Session 5,1 - L'agriculture biologique et la politique agraire: Tendances en Suisse
Session 5,2 - Development of production and marketing of ecological products in Denmark
Session 5,3 - Ecological Agriculture in Europe - Challenge and Expediency - The Saarland Model
Résumé
1. Formes de production, terminologie
2. Stratégie et mesures de politique agricole dans le domaine de l'écologie
3. Encouragement de modes de production respectueux de l'environnement par le biais de paiements compensatoires
Summary: Biological farming and Swiss agriculture policy
28.5.1990
Professeur Hans W. Popp, Ph.D.
Directeur suppléant de l'Office fédéral de l'agriculture, Berne
En Suisse, nous constatons que les aspects de la protection de l'environnement prennent une place croissante. L'agriculture doit produire moins intensivement et en respectant l'environnement. Une commission dirigée par l'auteur de cet article devait étudier de manière approfondie par quelles mesures la politique agricole peut atteindre cet objectif. Elle a remis son rapport au Ministre de l'Agriculture le 15 mai 1990. L'exposé suivant reproduit quelques-unes des principales conclusions de ce rapport. Les propositions portent en outre sur l'introduction de paiements directs sur base contractuelle aussi bien pour l'agriculture biologique que pour la production agricole intégrée.
Pour simplifier, les exploitations agricoles suisses peuvent être classées en trois groupes, en fonction de leur mode de production ou de leur "degré de prise en compte des problèmes écologiques":
- l'agriculture conventionnelle (AC)
- la production intégrée (PI)
- la culture biologique (CB).
Pour l'essentiel, ces trois groupes sont soumis aux mêmes prescriptions fédérales (concernant entre autres la protection de l'environnement, des animaux et des eaux) et aux mêmes mesures de politique agricole de protection et de soutien. En revanche, les exigences et les conditions de droit privé sont en partie différentes. Des limites fluctuantes séparent les groupes cités ci-dessus, en particulier les deux premiers. Par rapport à l'agriculture conventionnelle, forme prédominante, la production intégrée et la culture biologique posent des exigences supplémentaires aux exploitants et dans le domaine des techniques de production.
1.1 Agriculture conventionnelle (AC)
En agriculture conventionnelle, les moyens de production sont principalement engagés en fonction de leur rentabilité économique. L'organisation de l'exploitation s'adapte continuellement à l'évolution des techniques. L'agriculture conventionnelle englobe, par contre, un important champ d'activités. Celui-ci va de l'engraissement hors sol à une exploitation agricole du sol plutôt extensive. Par ailleurs, la Suisse n'a que peu d'exploitations hors sol et, suite à l'établissement de contre-mesures (art. 19 et suivants de la LAgr), leur, nombre est même en diminution. En règle générale, les entreprises conventionnelles sont des exploitations familiales cultivant le sol et s'adonnant à divers types de production. Elles veillent aussi à s'assurer une production durable et compatible avec l'environnement.
1.2 Production intégrée (PI)
Issue de la culture et de la production végétale intégrés, la production intégrée propose, en regard, une conception intégrale au sein de laquelle, en d'autres termes, non seulement les différentes cultures, mais l'exploitation dans son intégralité (cultures, animaux et aspects économiques) et son milieu ambiant sont pris en considération.
La Société suisse de phytiatrie décrit cette conception de la manière suivante:
"En production intégrée, la prise en compte globale de l'agro-éco-système, le maintien et l'amélioration de la fertilité des sols et d'un milieu ambiant très diversifié jouent un rôle de premier ordre. Il s'agit d'abord d'utiliser à bon escient et de stimuler les processus de régulation naturels. Tout en respectant l'environnement (sol, eau, air, plantes et animaux), la rentabilité économique et les exigences sociales, on recourt de manière judicieuse et dans un ordre bien précis à des mesures biologiques, techniques et chimiques."1)
1) Communication écrite de la Société suisse de phytiatrie du 21.12.1989
Par l'emploi de procédés de production plus élaborés ou nouvellement conçus, par l'usage mesuré, ciblé et équilibré de substances auxiliaires (en particulier d'engrais et de produits phytosanitaires), la production intégrée réduit ou même élimine totalement la charge pesant sur l'environnement et les autres effets négatifs extérieurs (cf. chapitre II, paragraphe 1.2). Aussi le recours à de telles substances, également à celles qui sont étrangères à l'exploitation, s'est-il réduit.
Les efforts tendent à l'élaboration et à la mise en pratique de concepts qui, en plus de la prise en compte globale de l'exploitation, s'attachent à des aspects dépassant le cadre de l'entreprise pour atteindre un caractère régional.
Un assolement très diversifié, l'encouragement du maintien de la diversité de la faune et de la flore, le soin apporté aux surfaces de compensation écologique telles que les haies, les bordures, les biotopes humides et secs et à leur maintien, sont autant d'autres caractéristiques de la production intégrée.
Cependant, à l'heure actuelle, il n'existe pas en matière de production intégrée de concept reconnu, transposé dans la pratique et adapté à celle-ci, qui tienne compte de l'exploitation dans son intégralité, au sens de la définition donnée plus haut.
Jusqu'à présent, seuls des concepts et des systèmes liés à certaines branches d'exploitation se sont concrétisés et traduits dans la pratique. Ainsi, plusieurs organisations de producteurs et plusieurs associations ont-elles édicté des directives ou des recommandations correspondantes et les ont mises en pratique. Citons les exemples non exhaustifs suivants:
- des directives de la Communauté suisse de travail pour la production intégrée (CTPI) existent en arboriculture fruitière. Aujourd'hui déjà, 10 à 15 % des pommes de table proviennent d'une production intégrée contrôlée2). Une telle production est commercialisée sous différents "labels" tels "GALTI", "CULTIVAL" ou "PI-production fruitière ZH".2) Communication écrite de 1a Fruit-Union Suisse du 23.11.1989- en viticulture, des directives correspondantes ont été élaborées par les stations de recherche de Wädenswil et de Changins.
- en grandes cultures, les recommandations de l'Association suisse des ingénieurs agronomes et en technologie alimentaire (ASIAT) ouvrent des perspectives; les travaux des stations de recherche y ont contribué de manière prépondérante.
- en culture maraîchère, des exigences formulées aux exploitations de production intégrée de l'Union suisse du légume ont été élaborées en collaboration avec la station fédérale de recherche de Wädenswil.
Dans d'autres secteurs également s'ébauchent des directives et surgissent des initiatives allant dans le sens de la production intégrée.
Dans ce contexte, il y a lieu de mentionner aussi les programmes "Migros-Sano" et celui de l'Union des fédérations coopératives agricoles de la Suisse dénommé "Agri-Natura". Selon des estimations, la consommation de légumes et de pommes de Migros-Sano représente 50 à 60 % des légumes, voire 55 à 60 % des fruits indigènes vendus par les coopératives Migros.3)
3) Communiqué oralement par le Service de vulgarisation Migros-Sano, Lausanne, le 5.3.1990. Cette production est fournie par 1847 exploitations totalisant une surface de 5098 ha (1988).
L'Association suisse des paysans et paysannes pratiquant la PI a été fondée en mai 1989. Ses membres, soucieux de respecter l'environnement en recourant à la production intégrée, proviennent de toute la Suisse. Les premières recommandations ont été adoptées lors de l'assemblée générale du 1er mars 1990.
Plusieurs cantons ont pris des mesures d'encouragement de la PI. Le canton de Thurgovie a, par exemple,: accepté de lancer un projet de PI et d'en suivre l'évolution. Il se fonde sur 10 à 12 exploitations-pilotes et sur différents groupes de vulgarisation. Par ailleurs, des services tels qu'un laboratoire d'analyse des sols performant, la vulgarisation et des cours adéquats sont mis sur pied.
D'autres cantons attendent en cette matière les décisions des autorités fédérales.
L'application pratique du concept de la PI à la globalité de l'exploitation, exigera toutefois encore des efforts considérables. Plusieurs projets sont en cours, en étroite collaboration entre agriculteurs, chercheurs et vulgarisateurs.
Dans un projet du "Programme national de recherche sur les sols" (PNR-Sol), les centrales de vulgarisation, les stations fédérales de recherche et le Secrétariat des paysans suisses tentent de mettre au point une méthode d'évaluation des techniques douées en agriculture. Ces méthodes seront ensuite testées dans des exploitations-pilotes. On attend la conclusion de ces travaux dans le cours de l'été 1990.4)
4) PNR-Sol, bulletin no. 8, décembre 1988, p. 3
1.3 Culture biologique
La culture biologique se différencie de la production intégrée et de la production conventionnelle dans le fait qu'elle renonce de manière conséquente aux engrais chimiques de synthèse, aux produits phytosanitaires et aux additifs dans les fourrages. Au sein de la culture biologique elle-même, les limites sont fluctuantes entre divers groupes et méthodes.
La culture biologique est définie en ces termes dans une étude de l'Institut de recherche de l'agriculture biologique d'Oberwil 5):
5) H. Suter, S. Rist, B. Stöckli: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des biologischen Landbaus und Kanton Zug - eine Konzeptstudie des Forschungs instituts für biologischen Landbau. Oberwil 1989, p. 5
"Contrairement à ce que l'on entend souvent, la culture biologique ne se différencie pas de l'agriculture conventionnelle dans ce sens que "plus rien n'est fait" (par exemple, plus aucune mesure de protection des plantes etc.). La culture biologique ne s'appuie pas non plus sur des fondements passéistes et naturalistiques-orthodoxes. Les agriculteurs et agricultrices biologiques interviennent de manière beaucoup plus active et consciente dans les interdépendances naturelles; ils cultivent et façonnent un écosystème agricole. L'idée centrale de la culture biologique est l'attention vouée à l'exploitation agricole en tant que système global où interagissent plusieurs cycles naturels, économiques et sociaux ayant une incidence déterminante sur les bases de production. A côté de la pure prise en compte des facteurs techniques de production, une caractéristique commune à toutes les méthodes de culture biologique réside dans l'attention vouée aux considérations éthiques. Par exemple, toutes les mesures de génie génétique visant à accroître la production et les rendements sont totalement proscrites. L'objectif de la culture biologique ne se résume pas à l'obtention d'un produit physiquement sain: prime tout autant la manière de le produire."
