyyah in the north. This zone is divided into 3 areas.

• The Jordan Valley, which lies between 200 and 400 m below sea level, extends from the lake Tiberias in the north to the Dead Sea, with a length of 104 m and a width ranging between 4 and 16 km. The area is surrounded in the east and west by high mountains. Rainfall decreases towards the south, from approximately 300 mm in the north to about 102 mm in the south.
• The southern Ghor: This also lies below sea level and is located in the south of the Dead Sea. The rate of annual rainfall is less than 100 mm.
• The Wadi Araba: This area extends between the Southern Ghor and Aqaba on the Red Sea. The area is extremely dry, with limited cultivated areas using underground water.

The Jordan Valley and the southern Ghor are among the most important agricultural areas in Jordan, as there is a permanent source of water from the Yarmouk River and side dams from the former, and surface water for the latter. Due to their position below the Sea Level and high temperature (microclimate), these two are the most important winter vegetable producing areas. The cultivable land area in Ghor, which amounts to approximately 34 000 ha in total, is all irrigated. The majority of holdings range between 3 and 4 ha. Farmers use modern agricultural techniques in irrigation, production and marketing. In this zone, forest trees are used along roadsides or as windbreaks, and block plantations are being planted under irrigation.

d) The Semi-Desert Zone the Badia

The total area of the semi-desert zone is approximately 8.09 million hectares or 90.6 percent of the total area of Jordan. It is characterized by a very limited vegetation cover and an annual rainfall of less than 200 mm. In the past, it was utilized only for grazing. During the last two decades, however, 20 000 ha have been irrigated using underground water sources. Vegetables (especially tomatoes, watermelon and potatoes), fruit-trees and cereals, (especially wheat) are cultivated in the area.

Forest Resources

Forest areas of Jordan are either governmentally or privately owned. Government forest areas are those areas registered as forestlands in the name of the Treasury of the Jordan Government. They have a total area of about 130 900 ha, and could be subdivided into the following classes:

• Natural forest are covered with natural forest vegetation such as evergreen oak (Quercus coccifera) forests, wild olives (Olea europaea), deciduous broad leafed forests (Quercus aegilops mainly associated with Pistavia atlantica, Ceratonia siliqua, Styrax officinalis) and Pinus halepensis forests, which are either pure or mixed with other broad-leaved species.

• Plantations are owned by the government and planted with forest tree species during the last 50 years. The species used in afforestation are Pinus halepensis, P. pinea, P. brutia, Cupressus sp., Ceratonia, Tamarix sp., Acacia sp., Eucalyptus sp., Casuarina sp., Prosopis sp. and others.

It is important to notice that the annual increment values increase in forests of higher density. It is believed that all natural forests need to be inventoried again.

Forest Production

Although the protective functions of Jordanian forests are modest, the forest sector indeed does contribute to valuable NWFP such as:

• Food, from the leaves, roots, fruits and seeds, of some species;
• Fodder for livestock and small ruminants;
• Medical and aromatic plants;
• Bee keeping;
• Role of trees in enhancing agricultural production by planting them as windbreaks and shelterbelts;
• Wildlife;
• Sand, soil, and stones for building;
• Seed and plant material; and
• Handicrafts.

Non Wood Forestry Products in Jordan

Jordan forests (and rangelands) contribute to the production of valuable NWFP of great importance for rural populations. Available records do not reflect the real dimensions and diversity of use of such products. Large amounts of these products are produced from public and private forest lands by private sector and used at the household level without licenses or permission and thus without any exact records. These NWFP include mainly edible plants such as fruits, leaves and other green parts, seeds, fungi and mushrooms and oil.

a) Fruits

• Oak (balout) for human and livestock consumption;
• Pistacio (fustouk - butum);
• Carob (kharoub);
• Ziziphus sp. (seder);
• Pirus syriaca (agas bari);
• Rubus sp. (ulaik);
• Phonix decty lifera (tamer, nakheel);
• Crataegus azarolus (nabak);
• Rhus coraria (sumak);
• Olea europaea (zaytoon).

b) Leaves and Green Parts

• Laurus nobilis (ghar);
• Capparis spinosa (kubbar);
• Thymus sp. (zattar);
• Rumex sp. (homaidh);
• Portulaca olecacea (bakla);
• Beta vulgaris (selq);
• Malva sp. (khubaisa);
• Trigonella sp.;
• Salvia sp. (mairammiah).

c) Seeds

• Pinus pinea (stone pine, snoubar);
• P. halepensis (kuraish);
• Amygdalus sp. (louz);
• Pistacia sp. (botum);
• Ceratonia siliqua (kharoub).

d) Fungi and Mushrooms

• Boletus acstivalis;
• Lepista nuda;
• Lactarius deliciosus;
• Centharellus cibarius;
• Agaricus campestris;
• Pleurotus eryngii.

e) Oil Producer

• Plea europaea (zaytoun) for human consumption and soap industry;
• Moringa aptera (yoser) for industry and water purification;
• Simmodensia japonica (jujoba) for industry;
• Ricinus communis (khorua) for industry and medical purposes.

f) Ornamentals and Flower Producers

• Retama roetum (ratam);
• Nerium oleander (defla);
• Lonicera (yasamin);
• Luqinus sp. (tormus);
• Medicago orboria (fassah);
• Cyclamen sp. (rakag);
• Chrysanthemum sp.;
• Papaver (shaqaeq);
• Melilotus sp. (handaquq0;
• Adonis sp. (Hanon);
• Ranunculus sp..

g) Medical and Aromatic Plants

• Teucruim polium (jadah);
• Citrullus colocynthis (handhal);
• Artemisia herba alba (sheh);
• Judiaca sp.;
• Monosperma sp. (adher);
• Achillia fragrantissima (kaisoum);
• Anthemis cotula (beboneg);
• Salvia sp. (merameah);
• Rosmarinus officinales (hasalban);
• Lavandula sp. (Lavender).

h) Wild Animals

Wild animals are a main category of food derived from the forests. Wild animals can provide a significant source of animal protein. Smaller wildlife such as rabbits and birds have a real importance, while larger mammals have largely been exterminated. In Jordan, hunting is being managed by the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature, which issues annual hunting programmes specify hunting areas and game species and issue hunting licenses for hunters.

i) Honey

Forest and wild plants are considered the main source for honeybee fodder. Fruit trees also play an important role in feeding bees in Jordan (e.g. Citrus sp., Echinops spp., Thymus vulgaris, Eucalyptus sp., Acacia sp., Robinia sp.).

j) Handicrafts

The wooden handicrafts industry has an ever-increasing importance. Most of these activities are being carried out by NGOs and individuals at household level. Wood produced form olive (Olea europaea), Pistacia sp., carop and oak are in high demand for woody handicrafts. Fragmites communis (reeds) is also used in traditional basket weaving.

k) Fodder

Forest trees, shrubs and vegetation contribute to food security of rural population by providing fodder for livestock. Species such as Acacia sp., Prosopis sp. and Atriplex sp. are rich in protein and energy required by animals.

Plant Genetic Resources

The variation in climate and topography in Jordan has led to a wide diversity in flora according to the main four distinct biogeographical regions (Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian, Saharo-Arabian and Sudanian). The total number of vascular plant species exceeds 2 300 belong to about 730 genera and 122 families. Forest genetic resources in Jordan are divided in four major types of forest: Pine forests, evergreen oak forests, deciduous oak forests and Junipers forests.

a) Pine forests

This typical Mediterranean vegetation form is considered as one of the best forest types in Jordan and reaches a climax in some places with the dominant tree Pinus halepensis. This forest vegetation usually occurs on high altitudes mostly over 700 m, where rendzina and calcareous soils are present. In some places, the pine trees are replaced by Quercus calliprinos as a result of degradation of primary vegetation.

Pine forests typically consist of four strata:

• Stratum 1: Highest tree: Pinus halepensis;
• Stratum 2: The low trees and shrubs: Pistacia palesting, Quercus calliprions, Arbutus andrachne;
• Stratum 3: Low shrubs and bushes: Calycotme villosa, Cistus villosus, Cistus salvifolius, Smilax aspera and others;
• Stratum 4: Herbaceous: Fumana arabica, Helianthemum sp., Lavandula efolium, Thesium berferi.

Most of the orchids occur under pine forests, such as e.g. Ophrys spp., Cephalanthera longifolia, Limodorum abortivum and Orchis anatolica.

b) Evergreen Oak Forests

The major part of the forest vegetation in Jordan is comprised of evergreen oak forests and can be found both in the north and south. This type of vegetation grows at high altitudes of more than 700 m and on terra rosa soil of hard limestone parental rock. This is the vegetation, which is being most affected by human impact through the reduction of forest into agriculture land and through the cutting of trees for heating and coal production. Vast areas in Jordan show the remnants of such forests in the new growth of shoots from lower parts of the trunks and roots.

The vegetation composition of this type varies through leading species including the evergreen Quercus calliprions, which is the most important element. Although this vegetation is called evergreen, many of its components are deciduous like Pistacia palaestina, Pyrus syriaca and Crataegus azarolus.

Evergreen oak forests can be found from near Amman up to Irbid in the north, but occurs also in the south in Tafila and between Shobal and Petra. They typically consist of three strata:

• Stratum 1: Quercus calliprinos. Pistacia atlantica, Crataegus azarolus, Ceratonia, seliqua, Pistacia palaestina, Arbutus andrachne, Styrax officinalis and Olea europaea;

• Stratum 2: Low shrubs and climbers: Amygdalus communis, Asparagus aphyllus, Lonicera obtusa, Rhamnus palaestinus, Rubia olivieri, Calycotome villosa, Cistus villosus, Sarcopoterium spinosum and Lonicera obtusa.

• Stratum 3: Herbaceous: Anemone coronaria, Linum pubescens, Adonis palaestina, poa bulbosa and others.

c) Deciduous Oak Forests

The deciduous oak forests in Jordan exist at a lower altitude than all other forests and grow mostly on red or brown soil and/or hard limestone parental rock. Most of these types of forest are not well protected and are therefore threatened by degradation.

The deciduous oak forests are found at the lower borders of the evergreen oak forests and they mix together for a limited section until they become pure stands of each type alone and they are located by the Yarmuk River, Ishtafaina Forest in Ajlun, Al Aluk near Jarash and near King Talal Dam West Amman.

Deciduous oak forests typically consist of three strata, which are not always distinct:

• Stratum 1: Trees: Quercus ithaburensis, Ceratonia silqua, Styrax officinalis, and Pistacia palaestina.
• Stratum 2: Shrubs: Crataegus azarolus, Amygdalus spp., Rhumnus palaestinus, Olea europaea, Calyctome villosa, and Retama raetam.
• Stratum 3: Herbaceous bushes: Dactyls glomerata, Urginea maritima, Carlina corymbosa, Sarcopterium spinosum, Euphorbia hierosolymitana, Saliva sp., Tulipa sp., and Colchicum sp.

d) Juniperus Forests

Juniperus forests can be found in the southern part of Jordan, usually at high altitudes, over 1 000 m and on sandy rocks. Unfortunately, Juniperus forests are the least protected forests in Jordan, except for a very limited area at Tafila, where only 40 old trees of Cupressus sempervirens remain. Only two strata can be recognized due to the heavy grazing and the degradation of the vegetation:

• Stratum 1: Trees and Shrubs: Juniprus phoenica, Cupressus sempervirens, Pistacia atlantica, Rhamnus palaestinus, Daphne lineariflia, Thymelaed hirsuta, Colutea istrian and Cratageus azarolu;.