Les sept plus importantes organisations de culture biologique sont regroupées en une organisation faîtière dénommée "Association des groupements des producteurs biologiques suisses (AGPBS)". Environ 1'000 exploitations en font partie. Des directives AGPBS ont été édictées en 1990. Elles contiennent des prescriptions représentant des minimums que doivent respecter tous les membres des organisations.
L'association susmentionnée définit ainsi les objectifs de la culture biologique 6):
6) Association des groupements de producteurs biologiques suisses, AGPBS (Edit.): Cahier des charges pour la commercialisation des produits dé l'agriculture biologique/écologique, Oberwil 1989, p. 1 (article 1).
"La culture biologique (écologique) veut:
1. Largement clore le cycle de production des exploitations et le doter d'une structure diversifiée;2. Maintenir de manière durable une fertilité optimale des sols;
3. Produire en quantités équilibrées des aliments de haute valeur physiologique et exempts de résidus nocifs pour la santé des hommes et des animaux;
4. Eviter les mesures qui sont nuisibles pour le milieu ambiant et contribueraient à l'appauvrir, même à des fins de production énergétique;
5. Elever et utiliser les animaux en respectant les besoins spécifiques à leur espèce selon des critères tant éthiques qu'écologiques;
6. Garantir des conditions de vie satisfaisantes et un gain équitable au personnel de l'exploitation."
La production venant des exploitations biologiques couvre environ 1 % de la consommation totale; elle se développe cependant continuellement et sa part augmente. Concernant l'organisation, la valeur économique et l'encouragement de telles méthodes de production, des détails seront fournis au paragraphe 3.2 ci-dessous.
Dans le Sixième rapport sur l'agriculture, le Conseil fédéral a commenté, au paragraphe 227, les mesures existantes en matière d'écologie. Au vu des considérations formulées dans ce rapport et de la pratique actuelle en matière de politique agricole, il y a lieu, si l'on veut répondre aux préoccupations d'ordre écologique, d'appliquer une stratégie comprenant par ordre de priorité les 3 actions suivantes:
(1) Recherche, formation et vulgarisation: les agriculteurs doivent si possible découvrir eux-mêmes le bien-fondé de pratiques respectueuses de l'environnement et s'en convaincre;(2) Instituer des incitations d'ordre financier et autres: le respect de l'environnement doit également être intéressant d'un point de vue économique;
(3) Prescriptions dans les domaines les plus divers (cf. chap. V du rapport et Sixième rapport sur l'agriculture, paragraphe 227).
2.1 Recherche, formation, formation continue et vulgarisation
Lorsqu'il est question d'écologie, la recherche, la formation et la vulgarisation exercent également une fonction très importante. Elles doivent aider l'agriculteur à percevoir l'importance des aspects écologiques pour son exploitation et le seconder lorsqu'il s'agit de résoudre les problèmes auxquels il est confronté.
a. Recherché agronomique
Les stations de recherché agronomique se préoccupent de manière croissante des problèmes écologiques. Le Sixième rapport sur l'agriculture et le Rapport sur l'état actuel et les objectifs de la recherche agronomique en Suisse en donnent un aperçu.
Outre les stations de recherche agronomique, de nombreuses autres institutions (les universités, l'Institut pour j l'agriculture biologique de Oberwil BL, l'industrie privée, etc.) procèdent activement à des recherches dans le domaine de l'écologie.
b. Formation
La prise en compte accrue des problèmes écologiques dans la conduite de l'exploitation agricole exige une adaptation correspondante de la formation agricole. Les nouveaux agriculteurs doivent être informés des interférences écologiques et de la portée des mesures d'exploitation agricole, et être sensibilisés aux problèmes y attenant. La garantie et la préservation des fondements d'une vie saine sont finalement des conditions de base pour le maintien de l'activité paysanne à terme.
c. Formation continue et vulgarisation
L'attention accrue vouée aux problèmes écologiques dans l'agriculture soumet les agriculteurs à des exigences élevées. Le succès de leurs efforts dépend pour une part prépondérante, de manière directe ou indirecte, de leur comportement et de leurs décisions.
Les institutions de vulgarisation et les vulgarisateurs ont pour tâche d'aider les agriculteurs à satisfaire à ces nouvelles exigences.
2.2 Incitations financières et indemnisation
L'idée de faire adopter un comportement souhaité par le biais d'incitations financières, voire par le versement d'indemnités, n'est pas nouvelle en politique économique. La politique agricole fait déjà usage de cette possibilité: les différentes formes de paiements directs en sont des exemples (par exemple, les primes de culture).
Pour ce qui concerne les préoccupations d'ordre écologique, cette idée se concrétise de deux manières. D'abord, d'une manière positive, par le biais de paiements ciblés. Citons les contributions à l'exploitation agricole du sol et les contributions d'estivage (visant une utilisation adéquate empêchant les éboulements et l'érosion) ou encore les contributions à la préservation de biotopes (secs, humides et autres).
Une autre manière de réaliser cette idée est d'imposer des conditions. C'est ainsi que des paiements directs ne sont octroyés qu'à condition que certaines contraintes d'exploitation soient respectées.
2.3 Prescriptions
Concernant la production agricole, de nombreuses lois et ordonnances sont assorties de prescriptions visant à produire des denrées alimentaires de haute qualité, tout en respectant l'environnement et en garantissant au bétail des conditions de détention convenable. Le Sixième rapport sur l'agriculture en parle à maints endroits (cf. en particulier les paragraphes 227 et 335)
La commission a examiné en détail la question de savoir s'il était souhaitable, voire nécessaire, en sus des mesures existantes, d'encourager par le biais de paiements compensatoires des modes de production respectueux de l'environnement.
Par rapport à l'agriculture conventionnelle, des coûts plus importants (comme par exemple plus de travail, des qualifications plus grandes et une mécanisation plus chère) et/ou des rendements moindres peuvent résulter d'une production intégrée et plus encore de la culture biologique. Les risques encourus par la mise en oeuvre de ces modes de production sont également plus grands. Une indemnisation correspondante est parfois possible par le biais du marché, particulièrement pour les produits provenants de la culture biologique, mais ce n'est pas le cas partout ou bien cela se révèle insuffisant.
La question d'un encouragement supplémentaire a été abordée pour les trois modes de production suivants:
(1) production intégrée
(2) culture biologique
(3) autres formes d'exploitation extensive et respectueuse de l'environnement.
3.1 Conclusions concernant l'encouragement de la production intégrée
La commission en arrive aux conclusions fondamentales suivantes:
(1) L'agriculture respectueuse de l'environnement doit aller de pair avec une agriculture se fondant sur des principes économiques (dynamiques). On ne peut faire fi du progrès technique, mais son application doit se faire de manière sélective dans l'optique d'un mode de production ménageant le milieu ambiant. Pour réaliser cet objectif, la production intégrée s'impose de plus en plus dans le sens d'une approche englobant l'ensemble de l'exploitation (comme décrit au paragraphe 1.2). Une approche qui peut simultanément, même si c'est de manière plutôt modeste, contribuer à mettre un frein à la surproduction indésirable du point de vue de la politique agricole.(2) II faut encore plus stimuler la production intégrée. Avec le temps, elle devrait devenir la méthode de production prédominante de l'agriculture suisse. Pour atteindre cet objectif, la recherche, la formation et la vulgarisation jouent un rôle central.
(3) La recherche ainsi qu'une formation moderne et la vulgarisation agricole prennent une place croissante dans la résolution de problèmes d'ordre écologique et pour la mise en oeuvre de méthodes de production adaptées à la pratique. Le développement de la vulgarisation visant à une mise en pratique plus rapide de la production intégrée, spécialement en ce qui concerne les questions de fumure, est d'une urgente nécessité. Le rôle de la vulgarisation et des autorités cantonales compétentes doit faire l'objet d'un examen et, le cas échéant, doit être adapté en conséquence.
(4) La mise sur pied du système de production intégrée, fondée sur la globalité de l'exploitation, doit, dans la mesure du possible, tenir compte des éléments (projets, directives, etc.) existant déjà dans certaines branches d'activités. Il importe encore de rassembler des expériences supplémentaires à partir d'exploitations-pilotes.
(5) D'après les expériences rassemblées jusqu'ici, la production intégrée conduit à un surcroît de charges (conduite d'exploitation plus qualifiée, risques accrus, dépenses, en matériel plus élevées) et/ou à des baisses de rendement (revenus moindres)7) Le surplus de coûts qui en résulte devrait pouvoir être indemnisé par le biais du marché. La condition à remplir pour y parvenir est d'informer le consommateur sur le mode de production.
7) Des enquêtes scientifiques le prouvent (par exemple, celles qui ont été effectuées au technicum de Zollikofen et à la FAT); quoi qu'il en soit. il s'agit encore d'approfondir plusieurs questions.(6) Vu qu'on sait pertinemment par expérience qu'une indemnisation totale par le biais du marché n'est pas partout possible (entre autres, à cause des problèmes liés à la déclaration des produits et à son contrôle), la question d'une contribution financière se pose. La commission estime que de tels paiements compensatoires sont souhaitables lorsqu'une indemnisation ne peut être obtenue par le biais du marché; ce qui permettra une introduction accélérée de la production intégrée. Ils se justifient également en tant qu'indemnisation d'une prestation particulière des producteurs au titre de service d'intérêt public.
(7) Ces paiements compensatoires devraient être institués sur une base contractuelle proche de l'esquisse de: concept présenté dans le rapport du groupe de travail.
(8) Les conditions requises pour la réalisation de telles mesures consistent, d'une part, en la concrétisation; d'un concept apportant une solution aux problèmes encore très ardus de la mise en oeuvre, mentionnés plus haut, et, d'autre part, en la création dans la loi sur l'agriculture de la base légale nécessaire. Ces deux conditions préalables ne sont aujourd'hui pas encore remplies.
(9) La transposition d'un tel concept dans la pratique devrait relever principalement de la compétence des cantons, assistés par les organisations intéressées.