• Stratum 2: Bushes and herbaceous: Globularia arabica, Helianthemum vesicarium, Noaea mucronata, Achilla santolina, Onobrychis cristagalli and others.

The seed centre at the Forestry Department is actively involved in the collection and conservation of local forest seeds. Reforestation of local varieties has been the most successful since local varieties are the most adaptable to local environmental conditions.

The country still has about hundred trees of wild Cupressus sempervirens of more than one thousand years old. These few isolated trees have a unique genetic makeup, which are highly beneficial for the country's natural resources.

Wild Species and Wild Relatives of Crop Plants

Wheat, barley, lentils, and chickpeas are the main field crops Jordan. Keeping in mind the genetic variability of these crops several collection missions collected these species from Jordan. About 485 species belonging to 330 genera and 99 families were recorded by Oran and Al Eisawi (1994). The medicinal plants identified are either herbs, shrubs or trees. Medicinal plants are distributed all over the county. With a wide range of distribution from the eastern desert to other parts of the country, those plants are massively used by Bedouins or local people, in folk medicine as hot or cold drinks, or chewed fresh or dry.

They are also used externally to cure dermal diseases, either viral or bacterial infections, insects or animal bites or burns and some times for the treatments of the hair problems.

Many plants, such as Artemisia, Achillea, Salvia, Paronychia, Ecballium, Ephedra, Ajuga, Marrubum, Alcea, Thymus, Sarcopoteruim and Hyoscyamus are under pressure and often used for many different purposes.

The latex of Euphorbia species occurring in Jordan proved to be very efficient in e.g. the viral dermal infections and the warts, but its juice is very poisonous if taken orally or put on sensitive part, it may cause irritation.

Many wild plants in Jordan are used as ornamental such as trees (e.g. Retama retaem and Ceratoia siliqua), bushes (e.g. Astragalus sp., Cistus sp., Salvia sp.), onions and bulbs (e.g. Tulip, Orchis, Iris and Colchicum and corm (e.g. like Cyclamen and Scorzonera).

Promotion of NWFP in Jordan

The forest administration is aware of the social, environmental and health importance of NWFP for the population. That's why the forest department is dealing with the subject through the following issues:

• Encourage people to benefit of NWFP of forests free of charge and without licenses in a sustainable way;
• Collect, handle, store and distribute seeds of important NWFP producing tree and shrub species through the Forest Seed Centre of the Department of Forests;
• Give importance to multi-purpose forest trees by producing its seedling in forests nurseries;
• Collect seeds of planted trees, which are used by farmers in their land;
• Establish a Genetic Resource Conservation Unit, which is dealing with the conservation of the most important plant species;
• Enhance the conservation of species providing NWFP through their sustainable use;
• Give priority to culinary, medical and aromatic plants.

The wildlife conservation programme in Jordan is very active through:

• Reservation and regulation of hunting;
• Reservation and control of grazing;
• Protection of forests.

There is an increasing tendency to cultivate some culinary and medical plants in gardens and farms for home consumption and marketing, since there is an increasing demand on products such as thymus and sage.

4.2.4 Lebanon

Mr. G. Akl and Mr F. Asmar, Rural Development and Natural Resources Directorate, Ministry of Agriculture, Beirut, Lebanon

Lebanon is on the crossroad between three continents: Europe, Africa and Asia. This special privileged position is enhanced by its location in the Eastern Mediterranean. A whole mosaic of biotopes and natural environments are found there, dominated by a typical Mediterranean climate. Trees such as banana and citrus trees are cultivated on the coastal plain, whereas cherries and apples trees are found at higher altitudes. The great climatic variability in the country leads to a great variety in the natural vegetation and the wild fauna.

Lebanon was known for its dense and rich forests in the ancient times. It is now witnessing a severe depletion of its natural resources. Land degradation and deforestation are not problems of the last decades only, they started more than a century ago and have continued. The total lack of control and appropriate legislation in the last few years, the increasing needs of the population and the unawareness of the negative impacts of improper natural resources management, resulted in the present alarming situation.

Over the centuries, there has been increasingly serious interference with natural biological balances throughout Lebanon, which has impaired the unique characteristic of the countryside and brought about the extremely precarious situation.

The different ecosystems in the country are mainly threatened by deforestation, over-grazing, urban development, road development, bad agricultural techniques, excessive use of chemical products, hunting and industrial development.

Forest fires add to the problems the ecosystems are facing. The frequency and intensity of these fires are a serious threat to the sustainability of the forest ecosystems. They usually occur between June and late October and are followed a few weeks later, by the heavy rains, which cause severe soil losses.

The requirements of the urban development and the rehabilitation and reconstruction operations after the long years of war have lead to a particular threat, i.e. that of the quarries. In addition to the further degradation they are causing, their anarchic development has caused several sever scars in the landscape throughout the country.

After several years of total lack of control, caused by the war situation in the country, the Government of Lebanon has realized the importance of linking the environment to the overall development process. The Ministry of Agriculture, through the Rural Development and Natural Resources Directorate, is launching initiatives to save the natural patrimony and promote protection and proper management of the natural resources. Laws prohibiting wood cutting and protecting forests from fires, grazing and mismanagement are issued. A new law is placing all cedar, fir, juniper and cypress forest, along with specific fragile and sensitive ecosystems, under protection. Another law is issued declaring the trees of public benefit, this forbidding any tree felling without a prior authorization from the Ministry of Agriculture. This applies to both governmental authorities and private lands.

Decisions were issued to protect aromatic and medicinal plants and to control their exploitation. The decision 1/92, issued in February 1996, prohibits the export of aromatic and medicinal plants like saliva, oregano, myrtus, chamomilla and calluma. This decision followed the decision 1/38, issued in April 1982, prohibiting the export of all forest products.

These decisions were followed by the decision 1/340, dated August 1996, aiming at organizing the exploitation of sage and oregano. The wild sage (Salvia trilobite and Salvia fruticosa) and the local oregano species suffered from over-picking and uprooting. This decision allows a better control of the exploitation. Picking oregano is only permitted between August and December, export is however permitted all year round. Picking and exporting the sage is also permitted between August and December, with a prior permit from the Rural Development and Natural Resources Directorate. Uprooting both sage and oregano is completely forbidden.

The emergence of the so-called Chirch el Zallouh or the Zallouh root phenomenon has added to the threats on the high mountain flora. This plant, Ferrula hermonis, grows in the sub-alpine zone on Mount Kekmel. It is thought to improve the sexual potentials while improving the over-all health conditions. This has lead to the over-uprooting of the plant, as the active ingredients are only found in its root system. The Ministry has reacted by issuing a decree prohibiting the uprooting and exploitation of this commercially important plant. Some researchers and scientists are working on the identification of the active ingredients of this plant, while some plant extracts are sold as herb teas in pharmacies.

Parallel to this, carob (Ceratonia siliqua) production was encouraged by allowing forestland owners to clean their forests and to graft their carob trees with better producing varieties. This allows a higher yield of carob pods, thus improving the carob molasse industry. These molasses are used as a desert and as a sweetener in some traditional pastries. Other uses for these molasses could also be developed. At the same time, the carob seeds are exported and used in several industries, while the leftovers could be used as soil organic matters. Carob molasses are thought to have several beneficial effects, ranging from the regulation of the gastro-intestinal area to the improvement of the over-all health condition. Ground carob seeds are mixed with milk in baby's feeding bottles to prevent vomiting.

Pine nuts production (from Pinus pinea) is highly important in Lebanon. The Ministry of Agriculture is encouraging the production by banning any imports of pine nuts, thus protecting the local producers from unnecessary competition. This has allowed the stabilisation of the pine nuts market while giving the whole production and exploitation cycle a great push forward. Several villages in the middle mountain zone are dependent upon the pine nuts production for their daily income.

One of the most interesting aspects of the stone pine forest is the fact that it allows a multiple use management system. Most of the Pinus pinea forests are in fact open and even ripened stands. This allows grazing, recreation and exploitation of under-story, while keeping the risk factor relatively low.

The diversity of the Lebanese ecosystems contributes in the existence of a very wide vegetation range. This is translated by a wide variety of plants from different species and genera. The Mediterranean forest is known for its richness in aromatic, a field that still is to be further investigated.

Some aromatic plants are used in the daily food by most Lebanese people, especially Origanum sp. Mixed with the ground sumac flower, sesame seeds and olive oil, it will result in the highly appreciated zaatar w'zayt. Laural leaves are used in several recipes and has been used in past to freshen laundry. Several wild leafy vegetables are used for salads and for cooking, while the wild apple fruits Malus trilobata are used as pickles.

There are 236 species of wild and cultivated medicinal plants in Lebanon. 16 species are localised in certain regions and 29 are endangered. Several local species (Linum toxicum, Erica manipuliflora, Viola libanotica, etc) are considered as variants of recognised European species. Their active constituents should be investigated.

Several teas are prepared and hundreds of recipes could be given for all sorts of ills and diseases. One interesting experience is that of the hepatitis cured by the wild cucumber juice, Echbalium ellaterium. There are examples of people who have successfully tried this recipe and blood tests have showed no traces of hepatitis.

However, despite all the beneficial effects that we are told about, the field of medicinal plants is still somehow empirical and should be further studied. An ethnobotanical study should be elaborated for the identification of all the traditional medicinal plants. This will constitute the basis of a whole project for the identification, exploitation and legislation of aromatic and medicinal plants.

4.2.5 Saudi Arabia

Mr K.B.N. Al Moussa, Director of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Water, Riyadh, Saudi-Arabia

The total estimated forest area is about 2.7 million ha, mainly located in the high mountains, southern areas and along watercourses.

Species classified are mostly Acacias and some wild olives. These forests are managed as protective rather than productive forests. Hence, the main focus of exploitation is on NWFP rather than on wood products.

It is estimated that more than 300 plant species are used as medicinal plants, fodder and honey production.

Proposed future actions are:

• To make proper surveys to qualify, quantify and map such these species in order to plan for the future on reliable authenticated information;
• To promote their effective exploitation; and
• To enhance tourism under supervision and control of the Ministry of Agriculture.

4.2.6 Sudan

El-Hag Malli Awouda, Consultant, Khartoum, Sudan

Introduction

The Sudan, with an area of 2.6 million km², is the largest country in Africa and extends from 4°N in the South to latitude 22°N in the North. The forest vegetation in Sudan is influenced by rainfall types. The rainfall varies from zero in the northern desert to more than 1 500 mm in southern tropical mixed deciduous forests.

The economy is predominantly agricultural (including livestock production, forestry and fishing), which altogether contribute to about 40 percent of the Gross National Product (GNP). The forestry sector contributes some 12 percent of GNP. It renders, moreover, indirect benefits such as environmental protection, soil amelioration and work opportunities for rural population.