3.2 Encouragement de la culture biologique
La commission s'est également penchée sur l'opportunité ou la nécessité d'encourager la culture biologique par des contributions spécifiques. Par rapport à la production intégrée, on peut considérer la culture biologique comme une forme d'agriculture allant encore plus loin dans le degré d'attention à vouer à l'écologie et tolérant encore moins de compromis (cf. paragraphe 1 de ce chapitre). De ce point de vue en tout cas, il conviendrait de l'encourager au moins dans une même mesure.
3.21 Organisation actuelle de la culture biologique
Actuellement, plus de 1'000 exploitations (parmi elles, environ 650 à 700 à titre entreprises exploitées à plein; temps) cultivent en Suisse une surface agricole utile d'environ 12'000 ha en appliquant les méthodes de la culture biologique8). Les trois méthodes culturales les plus appliquées sont:
8) Cf. H. Suter et al.. 1989. p. 6- le mode d'exploitation organique-biologique selon Müller-Rusch
- le mode d'exploitation biologique-dynamique selon Steiner
- la méthode culturale biologique selon Lemaire-Boucher.
Ces méthodes culturales se caractérisent pas des points forts ont des accents différents, principalement selon leurs origines, leurs bases idéologiques et leur application pratique, notamment en ce qui concerne la préparation du purin et du fumier, de la fumure et de la période des semis. Au niveau de la production, ces méthodes ont pourtant une large plateforme de conceptions fondamentales communes.
La création, mentionnée au paragraphe 1.3, de l'AGPBS en 1980 réunit en une organisation faîtière les diverses organisations de producteurs. Sa tâche principale consiste à contrôler et attribuer la marque collective protégée (bourgeon), désignant les produits provenants de la culture biologique (écologique). En cette même année 1980, l'AGPBS a édicté des directives. Elles fixent les exigences minimales obligatoires en matière de fumure, de protection des plantes et de garde des animaux, auxquelles toutes les exploitations affiliées à l'AGPBS sont soumises.9)
9) Les directives sont soumises au moins tous les deux ans u l'examen d'une commission de surveillance. La version en vigueur aujourd'hui a été entérinée en date du 13 décembre 1988 par l'Assemblée générale de l'AGPBS'. Cf. "Cahier des charges pour la commercialisation des produits de l'agriculture biologique/écologique", Oberwil 1989.
Le respect des prescriptions de production est soumis à l'examen régulier de contrôleurs neutres. Ce contrôle s'effectue en fonction des contrats de droit privé liant les différents partenaires. La supervision générale incombe à une commission de surveillance où sont représentés des organisations de consommateurs, l'Office de contrôle des denrées alimentaires, les organisations commerciales ainsi que des délégués des organisations de producteurs, de la recherche et de la vulgarisation.
Les exploitations pratiquant la culture biologique peuvent compter sur des services de vulgarisation spécifiques et adaptés à leurs besoins. Les tâches de vulgarisation sont remplies, d'une part, par les organisations de producteurs représentées dans l'AGPBS et, d'autre part et surtout, par l'Institut de recherche de l'agriculture biologique d'Oberwil. Les services cantonaux de vulgarisation mettent également de plus en plus leurs ressources à disposition.
3.22 Situation économique des exploitations de culture biologique
Plusieurs études ont été effectuées ces dernières années pour rendre compte de la situation économique prévalant chez les exploitants "biologiques". Les résultats ont été, en partie, confrontés à ceux d'exploitations conventionnelles comparables. Les enquêtes reposent sur des bases étroites de données. C'est pourquoi, en ce qui concerne leur représentativité de l'ensemble de l'agriculture biologique suisse, il ne faut pas attribuer une trop grande valeur aux affirmations qui suivent. Certaines tendances s'en dégagent malgré tout.
Des études économiques comparatives10) entre des exploitations biologiques et conventionnelles ont montré que les rendements moins élevés en nature ont pu être compensés au début des années 80 par les prix supérieurs des produits "bio" et par des coûts directs moindres. Le revenu agricole par exploitation comparable s'est révélé à peu près identique pour les deux méthodes culturales, avec toutefois une charge de travail supérieure pour les exploitations biologiques par rapport aux exploitations conventionnelles.
10) C. Karch-Türler: Betriebswirtschaftliche Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiet des alternativen Landbaus, Zurich 1983 R. Steinmann: Der biologische Landbau - ein betriebswirtschaftlicher Vergleich. FAT Tänikon. 1983
Des études récentes11) font état d'un surplus de travail de l'ordre de 17 %. Une autre étude12) indique que la différence entre le revenu réel et le revenu escompté s'est accru considérablement depuis 1983 dans les exploitations biologiques. Alors que le rendement brut plafonnait depuis 1984, les coûts indirects continuaient d'augmenter. D'après les données collectées par R. Duttweiler, Dr de la FAT à Tänikon, les exploitations biologiques dégageaient en moyenne durant les années 1983/87 un revenu agricole par hectare de surface agricole utile inférieur de 7 % à celui des exploitations conventionnelles comparables13) Le revenu du travail effectif était approximativement de 12 % inférieur. Les disparités de revenu entre les exploitations conventionnelles et biologiques semblent donc s'être accrues par rapport au début des années 1980.
11) E. Näf: "Mehrarbeit in biologisch geführten Betrieben". communication écrite de la journée d'information en économie d'entreprise, FAT Tänikon, 31 août 1989.12) J. Mühlebach: "Die wirtschaftliche Lage biologisch geführter Betriebe". communication écrite de la journée d'information en économie d'entreprise. FAT Tänikon, 31 août 1989.
13) Renseignement reçu par téléphone: les données ont trait à des résultats provisoires d'enquêtes en cours.
3.23 Contributions de reconversion et/ou paiements compensatoires annuels
De l'avis de la commission, deux formes d'encouragement avaient la priorité, à savoir des contributions uniques à la reconversion et des contributions annuelles renouvelables.
3.231 Contributions de reconversion
L'objectif premier des contributions uniques de reconversion réside en une aide allouée à l'exploitation qui passe de la méthode culturale conventionnelle à la méthode culturale biologique. Une telle reconversion prend en général deux à cinq ans, au maximum. Durant cette phase, le rendement s'en trouve parfois considérablement diminué et d'éventuels coûts supplémentaires viennent s'ajouter du fait de la transformation du parc des machines et des nouveaux achats, des cours de formation et de perfectionnement. Une contribution unique à la reconversion se justifierait pour toutes ces raisons. Cette contribution pourrait, d'une part, être une incitation à la reconversion et, d'autre part, elle pourrait aider à compenser les manques à gagner qui en résulteraient.
Dès 1989, suite à des initiatives venant des Parlements cantonaux, Berne et Bâle-Campagne ont introduit une contribution unique aux exploitations se reconvertissant à la culture biologique.
Pour ce faire, le canton de Berne a créé une base juridique dans la loi cantonale sur l'agriculture, loi révisée en 1988. Les détails de l'aménagement des contributions sont réglementés par un décret du Grand Conseil, datant du 14 septembre 1989. La contribution unique du canton comprend les deux composantes suivantes14):
14) Conformément au décret sur les "contributions pour la reconversion dans la culture biologique" du canton de Berne du 14 septembre 1989.
a. Contribution à la surface
800 francs par ha de grandes cultures
500 francs par ha de cultures fourragères
200 francs par ha de pâturages (prairie permanente)
3'000 francs par ha de cultures spéciales (cultures fruitières, maraîchères, petits fruits, herbes aromatiques et vignes)
La contribution est limitée à un maximum de 20 ha de surfaces cultivées.
b. Contribution à l'exploitation (pour des coûts liés aux structures)
3'000 francs par exploitation de moins de 5 ha de surface cultivée.
5'000 francs par exploitation de plus de 5 ha de surface cultivée, ou en présence de 50 a de cultures spéciales au moins.
Si la surface cultivée est inférieure à 3 ha, une contribution n'est versée que si au moins 50 a sont exploités en cultures spéciales.
Dans le canton de Bâle-Campagne, l'encouragement à la reconversion en culture biologique est possible grâce à une décision du Conseil d'Etat du 5 décembre 1989. Les fonds nécessaires au financement des contributions à la reconversion proviennent des fonds de la loterie. Le modèle d'aménagement des contributions s'inspire du modèle bernois. La contribution de base ne se monte cependant qu'à 4'000 francs et les taux utilisés pour les contributions à la surface sont en partie inférieurs. La contribution à la reconversion est fixée à un maximum de 15'0000 francs par exploitation.
3.232 Paiements compensatoires annuels
Des contributions annuelles se justifieraient aussi, pareillement, à l'argumentation énoncée pour la production intégrée, pour l'indemnisation de coûts de production supérieurs et d'un mode de production plus respectueux de l'environnement, considéré de ce fait comme une prestation d'intérêt public.
Cependant une différence majeure par rapport à la production intégrée réside en ceci que les consommateurs de produits "bio" sont en général prêts à payer un prix supérieur. La demande croissante eh produits de culture biologique indique qu'une frange grandissante d'acheteurs s'intéresse à ce segment du marché. Cet état de fait va cependant de pair avec le danger de certains abus. Dans le secteur des produits "bio", il est vrai, une certaine protection est donnée en la matière par des labels, en particulier le label du "bourgeon" déjà cité, pour lequel un contrôle strict est effectué. Cette marque protégée repose sur une convention de droit privé.
Elle n'est pas consacrée par la loi mais relève cependant du domaine des dispositions de la protection de la propriété industrielle.
Une meilleure protection pourrait être octroyée par la mise en vigueur d'une loi fédérale actuellement en discussion au Parlement, la loi sur l'encouragement de l'information aux consommateurs (Loi sur l'information des consommateurs, LIC). L'article 3 du projet de loi du 7 mai 1986 stipule15):
15) La LIC a déjà été traitée positivement par le Conseil des Etats et le Conseil national (session de printemps 1990). Elle forme un paquet avec la "Loi fédérale sur le changement du code des obligations". Lors des débats. 1e Conseil des Etats ne s'est occupé que du projet de la LIC. C'est pourquoi une procédure d'élimination des divergences entre les deux Conseil est encore nécessaire.
"Art. 3 Conventions de droit privé
Les milieux économiques concernés et les organisations de consommateurs peuvent convenir des biens à déclarer ainsi que des exigences concernant la forme et le contenu de la déclaration de biens et services, en respectant les normes internationales ainsi que le principe de la non-discrimination."
L'AGPBS et les organisations de consommateurs sont favorables à l'article 3 de la LIC; ils l'estiment toutefois insuffisant pour ce qui concerne les méthodes de production. A leur avis, il est nécessaire, pour encourager de manière globale la culture biologique, de réglementer celle-ci dans la loi sur l'agriculture et dans l'ordonnance sur les denrées alimentaires (en référence aux art. 17 et 20 de la loi sur les denrées alimentaires).
Les exploitations de culture biologique affiliées à l'AGPBS profitent du label susmentionné dans le sens que leurs produits peuvent accéder à des marchés spéciaux, sur lesquels en règle générale des prix supérieurs sont obtenus pour les produits de la culture biologique. Leur méthode de production favorable de l'environnement reçoit de la sorte une indemnisation par le biais du marché. Quant à savoir si cette recette supplémentaire est suffisante pour compenser le surplus de coûts par rapport à un mode de production conventionnel, la réponse de l'AGPBS est négative. En fait, à l'heure actuelle, on ne peut pas donner de réponse concluante; les bases des données résultant des enquêtes effectuées jusqu'ici sont trop étroites et donc pas assez significatives. Des éclaircissements supplémentaires sont nécessaires.
Un argument avancé contre les contributions uniques de reconversion par rapport aux contributions annuelles relève que les exploitations qui se seraient déjà converties auparavant ne pourraient plus en profiter.
Au cas où, conformément à la recommandation émise par notre commission au paragraphe 3.12, on décidait de verser des paiements compensatoires aux exploitations pratiquant la production intégrée, il faudrait, par voie de conséquence, y associer les exploitations de culture biologique. A ce sujet, l'AGBPS est d'avis que les contributions versées à ces exploitations devraient être largement supérieures à celles destinées aux exploitations de production intégrée.16) Cette question mérite également un examen plus approfondi. Par analogie aux considérations figurant au paragraphe 3.13, les modalités du système de contribution devraient encore être élaborées.
16) Le point de vue de l'AGPBS est énoncé dans une prise de position de l'organisation, datée du 4 janvier 1990.
3.24 Conclusions en matière d'encouragement de la culture biologique
(1) La commission est d'avis que le mode de production respectueux de l'environnement tel que le pratique l'agriculture biologique doit être encouragé en politique agricole. D'éventuels coûts supérieurs devraient d'abord, dans la mesure du possible, être indemnisés par le biais du marché. A ce sujet, la commission soutient les efforts tendant à établir des rapports de confiance entre les producteurs, les commerçants et les consommateurs. Elle est favorable à une réglementation des labels dans la LIC. A son avis, il conviendrait d'examiner si la réglementation ne devrait pas porter sur d'autres objets, en s'inspirant des solutions adoptées dans d'autres pays européens ou dans une proposition faite à ce sujet par la Commission de la CE.17)17) Commission de 1a CE: proposition d'une ordonnance (CEE) du Conseil sur la culture biologique, la désignation correspondante des produits agricoles et l'aide alimentaire.(2) II faut prévoir le versement de paiements compensatoires aux exploitations pratiquant la culture biologique. Ils exerceraient une fonction de subsidiaires appuyant l'indemnisation par le biais du marché. Leur conception devrait aller de pair avec l'élaboration d'un concept prévoyant de tels paiements aux exploitations s'adonnant à la production intégrée. On ne peut à l'heure actuelle rien avancer de définitif quant à une éventuelle différenciation entre ces paiements.
(3) Concernant les contributions de reconversion uniques, la commission propose qu'un examen des questions en suspens soit entrepris; elle recommande d'y intégrer les résultats des expériences menées dans les cantons de Berne et de Bâle-Campagne.
(4) Les contributions de reconversion jouent plutôt un rôle de deuxième plan dans le cas où, en conformité avec le point 2, des paiements compensatoires sont institués.
In Switzerland, we note a growing concern for the ecological problems of the environment. The intensive production methods used in modem and economically efficient agriculture are increasingly criticized, alternatives are called for. In the last 2 years, a Commission of experts (directed by Hans W. Popp) has studied these problems and came forward with concrete agricultural policy proposals. The final Report was sent to the Federal Minister of Agriculture on May 15th 1990. The Commission proposed i. a. direct income payments on a contractual basis for farmers practicing biological farming or the method of "integrated production".
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. The pre-law development
3. Law on ecological agriculture
4. Consequences of the law
5. Developments after the law
6. Problems
7. The future
Resume
References
T. V. ØSTERGAARD
Danish Council for Ecological Agriculture
Denmark is in the unique situation of having a legislation defining ecological production and providing it with economic support. Around 30 mill. DKr can be used as conversion-support for farmers, support for advisors, development projects in the fields of production, processing and marketing, and for information and research annually. As a consequence of this the production, the range of products that are marketed as ecological, and the number of outlets have increased. New organizations have arisen and new roles for the old ones are foreseen. The paper describes this development and some of the problems that have arisen.
We are witnessing an increasing concern for the environment. The word "sustainable" has become part of the vocabulary of the politicians after the publication of the Brundtland-Report, and some efforts have been made to follow the recommandations of the report. In the public, the greater environmental awareness has i. a. led to a larger interest in "green products". Also, we see a growing understanding of the relations between food and health, a wish to be fit, and a tendency to value personal satisfaction (tasty meals) highly.
All three trends work towards increasing the demands for products that can be marketed as "green", "natural", "free of artificial additives", etc. In the supermarkets you will find juice "without artificial sweeteners" and "without sugar" side by side, satisfying both the consumers preferring the natural products and those who find sugar damaging. In the following only organic (ecological) products are included. These may, as for the agricultural products, be defined as produced in accordance with the IFOAM Basic Standards (1). At the moment no international Standards exists defining processed ecological products. Those products are not considered in this paper. It should be stressed, that products from extensive forms of farming or from integrated systems are not included as ecological. In Denmark the situation is special, because Denmark is one of the few countries with a law defining ecological products (primary and processed), and having the aim to further the ecological agricultural production by granting 30 mill. DKr/year for support.
With the passing of, this law and the economic support accompanying it profound changes in the conditions for the production and marketing of ecological products in Denmark has been accomplished. It is necessary, therefore, to look at the time before the law and at the trends that can be seen as the law becomes effective.
In Denmark, the development of alternative agriculture has been very much the same as in other European countries: In the 1930-ies the first biodynamic farms were founded, and a production and marketing of products that can be regarded as ecological, in the sense used here, was initiated. However, the number of biodynamic farms stayed low and the products were mainly sold at the farms and in health-shops. Two bakeries were established.
In the '70-ies a wave of mainly young people moved to the countryside in order to
- work in production communities based on ecological farming
- show that one could live and work in alternative ways
- show that alternative kinds of agriculture were viable
- show that it was possible to create a lifestyle with changing and satisfying political, cultural, social and working conditions outside the big towns". (2)
Contrary to the biodynamics the people who bought farms in this period had no agricultural experience or knowledge. Often they bought small farms with poor soils. As another goal was to experiment with communal living and management they had very difficult conditions under which to start a "new" form of agriculture. Failures were not uncommon. Concerning marketing, the sale on markets became an important outlet for these new ecological farmers. In the rural community, only scorn and contempt was left over for these "drop-outs". They were judged on their little knowledge of practical farming, their missing ability to do things on time, and their little sense for orderliness, which all added up to give ecological farming a bad image. Never-the-less enough people survived to found the Ecological Farmers Organization (LØJ) which played an important role in the following time, i.a. by making standards for ecological farming and establishing a control commission. The organization has also been active politically.
Production and marketing
On the basis of information from the organizations, the number of ecological and biodynamical farms was estimated at 300 with an acreage of 4000 ha in 1986 (3). That is 0.3% of the number of farms and 0.14% of the total farm-area in Denmark. 249 farms were authorised (by LØJ or the Biodynamic Association). This was probably an overestimate as several farmers were members of both organizations and so were counted twice. The majority of the farms (5G%) were small (less than 10 ha) and only 32% had cows. The main products were grain and vegetables that were marketed as ecological or biodynamic, and some meat and milk sold conventionally. No estimates of the production at this time or earlier exists. In 1981, the first contract was signed between the ecological farmers (LØJ) and the supermarket-chain FDB. FDB is, in principle, consumer-owned (cooperative) with a market-share of around 2,5%. The ecological farmers were to deliver packaged vegetables, and FDB agreed to market only products from farmers authorised by LØJ. The sale commenced in the fall 1981 with a total of 50 tons of carrots. Since then the sale of vegetables has increased both in variety and amounts. In 1988 a total of 4,250 tons of 22 different vegetables was sold via FDB. In total the ecological vegetables amounted to 2% of the sale of vegetables, but for potatoes and carrots the ecological the proportion was 7% (Information provided by FDB).
Organizations
The majority of the biodynamic farmers were organised in "Biodynamisk Forening" (BF), but a smaller more fundamentalistic group had formed the organization BJS (Biologisk Dynamiske Jordbrugeres Samvirke). The two organizations had around 25% of the alternative farmers as members. The ecological farmers were as stated members of LØJ. In 1985 the three organizations formed a Common Forum (Samarbejdsudvalget) where parts of the political negotiations in preparation of the law were made.
Together with the organization for small, conventional farmers (Husmandsforeningen) the three alternative farmers' organizations founded "Fællesudvalget" to manage the advisors (se later). Later the organization for big, conventional farmers (Landboforeningen) joined "Fællesudvalget". Authorisation and control of the biodynamic farmers was under the supervision of "Demeterforbundet" and followed the "Demeter standards". LØJ made its own standards in accordance with the IFOAM standards of that time. The main function of "Fællesudvalget" was to employ the ecological advisors, the first of whom started working in 1987. It should be noted that the advisors were supposed to advise both ecological and biodynamical farmers. At that time 85% of the expenses were covered by the state in line with ordinary farm advisors. The remaining 15% were provided for by the alternative farmers and their organizations.