The utilization of different parts of indigenous plants for a variety of purposes has always been common in the Sudan. In Sudan, a wide rage of NWFP are provided by almost 76 indigenous tree species. These include bamboo, fruits, nuts, fibres, fodder, honey, flowers, medicinal herbs, silk, animal skin and others (see table 5). The importance of NWFP in Sudan extends beyond local subsistence economy: the annual exports of gum arabic for example range between 20 000 - 40 000 tons and generate US$50-80 million. A large number of plants of medicinal value are found in the forests of Sudan. Especially local people living around forests benefit from the use of NWFP, since they are involved in harvesting, production and marketing activities. Information about quantities, values, areas of production, producers, marketing and distributing chains is rather scarce ( Mahir and Eldoma, 1994).

Table 5. Selected tree species with useful products other than wood in the Sudan

Species	Distribution	Edible products	Other Products
Acacia albida	Widespread	Fruit	Fodder
Acacia nilotica	Widespread	Seeds	Tannin
Acacia seyal	Widespread	Seeds	Gum arabic
Acacia senegal	Widespread	Seeds	Gum arabic

Major Activities related to NWFP in Sudan

An agreement has been concluded between the Forest National Corporation (FNC) and Industrial Research and Consultancy Centre (IRCC) to prepare project profiles for many NWFP, especially in the field of medicinal and aromatic plants. Examples of these projects include Balanites aegyptiaca and Vitellaria parkii (see below).

a) Gum arabic

The most important NWFP in the Sudan is gum arabic, which is an exudate of Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal known as gum hashab and gum talha respectively. Sudan commands over 80 percent of the world's gum arabic production and trade. Table 6 shows the gum export of Sudan in the period 1983 - 1995.

Table 6. Gum exports of Sudan (in tonnes)

Year	Export (in tons)			Total value (in US$)
	Hashab	Talha	Total
1983	37 840	3 408	41 248	57 690 063
1984	29 603	3 632	33 235	45 389 076
1985	12 618	14 210	26 828	36 784 204
1986	16 482	2 235	18 717	48 727 158
1987	16 099	1 645	17 744	78 791 426
1988	16 672	1 931	18 603	55 713 290
1989	17 385	1 967	19 352	46 786 994
1990	22 960	3 952	26 912	45 594 740
1991	21 543	3 435	24 978	50 818 664
1992	8 198	5 870	14 068	23 446 654
1993	9 925	5 805	15 730	40 039 583
1994	18 339	4 396	2 273	76 089 121
1995	11 564	5 283		49 933 967

b) Gum olibanum

Gum olibanum (frankincense) is exuded from the Boswellia papyrifera, which is naturally spread in the hill area and rocky soil in central and southern Sudan, where the annual rainfall exceeds 500 mm. The trees are tapped in Somalia, Eritrea and Ethiopia for the production of "Iuban" referred to as frankincense. There is good potential for production of large quantities of this gum in Sudan. Presently tapping of "Iuban" is slowly gaining momentum. The local production is monopolized by some merchants and needs to be organized.

c) Balanites aegyptiaca

A project related to the use of Balanites aegyptiaca was formulated by IRCC in 1977 and financed by UNIDO in 1979 through its first phase of 10 years. The project findings revealed that this venture is economically and technically feasible. Techno-economic feasibility was studied by IRCC in 1989 to establish a fruit-processing factory. The factory was proposed to be located at Abu jubieha town (Southern Kordofan State) in order to produce oil, cake and molasses. The study features the following:

• Factory processing capacity: 3 399 tons fruits/year;
• Oil yield: 1 310 tons/year;
• Cake yield: 3 295 tons/year.

The project objectives are to produce oils, cake and molasses to be sold for local distilleries, for production of industrial and medical alcohol (ethanol). However, a new formula is now being worked out to produce steroidal saponins and sugars from the mesocarp.

d) Vitellaria parkii

The sheatree (Vitellaria parkii, formerly Butyrospermum paradoxum) is a medium sized tree, which is common as a natural constituent of the Savannah zones of West Africa (where it is known as karité), Central Africa and Eastern Africa (where a distinct variety called "nilotica" locally known as "lulu" is recognized). It is estimated that the production of one sheatree yields 6 000 - 10 000 fruits per season. Yearly nut production is estimated to be well above 3 000 tons. A recent survey conducted in Darfur State is expecting yield of 5 000 tons of nuts, i.e. nearly 2 000 tons of shea oil. Another survey is expected to be conducted in other states to explore the quantities and potential locations of sheatrees.

Sheabutter is used for many purposes, e.g. by the food, confectionery and pharmaceutical industry including medicinal and aromatic uses The kernels of Vitellaria parkii have the following composition on dry basis: fat (butter ) 40 - 60 percent, protein 6.93 percent, crude fibre 2.72 percent, nitrogen-free extract 13.7 percent.

e) Eucalyptus citriodora

Oil of Eucalyptus citriodora is primarily assessed on its odour characters and its total aldehyde content (expressed as citronellal). The bulk of commercial E. citriodora oils contains 65 -80 percent of citronellal. The dry leaves brought from Jabal Marra Area (western Sudan) had an oil content of 3 percent. The weather conditions will influence the annual yield of leaves, which may range between 2 - 5 kg of leaves per tree (one hectare produces form 5 000 - 10 000 of leaf materials). In Jabal Marra area, the number of mature trees is estimated to be 200 000. FNC in collaboration with other parties planted Eucalyptus spp. in different irrigated agricultural schemes as block plantations. The specie has also been widely used in irrigated shelterbelts. About 240 000 ha of land has been covered by the species in different ecological zones of Sudan, which can be used for production of oils. The research in this subject is concentrated on the methodology and economic way of collection of leaves (i.e. silvicultural operations (spacing, drying, etc.).

f) Natural silk

A pilot project on natural silk production was started by FNC in 1995 in Gezira and Blue Nile States. The overall objective of the project is to diversify the sources of income for FNC and farmers and to achieve sustainable rural development. There is good potential for planting of mulberry trees as the main food for silk worms. The project is a joint venture between the Government of the Sudan (FNC) and the Korean Government. Presently, the eggs are imported from Korea. The Korean Government also provided an expert for the training of local staff. 150 kilograms of natural silk were produced and have been sent to Korea for processing and categorization. Other activities include the realization of training courses for businessmen in public and private sectors, to promote and enhance their knowledge and disseminate the project ideas to other concerned bodies.

It can be concluded that:

• Planting of mulberry trees in Sudan is technically feasible, due to the suitability of temperature and the availability of land and water resources;
• Production of silk worm eggs as well as processing and manufacturing of silk are the main constraints the project is faced to.

g) Oil palm

An Oil Palm project started in 1993 in the "Farm of Reconnaissance" programmes. Oil palm trees were first planted in southern Sudan (Zandi Project, 1951). According to the initial survey, the trees were found at different locations in Sudan (Khartoum State, Sennar State and Blue Nile State, in addition to Southern States). Currently the project started experimental work through postgraduate studies and specialized training courses. Other activities include the establishment of a national technical committee consisting of University of Khartoum, Faculty of Forestry, Forestry Research Centre Forests National Corporation, Gezira University, International University of Africa and Agricultural Economics Administration. The mandate of the committee consists of the preparation of a working plan for the efficient utilization of grants provided by Malaysia.

Some 4 000 pre-germinated oil palm seeds have been delivered from Malaysia and were used for some experimental on-farms trials (oil palm intercropping with agricultural crops) in Gezira, Sennar, Southern Kordofan and Southern Darfur States.

Following can therefore be concluded:

• FNC is the leader of introduction of oil palm trees in the Sudan;
• The establishment cost of raising seedlings in the nursery is very reasonable and economically feasible, since FNC did not used any fertilizers and fungicides;
• Intercropping of palm trees with crops reduces initial costs;
• Sudan (as well as some other African countries such as Egypt and Nigeria) can be considered as a central market of palm oils for Gulf countries.

h) Forage

More than 40 percent of the forage supply for animal is obtained from the natural forests. Natural forests are managed under the integrated management approach to cater forever-increasing demands of wood and NWFP.

i) Honey

There are many types of natural honey in Sudan. The FNC promoted bee-keeping through the Extension Department by: (a) training of local people about the importance of the honey bees to human being as well as environment and (b) encourage bee keepers to use proper methods in honey processing, adoption of modern bee keeping equipment and management, involving private individuals or NGOs in the honey production rather than FNC becoming a producer.

j) Tannins

FNC, in collaboration with the Leather Research Institute, conducted a pre-feasibility study for the use of Acacia nilotica pods in the tannin industry. The study concluded that the project is economically viable and financially feasible. The study resulted in a formulation of a project profile proposed to be implemented by three parties (FNC, Leather Research Institute and Leather Chamber, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests and Ministry of Industry).

Conclusions

Local people are involved in the collection and marketing of NWFP. They rely on a diversity of NWFP for their livelihood ranging from leaves, stems, roots and fruits. They provide food supplement and additional income. In the past, people and policy makers in Sudan have paid little attention and under estimated their values. Problems to be addressed include: lack of research, technical and statistical information and lack of extension and awareness.

FNC has conducted studies on the potential value of NWFP in collaboration with other concerned bodies and implemented activities related to this matter, but there is still more work needed in this area.

Recommendations

• To involve relevant institutions such as textile faculties to build skilled manpower through training;
• To have a secured and clear marketing policy;
• To have a breeder and insect pathologist.

At present, the Sudan started the production of cocoon, which will be followed by raw silk production, handicraft and fabric production.

Appendix

Table 7. Consumption of NWFP (in sacks)

Product	Region
	North	Khartoum	Cent.	East.	Kord.	Darfur.
Dom	2 000	10 000	5 000	4 000	4 000	3 000
Laloub	3 000	50 000	20 000	6 000	15 000	17 000
Loban	900	25 000	8 000	1 100	1 600	900
Garad	900	5000	10 000	1 500	2000	980
Gonglaiz	9 125	50 000	39 000	11 000	16 000	12 350
Aradeib	32 000	125 000	60 400	38 040	27 000	23 000
Nabag	6 140	43 700	28 000	11 000	12 500	9 800
Gudiern	10	660	315	15	870	935

Source: Mahir and Eldoma, 1994

Table 8. Export of NWFP in 1993/94

Product	Quantity	Value (US$)	destination
Aradeib	1 005 tons	752 500	Egypt
Gum loban	228 tons	549 000	Libya
Gonglaiz	6 tons	21 000	Egypt
Hina	77 326 carton	5 469 987	Libya
Senameca	390 ton	156 000	Libya, Jordan
Total		6 929 587

Table 9. Total value of the trade by product (in Sudanese Dinar, SD)

Product	Total Trade Value (SD)
Dom	5 762 500
Saaf	29 191 249
Laloub	28 710 000
Gum loban	23 263 640
Garad	1 464 780
Gonglaiz	27 813 250
Aradeib	135 864 000
Nabag	36 075 649
Gudiem	8 230 000
Senameca	2 400 000
Hina	42 250 000
Total	341 025 068

Source: Mahir and Eldoma, 1994.