In June 1987 the Danish parliament passed a "Law on Ecological Agriculture" (4) valid for 4 years with the aim to further écologie including biodynamic agricultural production. It was defined as follows: "Ecological agriculture aims at establishing a stable and harmonious agricultural system, where the method of production is so arranged that the different productions can be integrated as a natural biological cycle in field and stable. It is aimed, as far as possible, at having animals on the farms. No industrially produced fertilisers, pesticides, or growth promoters are used, and there is no use of industrially produced additives in the fodder. The manuring is based primarily on organic fertilisers, animal manure, green manure, crop residues, etc., plus nitrogen-fixation through leguminous plants. Plant diseases, weeds, and pests are controlled by well-planned and diverse crop rotations, mechanical tillage, and a suitable choice of cultivars."
The initiative to the law was taken by the alternative farmers organizations (through Samarbejdsudvalget) who wanted economical support and some regulation of the market for ecological products. One smart farmer who converted conventional rye into biodynamical rye by parking a lorry rye over night at his farm, was one example in focus. Three factors seem to have been important for the politician for the passing of the law: 1) In the spring '87 there was a heated public debate about environmental problems, not the least those pertaining to agriculture. And a report from the Ministry of the Environment (5) documented the positive environmental effects of ecological agriculture, i.a. by pointing to bird-countings that showed markedly more birds on ecological farms compared to conventional farms. 2) A consumer investigation (3) in the fall of '86 showed an unexpectedly large interest among the consumers for ecological products. From the investigation the following results can be cited:
- 60% were willing to pay a surplus price for ecological products
- 32% were willing to pay a surplus price of 25%
- the interest in and the willingness to pay a surplus price were independent of social status.
3) An investigation of the economy of ecological agriculture (6) had given positive results, showing that milk-producers could change to ecological methods without many problems. The law has three instruments: financial support, official control of the production, and an official guarantee-label for ecological products. To follow the development, a council was established to guide the Minister of Agriculture in these matters-. The council is composed of representatives from: the Ministry of Agriculture (chairman), the Ministry of the Environment, the two conventional farmers' organizations, LØJ, BF, "Samarbejdsudvalget", and the consumers' organization. It should be pointed out that the ' "green" side (the alternative farmers' "organizations together with the representatives for the Ministry of the Environment and the consumers' organizations) are a majority.
Financial support
Financial support can be given in three fields: conversion of farms, development projects, and research and information. To get conversion-support, a farm must be authorised (see below), the whole farm must be converted, and the conversion must take place within four years. The ecological farming must continue for two years, after the conversion is completed.
The support for conversion comprises 2,600 DKr/ha over 3 years for stockless farms with 1,500 the first year, 800 the second and 300 the third year. Farms with 0.3 to 0.7 animal units per hectar get 3,400 DKr/ha (1970 + 1055 + 375 DKr), and farms with more than 0.7 AU/ha gets 3.800 DKr/ha (2200 + 1180 + 420 DKr).
Development projects, which are projects aimed at easing special initial problems connected with collection, processing, marketing etc. of ecological products, can be supported by up to 40% of additional expenses. Research, experiments, material f-or education and information, etc. can be supported by 100%.
Authorisation
According to Order 830 on ecological agriculture, (7) farms may be authorised as ecological provided
- the whole farm (animals included) is converted within 6 years and follows an approved conversion plan- the farm is managed in accordance with the standards set in the Order. They are in principle equal to the IFOAM Standards of 1986 (8).
The state authority, Plantedirektoratet, provides the authorisation and control which includes inspection at the farms 1-2 times a year.
Ecological Guarantee Label
The Order on Guarantee Label (9) regulates processing, marketing, importation, and sale of ecological products. The label shown in fig. 1 has the text: State-controlled ecological. It is now illegal to market products as ecological or biodynamical in Denmark if their origin is not an authorised farm.
Processing of ecological products (10) should be carried out leniently and by using the least possible amount of energy. The following processes are allowed: washing (only with water), centrifugal ion, destination, extraction (only water and ethanol), fermentation, grinding, freezing, precipitation, concentration, churning, pressing, smoking, sieving, peeling, drying, crystallisation, cutting, rolling, and heating until a temperature of 100°C in the center (baking and roasting of coffee excluded). The Danish laws have a distinction between ingredients and additives, the later being substances that are added to foods in order to alter colour, nutritive value, consistency, etc. without being a foodstuff or a normally used ingredient in foods.
Additives of non-ecological origin are as a rule not allowed in ecological foods. A small number of additives, which in principle could be produced ecologically, e.g. agar, citric acid and carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen are allowed. Only the following non-ecological ingredients may be used: fresh fish, almonds, nuts, dried fruits (incl. seeds and mushrooms), sugar, honey, cocoa, coffee, salt, vinegar (only fermented), spices, and yeast. Maximum allowed amount is 10% of the finished product, and the non-ecological origin must be clearly stated on the label in the list of ingredients. The rules for importation aim at giving Danish and foreign producers fair competition. In principle, it is requested that an official authority in the exporting country certifies that the product in question is produced under rules not less strict than the Danish standards. Realising the fact that only very few countries have an official recognition of ecological production, the practice will be that the importer must document that the production is in accordance with the IFOAM Standards towards a Danish authority.
As previously stated, one of the consequences of the law is that any farmer wanting to market his products as ecological or biodynamical must be authorised. The total number of authorised farms (marked gardens included) on the 1st of January 1990 is 401 covering a total of 9,553 ha of which 58% is ecological, 28% under conversion, and 14% not yet converted. It is expected that at least 100 additional farms will be authorised in 1990.
The support for conversion amounted to 7.5 million DKr in 1989 and will be approximately the same amount in 1990. A further 5.7 mill. DKr will be payed the following years to farmers who are in the procès of converting their farms.
Advice and research
Until now 7 advisors have been employed to cover the ecological and biodynamical farming. The advicors' wages etc. are paid 100% by the means allotted to ecological farming but other expenses (offices, etc.) are not covered and must therefore be paid by the farmers. This means that it is often more expensive to use an ecological advisor than a conventional one. (Part of the expenses for the conventional advisors are taken from the membership fees of the farmers' organizations).
On top of paying for the ecological advisors, money has been given to a project called Interdisciplinary Advising. The idea being that teams of interested conventional advisors are formed with the ecological advisors as leaders. These teams can then provide farmers with advice in fields where the ecological advisors have no expertise. The most comprehensive research-project concerns 20 ecological farms (11) which are monitored by a group of researchers in every detail. The project has two main aims. On the one hand it should enhance our knowledge of how the system of an ecological farm functions. On the other hand the farms should serve as demonstration farms. The farmer has prepared sheets of all figures pertinent to his farm, and he gets a certain payment for receiving guests. The farms also serve as test-grounds for a number of more specialised research-projects. Most of the farms participating are milk-producing and the first results show fine financial situations for the ecological farmers.
The problems of processing ecological foodstuffs are the theme of a project that has just been initiated. It has as its main topics questions like: how do different processing methods influence the nutritive value of foods, and which methods are ecologically acceptable. Further projects that are payed for concern consumer preferences and behavior, scientific documentation, and a number of smaller projects.
Information
Almost 6 million DKr have been given to an "Information Project", which then is the biggest single project. The aim is to give farmers enough background knowledge to take the decision to convert, to inform shop-assistants about the ecological products, and to inform the consumers of the advantages of the ecological production and products.
The establishment of a general secretariat for the trade organizations of ecological producers (BKU see further down) has been granted with 800,000 DKr to provide the farmer-sand others with information.
Support has further been given to courses, conferences, film, videos, and books on ecological farming.
Production and marketing
The dairy-sector has been the greatest receiver of support. A total of 2 million DKr has been given to 4 dairies, primarily to enable alterations in the processing plants, to make separate handling of the ecological milk possible, and to secure a gentle handling of the milk, and for adapting tanklorrys to a gentle transportation of the milk. Further support has been given towards the establishment of a secretariat for the milk-producers organization, towards test-marketing, and towards the development of speciality cheeses.
Within the meat-sector support has been given to a development project concerning processing and marketing of ecological pork and beef. Production and marketing of vegetables has received support to establish regional facilities for storage and packaging.
At this stage, it is clearly too early to know how the law on ecological agriculture will influence production and marketing of ecological products in Denmark. It has been a time-consuming process to bring the different elements to function. The very important instrument the guarantee-label was only usable in the spring of 1990 to give one example. The system also has a built-in period of latency as the conversion of the farms takes time.
Some trends can however be seen, and two of these will be stressed here: the range of products marketed as ecological has increased and the channels of marketing have multiplied, and ecological agriculture has gained acceptance in wider circles.
Products and market channels
Prior to the law vegetables and grain (bread) were the only products marketed as ecological, and healthfood shops and marketplaces the main avenues of sale when ignoring sale at the farms. Now milk and milk-products, pork and beef, and eggs are marketed, and supermarket-chains are important sellers. It is estimated that supermarkets bought 50% of the produced vegetables in 1989 and that the share will be bigger in 1990. Milk-products and processed meat is almost exclusively sold via supermarkets. From the scarce information that exists (BKU), it seems that the production of vegetables in 1989 amounted to 10 - 15,000t with potatoes, carrots, and onions as the main products (70% of the total production). Vegetables were the first group to be introduced in supermarkets, and now a few shops in the affluent region north of Copenhagen sell only ecological potatoes and carrots. Fruit production amounted to 275 t in 1989 including 200 t apples. The corresponding figures for 1990 are for seen to 400 t and 375 t respectively. The surplus prices to the farmers on vegetables have been around 30 %. The consumers have been paying 30 -40% more for the ecological vegetables compared to the conventional ones. Cereals can be divided in two groups: wheat and rye for bread, and fodder grains. Production and sale of wheat and rye has been followed by a special "grain-control" for a number of years and rather precise information exists but not in a form usable for statistics. The production has doubled in the last years to 513 t wheat and 263 t rye in 1988 (personal communication). The farmer I paid a surplus price of around 100% for cereals. The price of ecological flour in the shop is up to 6 times the price of conventional flour. Only very limited information exists as to sale of foddergrains. The main part of the production is used on the farms and only very limited amounts are marketed. The milk-production is expected to reach 40,000 kg/day in 1990. Of the 40 t, 5 t are used for cheese and the rest are sold as milk (full-milk and fatless milk), butter, and buttermilk. The surplus price to the farmer varies between nothing and 403$. In the shop one liter ecological full-milk costs 8 DKr whereas konventional milk costs 6 Dkr. In FDB the sale of ecological milk amounts to 5% of the total milksale but in Copenhagen the percentage is 11%. An other big supermarket-chain has reached a sale of 2G% ecological milk in its shops.