References

Abodunin, C. 1995. Handbook of Forestry Statistics, Sudan FNC and Forestry Development Project.
Ahmed E. M. 1997. Future View of Sericulture in Sudan, Report to Submitted to FNC.
Awouda H. M. et al.1998. Investment in Forestry, Future Prospects. Paper presented to the 3rd Forestry Conference. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (in Arabic).
Danida.1989. Environmental Profile. Sudan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
FAO. 1993. Non Wood Forest products: A regional Export Consultation for English-speaking African Countries. Arusha, Tanzania. Proceedings.
FNC.1995. Forest Products Consumption Survey in the Sudan. Final Report. Forestry Development Project.
FNC. 1997. Sudan National Report. AFWC/EFC/NEFC. Committee on Mediterranean Forestry Question "Silva Mediterranean" 17th Session, Antalya, Turkey.
Mahir S. & A.M. Eldoma. 1995. Marketing of Non-wood Forest Products (Excluding the Gum Arabic).

4.2.7 Syria

Mr S. Madi, Forestry Department, Damascus, Syria

The forestland in Syria approximately amounts to an area of 428 000 ha, out of which 232 000 ha consist of natural forests. Main forest types are oak (58 percent of total forest area) and pine forests (40 percent). Annual harvesting activities are carried permitted in an area of 24 000 ha.

30 million seedlings are produced annually from trees and ornamentals, which are planted in order to ensure environmental conservation and food security.

The Syrian forests are rich of NWFP. NWFP can be classified as follows:

• Ornamental plants: Some ornamental plants do not have any commercial value; for many of them statistical data on annual investment and use is not available;
• Fodder: The natural forests are good pastures for local communities;
• Resins and tannins: Pine products such as soap, polish and pharmaceuticals are of economical value;
• Essential oils: these are used by rural people from natural and planted forests; and
• Medicinal and aromatic plants.

4.2.8 Tunisia

Mr R. Bouasaker, Ministry of Agriculture, Tunis, Tunisia

Tunisia has a big potential with regard to the production and utilization of NWFP. Some of these products have already been exploited and have their share in the local and international market. However, there is still a great potential, not yet tapped that requires further exploration.

Some serious work started in 1995 after the FAO Yogyakarta meeting on NWFP. It was felt that there was a need to launch a study to survey and classify the country potential and to collect information for future plans. Six objectives for the proposed study were then set:

• Survey the NWFP that are used by rural communities or that have a potential of future use;
• Identify and record those products that have economic, social and ecological values and which are beneficial for future use;
• Enhance the development and exploitation of such products for the benefit of local communities, especially women;
• Creation of a database for future follow-up and planning;
• Decide on the future work plan to be adopted for execution and follow-up;
• Creation of a framework of forest administration to promote exploitation.

The survey revealed that there are 24 NWFP of high importance, which are listed in table 10.

Table 10. Main NWFP of Tunisia

Order	Common name	Scientific name	French name	Part used, use
1	Aleppo pine	Pinus halpensis	Pin d'Alep	Fruits, bark
2	Honey		Miel
3	Stone pine	Pinus pinea	Pin pignon	Fruits, bark, resin
4	Rosemary	Rosmarinus officinalis	Romarin	Essential oils, honey production
5	Myrtle	Myrtus communis	Myrte	Essential oil
6	Mushrooms		Champignons
7	Caper	Capparis spinosa	Câpre	Fruits, leaves, flowers, branches
8	Walnut	Juglans regia	Noyer	Nuts
9	Peppermint	Mentha piperita	Menthe	Essential oils, leaves, flowers
10	Acorn	Quercus spp.	Glands
11		Stipa tenacissima	Alfa
12	Thyme	Thymus sp	Thym	Essential oils, leaves, flowers
13	Lavender	Lavandula angustifolia	Lavande	Essential oils, leaves, flowers
14	Forest plants		Plantes forestières
15	Fodder		Fourrage
16	Karop	Ceratonia siliqua	Caroubier	Fruits
17	Mastic tree	Pistacia lentiscus	Lentisque	Edible oil
18	Snakes		Escargots
19	Olive tree	Olea europaea	Oléastre
20	Cork	Quercus suber	Liège	Bark
21	Laurel	Laurus nobilis	Laurier
22	Strawberry tree	Arbutus unedo	Arbousier	Fruits, essential oil
23	Rose	Rosa sempervirens	Eglantier
24	Mugwort	Artemesia vulgaris	Armoise	Medicinal plant

Source: Ministry of Agriculture. 1999. Etude sur le développement des PFNL. Tunis

4.2.9 Turkey

Mustafa Kizmaz, Director of Research and Planning Division, Ankara, Turkey

Summary

Turkey is located between 42° N and 36° N latitudes. It is the only country in the world having three different, climates, i.e. the Mediterranean, continental and oceanic. The landmass of Turkey lies between the sea level and over 5 500 m in altitude.

Due to different climatic and geographic conditions in Turkey, many tree, shrub, herbaceous plant species naturally grow in the country. NWFP derived from those plants are generally exported as raw or semi-raw materials while other products are needed are for the domestic market, e.g. as medicine, culinary and aromatic material. The chemical substances from the products are imported for the medicine and chemistry industry in Turkey.

Keywords: Medical, aromatic plants, non-wood production, mushrooms, bulbs, breeding.

Introduction

The flora of Turkey is well documented in the 10-volume work of late Prof. P.H.Davis of the University of Edinburgh. According to this monumental work and several subsequent publications until the end of 1993, the flora of Turkey contains over 10 423 native infrageneric taxa, of which 34.2 percent are endemic. If the alien and cultivated taxa are included, the number of taxa occurring in Turkey rises to 10 660. 163 families are represented in the flora, 15 out of the 1 151 genera are endemic in Turkey. The rate of endemism among the 8 709 species is 32 percent. These numbers represent the members of Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, dicotyledons and monocotyledons that have so far been discovered (see table 1) (Davis et al., 1988, Ozhatay et al., 1994 ). The flora of Turkey thus contains over 3 500 endemic taxa, which is quite a high rate.

In the flora of Turkey, percentage endemism is high in some families (see table 2). Some examples are: Boraginaceae (61 percent), Campanulaceae (60 percent), Scrophularlaceae (52 percent), Rublaceac (48 percent), Caryophyllaceae (46 percent), Lablatae (45 percent), Leguminosae, (40 percent) and Compositae (37 percent). At the generic level, examples of the rate of endemism are: Bolanthus (ca. 90 percent), Ebenus (90 percent), Alkanna (81 percent), Sideritis (78 percent), Acantholimon (76 percent), Paronychia (75 percent), Verbascum and Gypsophila (71 percent), Paracaryum (70 percent), Cousinia (68 percent), Centaurea (65 percent), Astragalus (63 percent) (Ekim, 1987; Baser 1997).

The main NWFP in Turkey are:

• Resin;
• Tannin;
• Incense;
• Pine nuts;
• Bay leaves;
• Medical plants;
• Aromatic plants;
• Colorant / dye plants;
• Ethereal oil plants;
• Ornamental plants;
• Food plants;
• Fodder;
• Wildlife; and
• Honey.

Wild Food Plants

Information on wild food plants of Turkey is very scarce. Although traditionally wild plants have been used in Turkey for food, a comprehensive list of such plants has not been available until recently.

Earliest information of plants used as vegetable in Anatolia can be found in the famous Materia Medica' of Dioscorides, who was born and lived in Anatolia in the 1^st century A.D. as a medical doctor in the Roman army. (Books published on the subject can be found in the references).

Seasonal vegetables and fruits derived from wild plants are sold in markets or by street vendors in cities and towns in Anatolia. In villages, peasants collect wild plants for their personal or household consumption, and any surplus finds its way to city markets. There are no well-established distribution channels for wild food plants in Turkey. However, for ornamental plants or cut flowers as well as medicinal and aromatic plants, distribution channels exist to some extent.

Wild food plants are consumed in the following manners:

• Eaten raw;
• Consumed after cooking;
• Dried before use;
• Consumed after processing.

Wild Medicinal Plants

Medicinal plants have been widely collected in Anatolia since the Hittite period. A recent study of wild medicinal plants identifies 346 taxa of commercially traded wild native plants both internally and through export (Ozahatay et al., 1997). Of these, a few species are collected for horticultural purposes (notably 14 species of wild bulbous plants). A small percentage of the commercially traded taxa are endemic, most notably the various species and subspecies of the genus Sideritis, used to make herbal tea. Overall, the list is particularly rich in Labiatae (collected as culinary herbs and for herb tea), and Orchidaceae (collected for salep used in ice-cream and hot drinks).

The principle markets for medicinal plants within Turkey are bazaars, market stalls and herbalists ('aktar'). Pharmaceutical companies purchase raw materials for processing into drugs. Based on a study of 96 aktartar in 40 towns and cities, 179 taxa are sold through aktar shops (Baser et al, 1996). However, it is likely that this underestimates the range of species traded, as Istanbul alone has 400 aktar shops. Due to the wide-ranging nature of collection and marketing, it is extremely difficult to estimate the quantities of each species traded.

The two main uses of medicinal plants within Turkey are herbal teas (particularly from the genera within the family Lablatae such as Salvia, Sideritis and Stachys) and raw materials used in the production of Halva, utilising the roots of perennial species of Ankyropetalum and Gypsophila (both Caryophyllaceae).

A large literature exists on the plants of Turkey used as medicine, since traditional medicine in Anatolia takes its roots from centuries old tradition dating back from the Hittites or even earlier. A number of reliable books provide information on medicinal plants in current use in Turkey. The most authoritative books were written by Prof. Turban BAYTOP (Baytop, 1963; 1984). Other useful books are given in the reference list.

Information on poisonous plants of Turkey is also available (Baytop, 1963; Baytop et al., 1986).

Aromatic Plants

Turkey is rich in aromatic plants. It is estimated that a third of the flora of Turkey consists of aromatic plants (aromatic, meaning fragrant, flavouring or containing essential oil). The Medicinal and Aromatic Plant and Drug Research Centre (TBAM) in Eskischir has been screening the aromatic flora of Turkey for new sources of essential oils for the last ten years. A vast volume of information has been published. Parts of the earlier work have been reviewed (Baser, 1992; 1993; 1994).

Dying Plants

Dying carpets, garments, and other materials such as Easter eggs with dye plants has been practised in Anatolia for 6 000 years. Recent research has made it possible to identify the origin of most natural dyes used in dyeing such materials, as well as traditional dying techniques. Dying with wild plants is still practised in several parts of Turkey, and such carpets are highly regarded (Enes, 1987).

Bulbous Plants

The 'Red Data Book' of Turkey published in 1989 includes mainly the geophytes (Ekim et al. 1989). An important book on the bulbous plants of Turkey was published in 1984 (Baytop and Mathew, 1984).

Bulbous plants have landscape and cultural importance and are used by the medicine and cosmetic industry. Bulbs are also exported for ornamental desires to different countries rather than using them in Turkey.

Due to high demand of bulbous plants abroad, the bulbous plants are picked up regardless the size of the bulbs. Therefore, bulbous plants are threatened by extinction in the country. A regulation made by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs came into force to regulate over-collecting and exporting of bulbs. A steering committee was established from representatives of various related ministries, universities and NGOs, which decides the quota and restricts exploitation of some plant species. The firms are informed about quota and production areas by the governmental organizations. This quota system tries to prevent damages resulted from over producing ambitious firms by the definition of a quota on production and exportation quantities.

The collection intensity of bulbous plants for exportation in forest resources depends on the tariff price and is mainly done by forest dwellers. The collected materials are only transported with the permission of the local forest district and are labelled with a origin and phytosanitary certificate.

Natural Plant Species- Harvesting not Permitted

It is forbidden to harvest the following species: Orchis sp, Centlana lutea L, Crocus sativiis, Crocus aerius, Arisarum vulgare Tang, Stenbergia lutea, Stenbergia candida. However, exploitation is sometimes done illegally by middlemen and companies due to the high demand. Thus, the destruction of these species increases rapidly and some important endemic species are subject to extinction by excessive exploitation.

Mushrooms

Wild mushrooms are among the most widely used wild food plants in Turkey, Although the fungal flora of Turkey has not been fully documented, a recent estimate puts the number of mushroom species at 5 000 with at least 2 000 being edible (Baytop, 1994; Oder, 1990).

Some of them are not able to be cultivated such as Morchella spp., Boletus edulis, Cantherellus cibarus, Lactarlus songuifluis and Amenita coesdn'a. Some others such as shirtake mushrooms have a significant importance and can be cultivated. Waste materials used to produce saprophytic mushrooms are to be very profitable in the villages.

Honey

Honey production (e.g. "Anzer honey" from Thymus sp.) is very important for domestic consumtion and for export. Pine honey production is about 7 500 t (3 500 - 12 000 t) at Fethlye and Marman's (Mugla region) (Yilmaz, 1991 unpublished).

Other Useful Plants

Several other wild plants are used for various purposes such as insecticides, rodenticides, molluselcides, detergents, or in making musical instruments, furniture, boxes or chests, cigarette holder, beads, necklaces, etc..

Fodder

Forest fodder resources represent a valuable free resource for forest communities. While the precise number of animals grazing on forest land is unknown, the 7^th Five Year Development Plan Special Expert's Commission estimates that the number of animals amounts to 5.6 million cattle, 10.7 million sheep, 11.8 million goats, and 1.6 million horses.

The Ministry of Forestry is responsible for the management of an estimated 1.5 million ha of Alpine Meadow (grazing lands), which provide one million tons of fodder. In total, some 2.3 million tons of fodder are used from 5.8 million ha of rangeland (FSR Draft Report 1998).

Wildlife

Turkey's rich fauna comprises 452 bird, 120 mammal, 130 reptile and 345 fish species. A total of 119 wildlife reserves covering over 1.8 million ha have been established since 1966 (14 of these are located in wetlands). These areas are reserved to protect game and wild animals threatened by habitat loss and degradation and over hunting. There are also 40 wildlife-breeding stations, where wild animals under threat are bred. Populations from breeding-stations are released to 32 wildlife placement areas.

Within forest areas there are 52 000 ha of rivers, natural and dammed lakes, and 20 fish production and breeding stations.

Freshwater fishing is undertaken in 69 lakes and ponds in the forest areas. Freshwater fish production in 1996 was around 37 500 t.

Game hunting is a traditional activity in Turkey. Species taken include game birds and rabbits in steppe, arable and forest ecosystems; migratory, waterfowl in wetlands; and several large game species occurring primarily in forest lands (e.g., bear, wolf, wild pig and ibex). Especially fox is hunted for fur and rabbit for fur and meat. 20 000 pieces of animal fur or leather are sold per year.

Production Activities

The General Directorate of Forestry (GDF) is responsible for the management of NWFP.

Some important NWFP (e.g. resins, bay leaves, liquidambar oil) are regulated by the GDF under its annual production programs. These programs are prepared according to the targets set in the Five-Year Development Plans (taking into consideration national and international demand). Local forest co-operatives and villagers are typically employed by the forestry organisation to harvest these products.

It is necessary to have a management plan which includes the annual production program. If no management plan exists, an inventory of every woody, herbaceous and tuberous plants is conducted. The inventory information was completed for 62 plant species in 24 regional directorate. The area and production capacities were determined.

Collection, utilisation and marketing rights for some other NWFP (e.g., pine nut, chestnut, acorn, thyme, herb tea, snow drop, prunes, saffron, natural mushrooms and various bulbous plants) are given to local villagers by the GDF for modest tariff charges.

The current economic value of NWFP based on available information on export revenues, tariff revenues and benefits to local communities is conservatively estimated at US$110 million per year in 1996 (FSR 1998 Draft Report).

Table 11. Annual Value of NWFP

Export value	US$102.175.221¹
Revenue to GDF	US$693.511²,³
Revenue to Villagers	US$7 590 338²
TOTAL	US$110 459 070

Source: ISS¹; Estimation²; Income from tariff price³

Many of Turkey's NWFP are exported as raw or semi-raw materials. Medicinal products are of particular importance with Turkey ranking as the third largest exporter of medicinal plants of wild origin after China and India. Gross revenues from NWFP exports in 1996 were over US$102 million (SSI) and US$86 million in 1997 (SSI) . Furthermore, imprecise monitoring means that the exact quantities of materials harvested for export is unknown and is likely to be underestimated (FSR 1998 Draft Report).

In the light of inventory information, the production plans of some plant species are prepared. The production of those indicated in such plans is done by forest villagers and the products are sold at the tariff price from villagers to the middleman, who sell these products to companies (seller or exporter).

The production plans are made in accordance with the units of the available management plans. Drying and storage systems as well as the production parcels, rotation periods and production techniques are indicated in these plans to be attached to management plans. In order to sustain the management of NWFP, propagation methods (vegetative or generative) are included in the plans. For example, thyme and oregano collection in the Sutculer (Isparta) region of south-west Turkey is well regulated by the relevant Directorate of Forestry who determines the date and location for annual collections, and the quantities permitted to be harvested.

Conclusion

There are 17 900 "forest villages" in Turkey located in or near forest areas. These villages accommodate over 9 million people. The income level of forest villagers is below the national average and they are largely economically dependent on forest resource, in particular on fuelwood for heating and cooking, and forest rangeland and fodder resources for livestock.

Many of Turkey's NWFP are exported as raw or semi-raw materials and/or sold in domestic markets. In addition, NWFP are of significant economic value to forest communities providing an important contribution to family diet and cash income. Fodder provided by free grazing in forest areas and by cutting for winter feeding is an important NWFP for forest communities for whom livestock is a primary source of income especially in remote mountainous areas.

Imprecise monitoring of exported products means that the exact quantities of materials harvested for export is unknown and likely to be underestimated. While some data is available for exported products, the domestic trade and traditional (subsistence) use of NWFP is largely unrecorded. For example, while the domestic trade in a wide range of medicinal plants is evident from observations and records such as salesmen's catalogues, there are no estimates of the scale of this trade. For these reasons, the gross value of NWFP expressed in export revenues can be taken as a minimum estimates of the value Turkey's NWFP.

Many NWFP in Turkey are underpriced and over-harvested. Villagers generally sell products as raw material resulting in a significant leakage of production benefits away from local sources. This is due to limited experience in and facilities for processing and marketing.

Current arrangements therefore mean that middlemen and foreigners gain most of the money from the production of NWFP. Low producer prices encourages overharvesting. This cause degradation of NWFP plants.

Plant and animal species are being collected in ever increasing numbers. While limited data means that it is difficult to determine the exact status and potential of forest flora and fauna, the evidence suggests that many species are being harvested unsustainable. Some important export products such as Laurus nobilis (bay leaves used for medicinal purposes, soap manufacture and as an oil extract) and ornamental bulbs are known to be over harvested, and many of Turkey's important endemic plant species are endangered (e.g. Gentiana lutea, which is collected illegally (Ozhatay et al., 1997). Species whose genetic resources have been adversely affected by excessive utilisation include: walnut; Taurus cedar; sweet gum and elm.

Overgrazing is an important factor contributing to forest degradation and subsequent soil erosion and biodiversity loss. The production area for forage crops in Turkey is small, covering only 2.5 percent of the total agricultural area and total feed production is insufficient. This increases the pressure on forest areas, which are commonly used for livestock grazing (NEAP, 1997).

In terms of wildlife, the Anatolia lion, tiger, beaver, and darter are now extinct, while endangered species include leopard, lynx, hyena, and the Monk seal. In addition, populations of 45 species are estimated to have greatly declined including: deer (Cervus elaphus maral), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus); fallow deer (dama darna); wild sheep (Ovis amon anatolica), and gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa).

Management of hunting activities is also inadequate. Arrangements for monitoring and management of both game populations and harvest levels are set nationally rather than for eco-regions or specific hunting areas and in practice, the number of most species taken is limited by hunting effort or scarcity.

Tenure security is an important factor in the sustainable management of natural resources. Landowners with secure and long-term tenure, have an obvious incentive to look after their land and invest in it. Having the right to use land has much less incentive to manage the resources.

The balance of evidence indicates an unsustainable trend in the harvesting practices of most NWFP. This trend urgently needs to be addressed, if the full potential value of Turkey's NWFP is to be realised. Revisions in land tenure arrangements, producer prices, and the management planning processes are the key actions needed to improve the situation. Policies designed to maximise the benefits of NWFP, and increase the capture of their value by local resource users could bring significant benefits to the poorer sections of society.