2,000 ecological swines were slaughtered in 1989 giving the farmers a surplus price of 21 DKr/kg which equals 100%. The consumers payed around 35% extra for the ecological pork. In 1990 the production is expected to reach 3,500 swines of which FDB will sell 2,500.
Ecological eggs are a new commodity of which 20,000 kg were sold in 1989 and a sale of 80,000 kg is projected for 1990. The eggs have been a very great succès with the consumers and are sold at prices comparable to those from non-cage hens.
Attitudes towards ecological farming Questioning consumers reveals (12) that almost all consumers recognize the ecological products, and they have a good overall idea of the concept. Most consumers have the feeling that buying ecological products is good for the environment and for their own health. The reason why a majority of consumers do not buy the ecological products seems to be that they have not yet made up their minds to do so. Judging from statements made in the farmers' journals ecological agriculture is now taken much more seriously than previously both among farmers and among their leaders, and the stultification of ecological agriculture has almost disappeared.
New organizational structures The changes in the marketing structure has made the formation of new marketing-organizations necessary. A number of trade organizations (Brancheudvalg) have been established covering vegetables, milk, meat, eggs, and cereals and fodder. It is very important that the trade organizations are inter-ideological, which for instance means the biodynamic and the ecological milk is mixed and processed at the same dairy and sold in the same cartons. To coordinate the trade organizations a board called BKU (Branchekoordineringsudvalget) has been formed.
The establishment of an official control organization and official standards has made an appraisal of the old organizations necessary. Their function as controlling and rule-setting bodies has been more or less superfluous (less so for the biodynamical organization as the official control only concerns the official standards and not the special biodynamical rules). Until now, however, the ecological organization has felt that the official standards were incomplete and have therefore upheld its own set of standards. They are more detailed and on some points more restrictive than the official standards, but at the same time more lenient on others. The consequences in practice is that the farmers have to observe two (the biodynamical farmers three) sets of rules.
It is planned to bring the official standards in line with the new IFOAM Basic Standards and with the same degree of detail as these. When this has happened it will be difficult for the ecological organization to continue as a rule setting and controlling body since that makes things more complicated and expensive than necessary. But the reaction of the organizations are yet to be seen.
The changes in the conditions of production and marketing of ecological products in Denmark have not all happened without friction. The parties involved have not had the same goals, but have more or less openly taken care of special interests. The most visible conflict, at least iii the beginning, was the one between the conventional agriculture (the conventional farmers' organizations, Ministry of Agriculture) and the alternative farmers. The conventional side wanted to limit the ecological agriculture, as much as possible. The ecological farmers have always had the goal to make all agriculture ecological.
In that conflict the conventional side has aimed at making the rules as strict and complicated as possible and to delay matters as long as possible. As an example of the former the four-year rule for conversion support can be cited. A farmer can be authorised with a period of conversion of up to 6 years, but to get economic support for the conversion he has to complete this within 4 years. This means an effective barrier to the conversion of bigger farms. As an example of unnecessarily complicated rules it can be mentioned that while the support for conversion is given per converted area (cultivated land) the amount of support (which depends on number of animals per hectar) is calculated from the total farm area (including part of the farms non-cultivated land). The fact that it took three years after the passing of the law to finish the guatantee-labed can be cited as an example of unnecessary delay. The question of official or privately organised control has been another important topic of conflict. The ecological/biodynamical organizations have worked for a scheme where the organizations keep the control but under supervision of an official body that has the responsibility for the authorisation and control. The main arguments in favour of such a scheme were 1) a more effective control as it is more difficult to cheat one of the "friends" than a "policeman", and 2) that the control would be cheaper especially for the biodynamic farmers as a double control would be avoided. Further there was the fear in the organizations that the standards could be "bent". If the ecological products should become a financial success, it is easy to foresee a political pressure from conventional farmers and supermarkets to change some of the "silly" rules that are a hindrance to a fast enlargement of the production. Another kind of problem has arisen from the (in relation to former times) great influx of research-money into the field of ecological agriculture most of which has gone into the existing conventional research-institutions. The problem is not that the researchers are negative towards ecological agriculture but that it is very difficult both at the personal and at the institutional level to skip the traditional reductionistic way of thinking. As an example one may look at the attitude towards plant nutrients. In the ecological littérature the nutrients are of secondary importance. H.P. Rusch (13) writes scornfully of "Närstoffdenken", and Preuschen (14) claims that the fundamental flaw in the conventional agriculture is the weight placed on nutrient balance and availability when the real problem is one of the energy balance in the soil. These insights have had no impact on the conventionally thinking researchers and advisors who are now working in the field of ecological agriculture. As a consequence, we see researchers advising farmers on e.g. manurial strategy based on "nutrient-thinking" even though they acknowledge having a very limited understanding of the system of an ecological farm. The main focus in research on weeds has been on mechanical weed-control and not on the role of weeds in the ecological system and indirect ways of weed-regulation, and so on.
Traditionally Denmark is an agricultural country with a big export of agricultural products. This will continue in the future and it is the present writer's opinion that ecological products will come to contribute significantly within this decade. The main reason for this contention is the steadily growing awareness of the environmental problems in the population in general. As importing country, Western Germany is especially interesting since it has a big, affluent population and since the awareness of the environmental problems is great among the German consumers. Denmark is in a favourable position to take advantage of this situation: Denmark is known to be a country with only little pollution, and the Danish ecological products can as a result of the official control and guarantee-label count on a high degree of trustworthiness. A more or less total conversion of Danish agriculture to ecological methods will give a number of problems and structural changes. They have been analysed in the report "Ecological Alternatives to Danish Agriculture" (in Danish) (15). The main conclusions are that the consequences of a total conversion of Danish agriculture will be:
- a reduction in the use of resources. Energy-consumption within the agricultural system will be reduced with 50%- significant environmental Improvements. Loss of nitrogen will be reduced by 40%
- significant improvement of animal-welfare
- bigger surplus in foreign trade with agricultural products and commodities for agriculture even without a premium-price for the products. A 10% surplus on the price of the exported ecological products will increase the balance of payment of agricultural products with 30%.
Le développement de la production et la commercialisation des produits écologiques au Danemark. par T.V. Østergaard, Conseil de l'Agriculture Ecologiques du Danemark
Le Danemark se trouve dans la situation unique d'avoir une législature qui définit la production écologiques et lui assure une subvention économique d'environ 30 million de couronnes danoises qui peule être utilisées chaque année comme aide aux agriculteurs passants à l'agriculture écologique, comme aide aux conseillers, aux projets de développement dans les domaines de la production, de la transformation et de la commercialisation et comme aide à l'information et à la recherche. Par conséquent, la production, ainsi que l'even-tail de produits qui sont mis en vente comme écologiques et le nombre de débouchés ont augmenté. Des nouvelles organisations ont été créées et des nouveaux rôles sont prévus pour celles déjà existantes. L'ouvrage actuel décrit ce processus et quelques-uns des problèmes qui se sont présentés.
(1) ANON. (1989): IFOAM Basic Standards of Organic Agriculture. General Secretariat, Imsbach, D-6695 Tholey-Theley.
(2) FRAJA (1977): Handbog i landbosaetning (Handbook in Rural Settlement). Informations Forlag, Denmark
(3) ANON. (1988): Redegorelse om Økologisk Jordbrug (Report on Ecological Agriculture). Ministry of Agriculture, Copenhagen
(4) ANON. (1987): Lov om økologisk jordbrugsproduktion (Law on Ecological Agricultural Production). Ministry of Agriculture, Copenhagen.
(5) ANON. (198G): Redegorelse om miljørmaessige konsekvenser ved overgang til økologisk jordbrug. (Environmental consequences of conversion to ecological agriculture). Ministry of the Environment, Copenhagen.
(6) TØNNESEN, C. (1986): Alternative produktionssystemer i dansk landbrug - vilkår og perspektiver. (Alternative Production-systems in Danish Agriculture - Conditions and Perspectives). Roskilde Universitets Center.
(7) ANON. (1987): Bekendtgørelse om økologisk jordbrugsproduktion (Executive Order on Ecological Agricultural Production). Ministry of Agriculture, Copenhagen.
(8) ANON. (1984): Standards for Organic Farming.
(9) ANON. (1989): Bekendtgørelse om maerkning af økologiske levnedsmidler (Executive Order on Ecological Foods). Ministry of Agriculture, Copenhagen.
(10) ANON. (1990): Vejledning til Maerkningsbekendtgørelsen. (Instructions to the Executive Order on Ecological Foods). Ministry of Agriculture, Copenhagen.
(11) KRISTENSEN, E. S. & HENNEBERG, U. (1989): Projekt "Økologiske Dyrkningssystemer" - Teknisk-økonomiske resultater 1988-89. (The project "Ecological Agricultural Systems" - Technical and Economical Results). 661. Beretning fra Statens Husdyrbrugsforsøg p. 146-164.
(12) BJERKE, F. (1988): Foreløbig Rapport om den Økologiske Uge pa Østerbro (Preliminary Report of the Ecological Week in Østerbro (Copenhagen)). Roskilde Universitets Center.
(13) RUSCH, H. P. (1968): Bodenfruchtbarkeit. Eine Studie biologischen Denkens. Haug Verlag.
(14) PREUSCHEN, G (1988): Mensch und Natur - Partner oder Gegner?. Leopold Stocker Verlag.
(15) ANON. (1987): Økologiske alternativer til dansk landbrug (Ecological Alternatives to Danish Agriculture) Ministry of the Environment, Copenhagen.