Recommendations

• Identify and evaluate NWFP with a potential for high value the international pharmaceutical and herbal remedies markets.
• Promote opportunities for NWFP using agro-forestry systems in young forests plantation
• Encourage small-scale processing facilities at the harvesting areas to add value to NWFP and export processed or semi-processed products rather than raw material.
• Establish co-operatives to assist villagers to obtain higher returns from production, harvesting and marketing operations. Current arrangements mean that middlemen and foreigners gain most of the money from the production of NWFP. Villagers generally sell products as raw material resulting in a significant leakage of production benefits away from local sources.
• Establish joint ventures or contractual arrangements with national and international processing and marketing companies to improve access to international markets.|
• Develop a national policy and strategy for continuity of supply, quality assurance and sustainable harvesting, protection, and trading of NWFP.
• Promote techniques to increase productivity of harvesting, collection, packaging and marketing.
• Enhance stakeholder participation in the development of multiple use and sustainable management practices.
• Promote the implementation of collaborative research projects with universities and research institutes on harvesting, packaging and storage of NWFP.
• Educate villagers on benefits derived from the production of NWFP and protection of resources providing NWFP.
• Develop alternative sources of income for villages to improve well being and decrease public pressure on natural resources and forests.
• Promote the contribution of private companies involved in the trade in NWFP to further research, development and the rehabilitation of exploited ecosystems.
• Ensure the contribution of the private sector to the cultivation of NWFP plants, if necessary.
• Ensure the application of the quota system in order to stop over-production of endangered species.
• Encourage the cultivation of natural plant species and provide training, technical and financial assistance (with credit at low interest rate) to forest villagers.
• Promote proper and innovative techniques for appropriate processing including quality standards that should bring up the product to the international market level.
• Ensure international coorporation with universities and research institutes in the field of NWFP cultivation.
• Train people in the sustainable use of NWFP, who should be employed locally.
• Train custom officers on banned species and export quota.
• Carry out market research in order to determine demand in NWFP.
• Prepare a local, regional and national inventory of NWFP and develop proper inventory methods. No reliable information is available on properties, dynamics of species and their associated ecosystems because of a lack of existing methods for NWFP inventories.
• Prepare a guide book for related plant species (name, product, ecology, etc.) in the Near East
• Convert one research institutes to a "NWFP research institute", which should deal with issues such as harvesting, utilizing, drying, storage, marketing, cultivating, propagating and protecting of NWFP and their related resources.
• Encourage the establishment of co-operatives at the forest village level. No reliable statistics exist regarding the production, trade (domestic and export) and home consumption of NWFP. Some data is available for export products, but domestic trade in NWFP is largely unrecorded. In order to obtain data related to the domestic use of NWFP, it would be necessary to control and document exploitation in the production area
• Establish a network among Near East countries in order to share experiences, exchange information, promote technology transfer, improve regional statistics and propagation methods by preparing training programmes at universities and research institutes in the region.
• Review laws and regulation related to forest and rangeland . Turkey's forest are almost entirely State owned. There is no clear definition of the roles of responsible agencies and institutional mandates. In addition there are overlaps and national legislation often contradicts itself and international laws. Enforcement is therefore difficult. Thorough review and revision of present legislation is needed to eliminate existing conflicts and shortcomings.
• Review laws and regulations related to ownership, user rights, protection, utilization, harvesting and exporting of NWFP. Tenure security is an important factor in the sustainable management of natural resources. Land owners with secure and long-term tenure have an obvious incentive to look after their land and invest in it. On the contrary, inappropriate tenure arrangements cause unsustainable NWFP harvesting practices. While villagers have harvesting rights, they do not have legal ownership to land. Lack of secure tenure means that damaging practices continue. 99 percent of the forest area in Turkey is state owned. According to The Turkish Constitution, owner right can not be transferred to others. Long-term contracts should be singed between local communities and GDF until laws and Constitution are rehabilitated.
• Establish genetic reserve and conservation centres in the Near East. The conservation of genetic resources and the sustainability of biodiversity should be taken into account in production, conservation and breeding plans.

References

Akman, Y. and Ketenoglu, O. 1986. The Climate and Vegetation of Turkey. In: Hedge, I.C.(Ed.), Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 89B, p. 123-134.
Davis, P.H., Mill, R.R. & KIT TAN (Eds.). 1988. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands. Vol. 10 (suppl.), University Press, Edinburgh.
Bann C. 1998 Forestry Sector Review. Global Environmental Overlays Program. Draft Report.
Baser, K.H.C. 1997. Identification of Wild Food and Non Food Plants of the Mediterranean Region, CIHEAM, Vol.23, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania.
Baser, K.H.C. 1994. Essential Oils of Labiatae From Turkey - Recent Results. Lamiales Newsletter 3:6-11.
Baser, K.H.C. 1993. Non-Labiatae Essential Oils of Turkey. 24^th Int. Symp. Essential Oils, 21-24 July 1993, Berlin.
Baser, K.H.C. 1992 Essential Oils of Anatolian Labitae: A Profile. Acta Horticulturae. 333:217-238.
Baser, K.H.C., Honda, G.and Miki, W. 1986. Herb Drugs and Herbalists in Turkey. Studia Culturae Islamicae 27, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokya.
Baytop, T. 1994a. Dictionary of Vernacular Names of Wild Plants of Turkey. Turkish Language Association, Publ. No. 578, Ankara
Baytop, T. 1994b. The Use of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants in Turkey. A Historical Perspective. in: Final Report, TC13C Workshop on Medicinal Plants, 11-14 October 1993, Eskischir, Turkey, UNDP, New York.
Baytop, T., Baytop, A., Mat, A. & Sun, S. 1989. Poisonous Plants in Turkey, Plant Poisoning and its Treatment. University Publ. No. 3560, Istanbul.
Baytop, T. 1984. Therapy with Plants in Turkey. University Publ.. No.2355, Istanbul.
Baytop, T. 1963. Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Turkey. University Publ. No. 1039, Istanbul.
Ekim, T. 1987, Plants. Bioloical Diversity in Turkey, Environmental Problems, Foundation of Turkey, Ankara.
Ekim, T., Koyuncu, M., Erik, S. & Ilarslan, R. 1989. List of Rare, Threatened and Endemic Plants of Turkey. Turkish Association for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Ankara.
Enez, N. 1987. Natural Dyeing. Mannara University, Publication No.449, Istanbul.
Oder, N. 1990. Important Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of Turkey. Panel: Biological Diversity in Turkey. 26 October 1990, Ankara.
Ozhatay. N., Koltor S. & Aksoy N. 1994. Check-list of Additional Taxa to the Supplement Flora of Turkey. Tr.J.Botany 18:497-514.
Sezik, E., Zor, M. & Yesilada, E. 1992. Traditional Medicine in Turkey. II. Folk Medicine in Kastamonu. Int. J. Pharmacognosy. 30(3):233-239.
Tabata, M., Honda, G., Sezik., E. & Yesilada, E. Fukul, H., Goto, K. & Ikeshiro, Y. 1994, Traditional Medicine in Turkey. 111 Folk Medicine in East Anatolia, Van and Bitlis Provinces Int. J. Pharmacognosy 32:3-12.
Tabata, M., Honda, G., Sezik., E. & Yesilada, E. Fukul, H., Goto, K. & Ikeshiro, Y. 1991. Traditional Medicine in Turkey. III. Folk Medicine in Northeast Anatolia. J.Ethnopharmacol. 35: 191-196.
Tabata, M., Honda, G. & Sezik., E. 1988a. Traditional Medicine and Medicinal Plants in Turkey. Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto.
Tabata, M., Honda, G., Sezik., E. & Yesilada, E. 1988b, A Report on Traditional Medicine and Medicinal Plants in Turkey. Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto.
Tabata, M., Honda, G., Sezik., E. & Yesilada, E., Furta, Tjanaka. Takeda, Y. Takaishi, Y. 1995. Traditional Medicine in Turkey. V. Folk Medicine in Inner Taurus Mountains. J.Ethnopharmacol. 46:133-152.
Tabata, M., Honda, G., Sezik., E. & Yesilada, E. Fukul, H., Goto, K. & Ikeshiro, Y. 1993, Traditional Medicine in Turkey. IV. Folk Medicine in the Mediterranean Subdivision. J.Ethnopharmacol. 39:31-38.
Ujita, T., Sezik, E., Tabata, M. Ada, E., Honda, G., Takeda,. Tanaka, T., & Takaishi Y. Takaishi Y. 1995. Traditional Medicine in Turkey. VII Folk Medicine in Middle and West Black Sea Regions. Economic Botany 49:406-422.
Yaltirik, F. & Efe, A. 1989. Otsu Bitkiler Sistematigi. Dilek Matbaasi, Istanbul.
Zekbek U. 1998 Tiirkiyenin Orman Tali Criinleri ve Degerlendirilmesi Raporu. Izmir.

Annex

Table 12. Statistical data on the flora of Turkey as by the end of 1993

	Native	Endemic	%	Alien	Cultivated	Total
Families	163			2	8	173
Genera	1 151	15	1.3	25	52	1 244
Species	8 709	2 747	31.5	79	138	11 705
Subspecies	1 603	1 593	99.4	6	8	1 617
Varieties	1 043	387	37.1	1	5	1 049
Hybirds	278	151	54.3	1	8	287
Total intra-generic
Taxa	10 423	3 560	34.2	84	153	10 660

Source: Davis, et. al. 1988; Ozhatay, et. al., 1994

Table 13. Endemism. Examples from the flora of Turkey

Familes	%	Genera	%
Boraginaceae	61	Bolanthus	ca. 90
Campanulaceae	60	Ebenus	90
Scrophulariaceae	52	Alkanna	81
Rubiaceae	48	Sideritis	78
Caryophyllaceae	46	Acanthalirron	76
Labiatae	45	Paronychiat	75
Leguminosae	40	Verbascum and Gypsophila	71
Compositae	37	Paracaryurn	70
		Cousinia	68
		Centaurea	65
		Astragalus	63

Source: Ekim, 1987

4.3 Presentations of invited organizations

4.3.1 Sustainable Production of NWFP and the Efforts of SRDC for North Africa

Jose L. de Pedro, Forestry Officer, North Africa Sub-Regional Development Centre (NA-SRDC), Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)

Background

1. Despite the fact that the area of forests and woodland is relentlessly decreasing (over 0.2 million ha, annually), the exploitation of the NWFP continues in the sub-region. Firstly, because some products are unique (e.g. gum arabic, argan oil and jatropha). Secondly, because they have multi-functions and values, including nutrition. Their impacts are not only economic but also social, environmental, scientific, cultural and esthetical.

2. Apart from guaranteeing food security, NWFP contribute significantly to the GDP. It is estimated that their contribution to the GDP is similar to the contribution of wood products (about 2 - 3 percent). Under this assumption they might have generated an income of US$2 billion annually (US$ 11.5 per capita in 1999) in the whole sub-region. This means more income and jobs, especially for rural communities. The latter is of particular significance for the stability and the development of the rural areas within the sub-region, where employment is usually low.

3. A primary problem related to the use of NWFP is their sustainability. Potential solutions are linked to the (1) knowledge of their demand; and (2) means available to ensure the sustainability of the ecosystems. The increasing substitution of natural products by synthetic ones, mainly for glues and perfumes, might be a driving force having a negative impact on the sector. Its positive angle would be a reduction of pressure on the productive ecosystems, and therefore a better sustainability. On the contrary, a combined rise of the demand followed by a strong deforestation would lead to the worst scenario.

4. Although the experiences of the North Africa Sub-Regional Development Centre (NA-SRDC) in this domain are limited, it is thought that they must be shared in this meeting. The Centre's view is that, in the short term, the exploitation of NWFP may be feasible, if (1) the ecosystems' carrying capacities is respected and (2) the quality and prices of the products are improved. The latter equally applies to products locally consumed and exported. Nowadays, it is not sufficient to compete on quality but also on prices. The case of gum arabic is quite eloquent: its external demand has lessened in Sudan, partly due to the poor quality of the gum. Even prices have fallen due to the same problem. A move towards domestication of species is seen as a practical and profitable solution and could improve competitiveness.

Problems and Challenges of NWFP in North Africa

5. Apart from wild meat, which is mostly consumed in Sudan and Mauritania, there are, in the other countries, two type of vegetal products featuring the NWFP, namely: (1) those eaten locally (e.g. seeds, wild fruits and mushrooms), for these products only limited data on production/consumption are available, and (2) those exported (mainly harvested from trees, shrubs and grasses), for which better data are available. In terms of food supply, the first group appears to contribute the most, although information on its contribution is incomplete. For example, figs, strawberries, prunes, blackberries, and wild apples are mostly consumed by the populations living in highlands. However, the production of exported NWFP is better known.

Products and Action on NWFP Locally Consumed

a) Main Products

6. Today, NWFP play an important role in the provision of food, nutrition and medicines for an important segment of the population of the North Africa sub-region. If duly managed, their impact on the society could be significantly higher. The following table summarizes the main products locally consumed and on which little quantitative information is available.

Table 14. Selected important edible NWFP in North Africa

NWFP	Source	Availability	Consumption	Main problems
Edible seeds	Stone pine, oak spp.	Limited (Morocco, Tunisia)	Patisserie and animal feeding	Low productivity
Wild fruits	Prunus, Arbutus and blackberry spp.	Abundant in cold climates (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia)	Households and patisserie	Little attention paid to natural regeneration
Wild honey	Pollen of flowering trees and shrubs.	Limited (in entire sub-region	Household, patisserie and medicine	Heavy harvesting and little control
Forest mushrooms	Mainly under hardwood and canopy spp.	Very abundant in cold areas (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia)	Household	Identification of edible species

Source: SRDC for North Africa, April 1999

b) Action to Foster Production of Edible NWFP

Improve Conservation and Storage

7. The fact that the majority of edible NWFP are seasonal and perishable calls for measures for their conservation. Otherwise, their nutrition and economic values risk getting lower. In the absence of storage, processing and packing systems, harvested products run the risk of perishing. Their storage in cold atmosphere remains therefore a priority. But this practice is not yet common in the sub-region. Most of the wild fruits, which contain vitamin A , ascorbic acid (specially the reddish-orange fleshy varieties) and variable amounts of carbohydrates, loose their properties due to inappropriate storage conditions. The fact that they are seasonal is an advantage for the rural people, especially if harvesting does not coincide with agriculture activities. Then, they can be used in their meals or be processed or sold in rural or urban markets. Technologies, including low cost solar technologies, are available for conservation and storage. These techniques need to be popularized.

Intensify Medical Research

8. Many of these fruits also have medical values, which remain insufficiently known. For example, the syrup of some berries can be used to prevent kidney disease. But, in the sub-region, this type of medicine is not available. Other products that need more research are argan oil and honey. It is believed that the argan oil has many medical advantages and curative properties, which need to be scientifically proved and diffused. Regarding honey, apart from its nutritional values, the product has many curative qualities. Some of them are:

• Ease rheumatic pains and asthma;
• Possess antibacterial and hydrating properties;
• Treat cold and infection of throat;
• Enhance brain maturity and strengthens bone structure if children are fed milk with honey; and
• Cure headaches and avoid bed waiting, if eaten before sleep.

Increase Productivity

9. Most NWFP can have better productivity. Among the causes of low yields are: (1) poor management and tending; (2) intensive grazing (especially for leaves and flowers); (3) poor natural regeneration (by seeds, coppice shoots or stump-sprouts); and (4) natural hazards e.g. droughts, desertification, wind and water erosion.

10. A case of low productivity is that of Pinus pinea L. Production of pine corns, hardly reaches 10 000 kg in Morocco in an area of over 3 000 ha. This corresponds to a yield of only 15 kg/ha/year, or 3 kg of dried seeds per ha and year. Similar problems are facing stands in Algeria and Tunisia. In the majority of countries, the yield is low because most of the stands were planted for sand dune fixation. But even so, they could be recuperated for the production of edible seedlings. Low productivity also affects most wild fruits (e.g. Prunus spinosa, wild apple and lemons) and wild honey, among other NWFP.

Foster Extension of Healthy Mushrooms

11. Poor knowledge of people on how to differentiate edible from poisoned mushrooms restricts their consumption. It is known that the rural populations seldom include local mushrooms in their daily diet and that commercialization is very low. In Morocco, only Agaricus hisporus is commercialized. Research is on-going to introduce Pleurotus ostrealus. But research alone is not sufficient. Strong and efficient extension programmes are necessary to familiarize people with the nutritional and commercial value of many species. The reproduction of mushrooms in symbiosis with trees or in saprophytic environment must be seen as a promising activity.

Increase market opportunities

12. With the exception of honey and edible seeds from Pinus pinea, channels for commercialization of other species are rudimentary. One of the reasons is that these products are harvested on daily basis, and mostly for family consumption. This does not generate surpluses. Even if these were available, it would be difficult for the local traders to keep them stored and distribute in the sanitary conditions required. The scenario would be even worst for their export. The dry climate that prevails in almost all countries makes the commercialisation of perishable NWFP particularly difficult across the sub-region.

Products and action on exported NWFP

a) Main Products

13. Among the main exported NWFP products are cork, gum arabic, eucalyptus oil and aromatic and medicinal products. The argan oil exports, if any, are probably low. The following table describes five known exported products.

Table 15. Main NWFP from Trees in North Africa

Product	Distribution (ha)	Production	Main Problems
Cork	Algeria: 0.50million; Morocco:0.42 million; Tunisia: 108 000	90 000 - 100 000 t*	Low quality of cork, linked to poor silviculture
Gum arabic	Mauritania, Sudan	Mauritania: less than 1 000 t; Sudan: 30 000 t*	Low quality of gum, high deforestation
Eucalyptus oil	20 000 - 30 000*	10 - 20 tons of oil*	Low quality of oil
Jatropha oil	Egypt	Not available	Insufficient research
Argan oil**	820 000	0.4 million litres of oil*	High deforestation

* Estimations SRDC; ** Argania spinosa (Morocco).
Source: SRDC-NA and FAO Non-Wood Products Utilization Branch, (Rome), January 1999.

14. The following table displays a group of well-known aromatic plants and products of the sub-region.

Table 16. Main ligneous species and their uses in North Africa

Name	Main Products	Natural Area	Utilization	Problems
Cistus spp.*	Ladan oil	Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia	Perfumery	Lack of professional initiatives
Lavandula spp.	Lavender oil	Algeria, Morocco, Libya and Tunisia	Perfumery, cosmetics, medicine and gardening	Difficult reproduction by seeds
Rosmarinus officinalis	Rosemary oil	Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia	Perfumery, medicine, culinary and gardening	Scattered wild stocks
Thymus spp.	Thymus oil	All sub-region	Perfumery, culinary, medicine and gardening	Scattered wild stocks

* Species insufficiently studied

Source: SRDC-NA and FAO

b) Action to Enhance Export of NWFP

Increase Cork Productivity and Quality

15. Cork is a product unique to the Mediterranean basin. Its lightness makes the product ideal in construction, transport and for the bottling industry. One of the main problems related to cork production is the low productivity. In North Africa, cork yields from Quercus suber reaches 100 - 200 kg/ha, whereas South European countries such as Portugal and Spain produce 300 - 400 kg/ha. Main reasons for this low productivity are poor forest management as well as the dry climates of the sub-region, where the cork tree has to support high temperatures combined with annual rainfall lower than 600 mm.

Halt Deforestation and Raise Quality of Gum Arabic

16. The sub-region faces a gradual reduction of Acacia senegal areas. This effect is reducing gum arabic production in the two countries, namely Mauritania and Sudan. For example, in Mauritania, a country, in which it has traditionally been used for cooking, combating thirst and some diseases, the present production is almost negligible. As a result, prices are considerably high. Deforestation of savannah stands is mainly caused by grazing activities and firewood collection.

17. Sudan exports 85 percent of the world's consumption of gum arabic, of which 80 percent is used in food products (Non-wood News, 2 vol. 1, March 1995, page 29). Current trends show a marked reduction of its production as well as of its quality. It seems that, if its quality does not improve, there will be a shift from natural gums towards modified starches, modified cellulose and biosynthetic gums. In 1995, export prices in Port Sudan reached US$2 300 per ton. Overgrazing and fuelwood over-cutting have impeded natural regeneration of this species in Sudan.

Promote Exploitation of New Eucalyptus species

18. The sub-region does not yet use the full potential of eucalyptus oils, which can be used in pharmacy, chemistry, perfumery and for other uses. For example, the oil of E. citriodora, E. smitii, and E. macarthuri is good for the production of perfumes. As a matter of fact, in Morocco, E. citriodora is reported to have problems of adaptability in nurseries. The bark of E. astringens contains up to 50 percent of tannins. This product can be used by the tannin industry, which traditionally exists in the area. The oil from Eucalyptus globulus leaves is recommended as a treatment for colds. It yields about 2 g of oil per 100 g of dried leaves. Unfortunately, this species does not abound in North Africa.

Strengthen the Oil Extraction Industry

19. One of the main problems of the oil extracting industry in the sub-region is "atomization". The majority of distillation industries is small and family based. This does favour neither investment for improving their equipment nor penetration into international markets. Therefore, the prospects of making a more profitable eucalyptus' oil industry basically depend on the following factors: (1) improvement of the oil quality; and (2) improvement of the channels of commercialisation. The establishment of a scientific and production information network could help to offset these two gaps.

Intensify Scientific Research on and Protection of Jatropha curcas

20. The argan tree Jatropha curcas is a small, four to eight meters height tree, which is endemic to Morocco (geographical distribution: 0.82 million ha). The tree is a multipurpose species with a high social value. Apart from the production of edible oil, the argan tree is also a source of fodder, shade, fruits and good quality timber. All these products contribute to income generation and rural employment. Moreover, it is a promising species in terms of energy production and can be used for afforestation in arid zones due to its resistance to drought and to high temperatures. It can grow almost on almost all kind of soils of North Africa, e.g. gravely, sandy and even on stony soils. A non-edible oil, which is found both in its seeds (35 - 40 percent) and in the kemel (50 - 60 percent) is used for making soap and in medicine. But, in the future, argan oil may be used as fuel for diesel engines. The oil has similar physico-chemical characteristics to diesel. Research on yield under farm conditions, could yield good medium term returns for the transport industry.

21. The species has been protected by Moroccan law since 1925. But despite this, its area is decreasing every year. Natural regeneration plans have been insufficient to halt the wind of eradication of this species. The establishment of a National Plan for the Conservation of the Argan (NPCA) might be a solution to ensure its sustainability in space and time.

Improve Commercialization of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants

22. Despite the recognized quality of aromatic and medicinal plants, there still is a strong dependence on external markets for their commercialization, processing and selling. Most of these products are exported as raw materials and achieve low prices. Internal processing would add value and provide better returns to the small entrepreneurs. A first step to obtain higher prices would be the application of better and more efficient production methods. The simple introduction of filters to separate the organic matter and to keep oils clean at the required temperature may yield positive returns and new markets opportunities.

23. Market locations and marketing regulations are affecting the way in which medicinal plants and their extracts are processed, labelled and exported. The recent move from traditional medicine towards homeopathy makes it more necessary to use these products locally.