Introduction
The development of ecological agriculture
The Saarland model
The essential characteristics of ecological agriculture
The economics of ecological agriculture
The significance and challenge of ecological agriculture
Future perspectives for ecological agriculture
Summary
The minister for economic affairs in the Saarland
Hajo Hoffmann
The Saarland is an industrial region. Nevertheless, despite the fact that economic factors are causing agriculture to retreat from commercial and business life, approximately 50 per cent of the land is still farmed. In addition to supplying the Saarland people with top-quality fresh food immediately suited to the consumer's needs, agriculture is also taking on an important social and political role as the guardian and caretaker of the open countryside. This natural landscape - with its elements of earth, water and air as well as its many habitats for plant and animal life - does not merely provide the basis for agriculture; it also offers living and recreation space for all those who reside in this metropolitan area but who do not directly live off the land.
Almost two thirds of the Saarland's agricultural surface is deemed to be disadvantaged as defined in the EC's Mountain Farmers Programme. In wide areas of the state, agriculture is thus characterised by unfavourable locations which cause higher food production costs than those situations where basic agricultural conditions are better. This results in family farm businesses which are no longer capable of adequately supporting themselves from the yield of food production alone - especially those in areas where Nature is not particularly accommodating.
In future, the maintenance of land cultivated by man and typified by the farming way of life will therefore be assume an integrated agricultural and ecological strategy aimed at returning agribusiness to more extensive, environment-friendly forms of tillage and at rewarding the farmers for their concomitant services to the local ecology.
Nowadays, any one federal state's room to move in farm policy terms is necessarily restricted since most of the responsibility for agricultural decisions has, in essence, been transferred to the various bodies of the European Community. Even so - within the constraints of its own possibilities - that federal state must seek out new agricultural-political ways at all administrative levels in order to defuse the conflict between economics and ecology, to reduce surplus production and to guarantee a long-term income for the farmers.
In this sense, the Saarland has exploited the farming policy jurisdiction that is at its disposal in order to transform direct production-neutral income payments into an important instrument of incomes policy and, in doing so, to shape this assistance in such a way that income objectives as well as considerations of nature and environment protection may equally be served.
The role of ecological agriculture was a very minor one until about 1970, after which a strong upward trend can be noted. The number of eco-farms and the area of organically-tilled land has greatly "increased over the last few years. In 1988, there were 2,608 eco-farms in the Federal Republic of Germany (i.e. 0.38% of all farming business). They cultivated approximately 54,000 hectares or 0.46% of the entire agriculturally-used land in West Germany (Illustration).
Equivalent figures for the EC during the comparison year of 1987 are: 7.413 ecologically-organised farms and 103,000 hectares. Nearly two thirds of these farms and three quarters of the tilled land are accounted for by France and the Federal Republic alone.
The figures for ecologically-cultivated farms and land in the Federal Republic of Germany break down as follows for the individual federal states:
|
Federal State |
Farms |
Surface area |
||
|
overall |
per cent |
in ha |
per cent |
|
|
Baden-Württemberg |
699 |
0.58 |
12,024 |
0.82 |
|
Bavaria (estimated) |
879 |
0.38 |
16,206 |
0.48 |
|
Hesse |
184 |
0.37 |
4,338 |
0.56- |
|
Lower Saxony1 |
260 |
0.24 |
6,033 |
0.22 |
|
North Rhine-Westphalia |
273 |
0.32 |
6,639 |
0.42 |
|
Rheinland-Palatinate |
168 |
0.29 |
2,805 |
0.36 |
|
Saarland |
22 |
0.62 |
712 |
1.03 |
|
Schleswig-Holstein2 |
123 |
0.40 |
5,074 |
0.47 |
|
Federal Republic of Germany |
2,608 |
0.38 |
53,831 |
0.46 |
1) including Bremen and West Berlin
2) including HamburgSource: Institute for Agrarian Policy and Agricultural Economics at the University of Hohenheim (obtained from the Association for Ecological Agriculture)
Over the last year, sixteen new eco-farms have started up business in the Saarland in that, within the framework of the EC Extensive Agriculture Programme, they switched their entire operations to ecological land cultivation. These farms till an area of altogether 900 hectares - in other words, 2.2% of the Saarland's agricultural land is now farmed under the provisions of the guidelines for ecological agriculture. This puts the Saarland at the top of the federal league in West Germany. I confidently expect that, by the middle of the Nineties, we will have succeeded in converting four to five per cent of the total agricultural business to organic farming techniques.
Since 1987, the Saarland has had a specific programme of sponsoring farms wanting to switch from a conventional agriculture to an ecologically-oriented one. During the conversion phase, direct income subsidies of up to DM 10,000 - depending on the type of farm - are available. This amount was later raised to DM 20,000, though it is worth emphasising that these payments are only made over a fixed period of time and are not to be seen as a permanent subsidy.
In this way, loss of income during the conversion phase can be cushioned, or at least partly. This fall in income is caused by the fact that farms in the process of re-organising have to forgo certain yield-increasing devices, which clearly means a decline in productivity, whilst not yet being able to enjoy the higher prices that the consumer is prepared tp pay for organic produce.
This conversion benefit was unique in both the Federal Republic and the whole of the EC and, initially, the policy came in for a lot of criticism as it was interpreted as giving an unfair advantage to ecological agriculture - reservations which have since been withdrawn. Indeed, the Commission of the EC was inspired by the idea and has recently incorporated provisions for furthering ecological agriculture conversion into its EC Extensive Agriculture Programme.
As a result of this specific programme for the sponsoring of conversions from traditional agriculture to ecological farming, the number of Saarland's farmers interested in this method of land cultivation has significantly increased. Compared to a similar starting position in the Federal Republic as a whole, the proportional number of eco-farms to the overall number of farms and the proportion of ecologically-tilled land to the overall farming area in the Saarland is considerably higher than the federal average. Last year, in fact, the Saarland figures were twice as high as related figures in the rest of the Federal Republic of Germany.
If these bare statistics - 22 farms utilising ecological farming techniques over a combined surface area of 712 hectares - do not entirely satisfy, neither from an environmental point of view nor from a potential demand perspective, such a growth rate does indicate that the Saarland farmers are giving these farming policy signals a positive reception and actually putting them into practice. After all, it cannot be ignored that the decision to re-organise a farm along ecological lines not only requires thorough planning; a certain economic risk is also involved, at least during the transition period. Any re-organisation places the highest pressures on the competence of the farmer or farm manager, both in general terms of overall agricultural method and particularly in terms of marketing.
The Saarland's extensive agriculture measures are not merely limited to the conversion to ecological farming methods; they are also aimed at a reduction in the yield intensity of the conventionally-run farms so that, as comprehensively as possible, an vital contribution can be made in the world of agriculture to easing the antagonism between cost-effectiveness on the one hand and ecology on the other.
This scheme for the promotion of extensive agriculture is also unprecedented because of the loss-of-income allowance made available by the EC Mountain Farmers Programme. This instrument was designed -with the Saarland as the only federal state in Germany participating - to ensure that farmers farming extensively (i.e. not fully exhausting the yield potential of their lands) should be singled out for reward. The measure Used for the base calculation of intensive farming is large livestock units per hectare of fodder plant area, from which maize cultivation is discounted. At the same time, a social component is implemented in that farms with a rising income capacity receive lower subsidies. Trimming the loss-of-income allowances along these specific lines means that the actual grant varies between DM 60.00 and DM 240.00 depending on the use intensity of fodder plant area and on the income capacity.
This system illustrates that it is indeed possible to fashion already existing sponsorship schemes in such a way that, in addition to serving objectives of income, they equally pay heed to the requirements of nature and environment protection as well as relieving the market.
This is only logical since the problem of surplus and the problem of environmental pollution generated by agriculture both stem from the same cause: they are the consequences of marketing and pricing policies which, over the years, have induced farmers to constantly increase the intensity of their production.
For this reason, it is obvious that the problem of surpluses and the economics-against-ecology conflict can only be solved by an appropriate implementation of the existing sponsorship schemes. Such a solution is infinitely superior to a system where new promotion ideas but diverging objectives are frequently being conceived - with the danger, of course, that ultimately the individual measures are no longer consistent with one another.
One typical example of this is the abandoning of farmland - a practice which runs diametrically opposite to the objectives of an agriculture science as widely extensive and environment-friendly as possible i.e. the very objectives addressed by an ecological agriculture with its twin pillars of loss-of-income allowances and conversion grants.
Operating a farm on an ecologically-agricultural basis requires a distinctive systematic understanding. The principle is that of viewing the farm and the unity of animal or plant life as a whole in which the individual product directions - in particular crop and animal rearing - are all co-ordinated to one another. The overall target is the healthy stabilisation of the food chain Soil-Plant-Animal-Man and the production of nutrition which is wholesome and biologically unobjectionable at one and the same time.
For arable farming, it is imperative that the rotation of crops be expanded so that (a) the biological activity of the soil is stimulated and (b) plant disease and pest infestation can be prevented.
The main characteristics of ecological agricultural as opposed to conventional agriculture are:
- a more varied rotation of crops (fewer cereals, more fodder plants and vegetables - especially a greater proportion of pulses),- livestock numbers matched to the surface area and thus a more sensible use of the accruing manure,
- the farming of cultivated plants suitable to the location and the maintenance of reliable livestock breeds with special consideration of resistance to sickness and animal health,
- dispensing with the deployment of chemical-synthetic fertilisers or pesticides and any other chemical-synthetic means of artificially increasing results, which leads to
- lower yields per hectare and lower capacities in the keeping of animals.
When it comes to cost-effectivity, typical differences between ecologically-oriented and conventionally-run farms may be determined from the data material evaluated in the Agricultural Report (published by Central Government).
Ecologically-cultivated farms have admittedly lower yields per hectare and lower yields in animal breeding as a consequence of the refusal to use certain production-boosting methods; on the other hand, the prices for the producer are considerably higher - especially in the case of vegetable crops and possibly, depending on the marketing, in the case of milk and milk-derived products too.
On ecological farms, there is more work to be done which means higher wage costs. These, however, can be balanced against savings in fertilisers and pesticides as well as against savings in additional expenditure on livestock and fodder.