Experiences of the ECA SRDC-NA on NWFP

24. The experiences of SRDC-NA can be divided into two groups; (1) those carried by the ECA outside the North Africa sub-region and (2) those carried out within the North African sub-region. The first group mainly consists of studies and workshops, which aimed at contributing to the conservation of Africa's forests, wildlife and to the promotion of NWFP for food security. To the second group focuses on SRDC's activities in the North African sub-region.

a) ECA Regional Action and Results

25. Under this macro approach, the three following interventions deserve special mention:

· Five reports (one for each sub-region) analysed the situation of forest and wildlife in the continent. Apart from their analytical inputs, the reports identified several investment projects to enhance their sustainable utilization (ECA, Addis Ababa 1985/86188/89 and 1990). The NWFP component of the report consists of: forest and wildlife management, beekeeping, cork production (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), resin and edible seeds from forests (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), argan rehabilitation (Morocco), gum arabic (Sudan) and aromatic plants cultivation.

• The "Miombo Forestry Project", financed by the Netherlands, aimed at contributing to the preservation of the Miombo ecosystem, which stretches from South Kenya to Mozambique and from Angola towards Tanzania (JEFAD/APISS/20186, ECA, Addis Ababa, 1987). Its NWFP components consisted of wildlife and Miombo sustainability, beekeeping and mushrooms consumption (Kenya Mozambique, Tanzania and Zimbabwe).

• A workshop on promotion of non-conventional food resources was hold in Douala, Cameroon in 1993 (ECA, Addis Ababa 1993). Its issues related to NWFP were: food resources from wild and semi-wild flora and fauna including vegetables, fruits, roots, gathered animals, insects and game among others (selected Western, Southern and Southern African countries).

Based on these activities, the following recommendations for future activities can be drawn:

• Updated information on forests, woody and non woody stocks by sub-regions;
• Identification of the main causes and solutions to enhance wildlife utilization;
• Establishment of a network on non conventional food; and
• Strengthening the socio-economic and nutritional value of NWFP.

b) SRDC-NA activities

26. The direct involvement of the SRDC-NA on the promotion of NWFP is very recent. It followed the decentralisation policy of the ECA that started in 1996, when a specialist on forest and environment conservation was assigned to the Centre. Moreover, due to the birth of the Nexus approach developed by ECA, that inter-links food security with population and environment issues, the Centre, began to analyse some issues related to the NWFP in his paper Natural vegetation conservation in North Africa. It was presented to the 14^th Intergovernmental Committee of Experts, I.C.E., held in Tangier, Morocco in July 1999.

27. Since that date and to highlight the importance of NWFP in the context of the Nexus approach, the Centre is working on a paper that will be presented at the 15^th I.C.E meeting planned in March 2000. The following matrix describes the current on going activities of the Centre on NWFP and proposes medium and long-term lines of action.

Table 17. Matrix of Current and Proposed Activities on NWFP by the SRDC for North Africa

On-going activities		Medium term (2000-2005)	Long term (2006-2025)
Main activity	Report on NWFP in the context of the Nexus approach in North Africa	Contribute to the framework for a sub-regional project in North Africa; Identify sub-regional investment projects to: 1. Increase the productivity of Pinus pinea and cork stands; 2. Improve quality of essential oils and of medicinal plants; 3. Set up a sub-regional NWFP communication network.	Domestication of wild fruits, medicinal and aromatic plants. Continuous evaluation and monitoring the quality of key NWFP
Intermediate	Review the document with the Forestry Department, FAO Rome (May 1999 and with the NA Governments	1. Review field stocks; 2. Signature of protocols with research and training centres 3.Assess the current status of the distillation industry.	1. Ensure genetic and sustainable reproduction and tending of stocks 2. Foster field research domestication programmes; 3. Increase specialized training; 4. Promotion of new products and markets.
Main objectives	1. Identify the main NWFP and their values; 2. Ascertain the problems they are facing; 3. Identify means and projects for their promotion.	1. Increase field productivity and industry quality and competitiveness; 2.Facilitate exchange of information on NWFP in the Sub-region.	Ensure domestication and long term sustainability of selected NWFP.
Presentation and discussion of findings and proposals	The 15th Intergovernmental Committee of Experts (ICE), Tangier, Morocco, March 2000	ICE and FAO specialized meetings, governments, NGOs, Foundations, donors and interested organizations.	Specialised meetings on NWFP, food security, employment and natural resources conservation.

Source: SRDC for North Africa, Tangier, Morocco, March 1999.

Conclusions

28. The fact that there is little information on the socio-economic and environmental values of NWFP as well as on their production, consumption, trade volume and prices, product quality and markets, calls for action on three priority areas: (1) data and information updating on resources; (2) quality standards; and (3) market opportunities.

a) Data and Information Updating

29. In order to ensure the sound management of data and information, much input and co-ordination is necessary between the forestry departments and municipalities. NGOs should also be involved in information co-ordination. To advance in that direction, better co-ordination and synergies on planning, exploitation and monitoring of NWFP are required. The forestry departments should be strengthened technically in order to improve their knowledge on NWFP stocks, product quality and production systems. Likewise, the municipalities should be more involved in controlling quality and prices of NWFP. Of great value would be the intellectual input of universities and research centres, on new product development as well as on the evaluation of nutritional and environmental values of the existing ones. The following graphic shows an integrated network that could help improving data collection, analysis and diffusion on NWFP.

Source: SRDC-NA

b) Quality Standards

30. This is an issue of extreme importance to improve competitiveness at the national, sub-regional and regional level. Quality standards need to be strengthened to keep the high level of the nutritional, medicinal, genetic and environmental values of NWFP unaltered or even improved throughout the productive ecosystems. Quality should be assured from the beginning of the food chain until the consumer. This requires appropriate methods of harvesting, selection, transformation, packaging, storage and distribution. Moreover, since many of the NWFP are perishable at very short time, refrigeration and freezing is crucial for their commercialization. The following scheme shows some of the actors involved in preserving NWFP quality.

Source: ibid

31. Efforts to improve production and quality are essential to stimulate the demand of NWFP. Competitive prices together with high quality are the key elements of a policy to stimulate their consumption. Attractive prices, both for the producers and for the consumers are the engine moving the productive locomotive upwards. Moreover as the labour cost in the rural areas is generally lower than in the urban ones, this can be another comparative advantage to grow these products. Specialisation is another step that follows massive production.

32. Domestication of high economic value species appears to be a solution to increase productivity and income. Investing in communication networks (physically and electronically) to reach the appropriate markets on time is a vital function that the government of the North Africa countries should stimulate. Finally, the governments should strive to launch campaigns of education and dissemination of the advantages of selected NWFP both in their countries as well as abroad. Food security should be at the front of these campaigns.

Selected Bibliography

FAO, Statistics Today for Tomorrow 1961 - 2010, Rome, 1993;
FAO, Non-Wood News, Bulletins No: 2 (1995); 3(1996); 4(1997) and 5 (1998), Rome;
FAO, Notes on Trees and Shrubs in Arid and Semi-arid Regions, Rome, 1983;
FAO, Regional Office for the Near East, Situation des Forêts du Monde, Rome, 1996;
FAO International Expert Meeting on Medicinal, Culinary and Aromatic Plants in the Near East, Cairo, Egypt, 19 - 21 May 1997;
FAO, State on Non-Wood Forest Products, Rome 1998;
SRDC for North Africa, Importance socio-éconornique et environmental de la végétation en Afrique du Nord, 14^th I.C.E meeting, July 1998, Tangier;
UN ECA, State of Forest Management in North Africa, Addis Ababa, 1988;
UN ECA, The Role of Forest on Food Security in Africa, Addis Ababa, April 1996;
UNEP/FAO Expert Meeting on Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management in the Near East, Cairo, Egypt, 15- 17 April 1997.

4.3.2 The Mediterranean NTFP Project and the Network of the WWF Mediterranean Programme

Yorgos Moussouris, WWF Mediterranean Programme⁵

WWF's global targets for forest conservation include the increase of protected forest areas and of areas under environmentally sound forest management outside protected areas. The second target is expressed as independent certification of well managed forests, and has been so far concentrated on the certification of timber produced in well managed forests. The application of the two well-divided targets meets complications, if it is to relate to the situation of Mediterranean forests.

In the Mediterranean, biodiversity conservation depends directly on the continuation of traditional management that is compatible with nature protection. Thus, the establishment of forest protected areas in the region should honour traditional management methods.⁶ At the same time, the management, which has been applied for centuries throughout the forests in the region, is multi-use and, most of the times, timber production is not its predominant aspect. Thus, any effort targeting sound forest management in the Mediterranean cannot be based exclusively on timber certification, but has to be multidimensional reflecting the multi-use aspect of Mediterranean forests. The WWF strategic approach to sound forest management expressed through Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) timber certification can be applied directly to the situation of boreal and tropical forests, rather than Mediterranean forests.

In many cases, the production of non-timber forest products (NTFP) has been the expression of the multi-use Mediterranean forest management. If certification through FSC guidelines offers a strong vehicle leading to sound forest management for timber production, then it is important to investigate the incorporation of guidelines for NTFP certification in the FSC criteria.

Assessments of the ecological and socio-economic role of NTFP in forest conservation have always challenged WWF, which has addressed in the past the role of NTFP in conservation and rural development.⁷ Especially in the Mediterranean, any serious forest conservation investment of the Organization has to investigate the role of NTFP, both in natural systems and the socio-economic welfare of rural communities.

WWF's Mediterranean Programme (WWF MedPO) has implemented projects in important forest ecosystems⁸ of the region by building partnerships with a number of environmental groups and institutions. Pursuing an integrated approach, WWF MedPO has initiated a project titled "Towards a Network for the Sustainable Use of NTFPs in the Mediterranean Region". This project targets the conservation of important forest areas in the Mediterranean and the promotion of rural community economic development by the sustainable production-management of NTFP. In particular, the project intends to develop a common network identity, increase the technical knowledge regarding the role of particular NTFP in forest conservation, promote relevant awareness and build capacity of human resources to manage NTFP production.

Currently, seven pilot areas are included or have expressed their interest in joining the network:

1. The forest region around Feija National Park (Jendouba, Tunisia);
2. The Guadiana Valley Natural Park (Alentejo, Portugal);
3. The Argania spinosa sylvo-pastoral system (Essaouira, Morocco);
4. The area around the Chouf Forest Protected Area (Lebanon);
5. The Monte Arcosu Nature Reserve (Sardinia, Italy)
6. The Tramuntana Mountain Range (Mallorca, Spam)
7. The Parrion Mountain Range (Peloponnese, Greece).
4 For further information on Silva mediterranea, see www.fao.org/forestry/foris/index.jsp?start_id=7135 on the FAO Web site.
5 WWF Mediterranean Programme, NTFP Project, PO Box 18003, GR 1161O Athens, Greece. Phone/fax +30 1 7241806, email: [email protected].
6 As the experience coming from other parts of the world has shown, the exclusion of traditional management methods from protected areas can have detrimental effects to conservation efforts.
7 People & Plants Initiative, TRAFFIC, CADISPA (Conservation and Development in Sparsely Populated Areas).
8 CADISPA has gained valuable experience on the production and marketing of local products such as olive oil and other agricultural goods and handicrafts in Italy, Portugal and Greece.