According to the Federal Government's Agricultural Report, those farms running on ecological principles during the financial year 1988/89 obtained profit levels - calculated on a family employee basis - ten per cent higher than the profits shown by comparable conventionally-operated farming businesses. This success was not just limited to the last financial year: over the last four financial years, the average profit returned per family employee on ecologically-run experimental farms was 8.2% higher than that of comparable farms operating conventionally (appendix). Such successes can be traced back to higher yields in soil utilisation, particularly in the form of higher prices for the producer.
Compared to the mean earnings of all full-time farms, the profits from ecological agriculture are indubitably lower. However, it must be pointed out that the results of the larger farms are influenced by the role of locations more favourable for farming - in other words, a real comparison is hardly permissible.
Now, as in the past, the marketing possibilities for the animal products from eco-farms have not yet been fully explored. These products are mostly sold through conventional channels so that any additional profit leading on from a higher price can not be fully realised.
If, in the foreseeable future, the milk which is organically produced can be sold separately at the diary, then the profitability of the eco-farms concerned would rise very considerably. For example: a farm with twenty cows would earn DM 7,500 marks more if the litre price of milk were to be increased by 10 pfennigs.
This comparatively good outcome for farms working on the principles of ecological agriculture does not even take their full ecological effect into account - an effect which, fundamentally speaking, deserves society's remuneration as well as respect; an effect, which fully justifies support measures for the conversion of conventional farms to ecological agriculture.
In its special report of 1985, the Expert Committee for Environmental Matters - which answers to the Central Government's Minister for the Environment - identified ecological agriculture as one branch of the economy that works in particular harmony with the balance of nature and that is exemplary for the protection of the species.
Ecologically-oriented farms which reject the deployment of chemical-synthetical fertilisers and pesticides are not only in a position to satisfy a specialised demand potential for certain farm produce and to relieve the market of food surpluses; they are also acknowledged to be making a direct contribution to the conservation of natural resources and of the environment.
Their significance is, therefore, not simply confined to the total number of farms or the expanse of the land tilled. The ecologically-operated farms - supported by both the media and a critical public -have also set into motion an important discussion as to the pros and contras of conventional farming. There is an increased public awareness of the false developments in farming production brought about by misguided agricultural policies - especially those of the EC - which have had unmistakably pernicious consequences not only for the economy but also for nature and the environment.
The EC's agricultural policies, which were too biassed towards the pegging of prices, has surrendered European agriculture to the inexorable pressure of having to swiftly implement technological advances in terms of wide-ranging rationalisation and more cost - cutting measures through boosting production. Needless to say, this is linked to the danger that the use of crop-intensifying methods -i.e. inorganic fertilisers and pesticides - takes on exaggerated proportions from a point of view of both time and quantity. The aftermath for the decline of the species as well as the pollution of the countryside and groundwater with nitrates and pesticides are visible for everyone to see.
The proponents of ecologically-oriented farming perceive their notions as an alternative to this unwelcome development. Even if -within the framework of prevailing agriculture policy conditions -the number of eco-farms is relatively limited, the method as such represents a challenge nevertheless - a challenge for science, consultation agencies and farming practice as well as a challenge to the politics of agriculture, economics and society.
By means of criticism and stimulating ideas, ecological agriculture has not only provided conventional agricultural science with food for thought. By calling into question the whole concept of chemical-synthetic farming techniques, it has - not least - raised the issue of how to handle these chemicals efficiently.
Ecological farming places greater demands on production techniques and marketing methods than conventional agribusiness does, mostly during the conversion phase. The farm manager or - in the case of family farms - the farmer and his family must all agree to the conversion. A high degree of multifaceted expert knowledge, keen powers of observation and insight into the ecological interconnection of things... these are all skills expected of the farm manger or the farmer on an ecologically-organised farm.
Both at farmer training level and at government office levels these special requirements must be reflected in various syllabi, in advice programmes and in further education.
It is estimated that, since the beginning of the Eighties, the annual growth rate in the consumption of organic farm produce is approximately 20%. According to survey findings, this trend will continue over the coming years and, indeed, is capable of improvement.
This consumption growth rate is pre-eminently the result of the following facts:
According to opinion polls, it is not just the buyers of today but also the majority of the population who prefer the health value and taste of organically-grown products to those of conventionally produced food. It is irrelevant that the consumer does not back up such preferences with scientific evidence: any marketing strategy must now orient itself to the consumer's subjective attitudes.
More and more consumers are quite prepared to pay higher prices for the produce of ecologically-operated farms, because they can thus consciously support an environment-friendly branch of the economy and a species-appropriate method of animal husbandry.
Domestic eco-farms have not yet been in a position to meet rising demand from their own production and neither will they be able to do so in the foreseeable future. For this reason, part of this market is catered for by imports with the goods increasingly reaching the consumer via chain stores - the outcome being that, at both producer and trade levels, the usually strict controls imposed by the various Ecological Agriculture Associations are frequently not guaranteed.
The competition to win the buying potential for ecological farm products will considerably intensify in the future. More and more farmers - encouraged by the EC Extensive Agriculture Programme - realise that, against a background of ecological agriculture techniques, there is a real chance of improved sales for their produce at more favourable prices. And improved sales can lead to a secure livelihood. In the last year alone since the EC Extensive
Agriculture Programme was introduced, the number of ecologically-oriented farms and the number of hectares cultivated by these farms has more that doubled.
With the implementation of the European Single Market, the expanding market for organically-grown farm produce will become a much more aggressive one. It is important that this development be confronted with a deliberate marketing strategy - a strategy which must, above all, take the following aspects into account:
- General experience has shown that, when it comes to demand for products from ecologically-operated farms, the popularity of such articles is correlated to the success of convincing the consumers of the special advantages of domestically-grown produce.- Species-appropriate animal husbandry methods under the direct control of the farmer must be emphasised as a decisive factor in creating a positive image for an environmentally-friendly agriculture and its products.
- Market proximity and production method transparency are factors which must be better exploited in any sales campaigns.
- Consumer advisory services, publicity relations and other consultation procedures should be designed, more effectively than has been the case in the past, with a view to keeping the consumer better informed as to the benefits of ecological farming.
- In order to safeguard the market position of produce from domestic eco-farms against competition from abroad and in order to improve consumer protection, the Associations should set up a unified system for a label indicating either proof of origin or a seal of approval on all domestically-grown products from ecologically-run farms.
- So that consumer demands for a reliable guarantee of production method may be satisfied, a strict and co-ordinated system of self control is required on the part of the Associations.
- It is time for the public perception of organically-grown produce from eco-farms to be enhanced i.e. with regard to processing, sorting, packing and presentation.
- On average, ecological agriculture and conventional framing alike draw the predominant share of their income from animal production, which is one current area where - in most cases -higher prices can not be realised.
To a very great extent, therefore, the development chances for ecological agriculture will be determined by the marketing of animal produce - especially of milk and milk-derived articles. The sooner and the better a successful distribution and marketing concept for milk products is evolved in conjunction with the dairy industry, the more attractive it will be for all those farmers already interested but still hesitant to convert to ecological agriculture.
The EC Agricultural Price Policy has encouraged production increases for far too long and has thus brought about problems of surplus and problems for the environment.
Consequently, farmers will have to reckon with a restrictive EC price policy in the years ahead. This new policy - the first steps have already been taken - must, however, be flanked by pinpointed, production-neutral, direct income allowances to avoid a drastic decline in agricultural income and to prevent farmers from falling by the wayside.
Agriculture in regions put at a disadvantage by Nature - the Saarland, for example - would be one of the foremost affected. It is precisely here that important social responsibilities are expected of agriculture over and above the production of food as such, namely, the upkeep of a landscape inhabited by man for living, settling and recreational purposes and as the basis for a variegated animal and plant life.
On economic, social and ecological grounds, agricultural policies must therefore unequivocally choose between, on the one hand, an agriculture that is compatible with the soil, friendly to the environment and as extensive as possible and, on the other hand, an industrial agribusiness in desirable locations which entails monocultural production methods, non-species-appropriate animal husbandry and serious damage to Nature and the environment.
In this context, Saarland has shown itself to be a forerunner. Although the agricultural-political room to move here is admittedly narrow, it has been exploited as far as possible to guide agricultural production - by means of more extensive and ecologically-conscious farming techniques - towards an integrated agricultural and environmental policy. At the same time, the Saarland model remunerates the farmers' loss in profit and their commitment to the environment.
In the Saarland, the Extensive Agriculture Measures apply not only to conventionally-operated farms but also to the conversion from conventional farming to ecological agriculture. Exemplary here was the loss-of-income allowance payable under the provisions of the EC Mountain Farmers Programme. Deviating from practice in other states, the Saarland used these allowance possibilities to reward those farmers who farmed extensively - those farmers, that is to say, who do not totally exhaust the yield potential of their land. The measure of intensity used as a calculation base is the number of large livestock kept per hectare of fodder plant, though it should be recalled that maize does not categorise as a fodder plant. The Saarland was the first state within the Federal Republic of Germany to sponsor systematically the conversion of farms to ecological agriculture. Since the Extensive Agriculture Programme available at EC level now reveals clear signs - in both concept and design - of having been inspired by the Saarland Model, we may claim with complete justification that it was the Saarland which played the pioneering role.
Ecologically-organised farms compared to conventionally-run farms
Average for the financial years 1984/5 - 1988/89
|
Index |
Unit |
Farms operating within the framework of the AGÖL Guidelines |
Conventionally - run farms |
|
Farm Size |
ha farmland |
28.5 |
27.5 |
|
Farmworkers |
FW/farm |
2.0 |
1.6 |
|
Type of Crop |
|||
|
Wheat |
% of AL |
53.3 |
65.2 |
|
Potatoes |
% of AL |
4.2 |
2.1 |
|
Field vegetables and other market crops |
% of AL |
11.5 |
7.0 |
|
Silo maize |
% of AL |
2.7 |
13.6 |
|
Other fodder plants |
% of AL |
28.4 |
10.0 |
|
Livestock |
LU/100 ha FL |
111.3 |
150.7 |
|
Yield |
|||
|
Wheat |
100 kg/ha |
37.0 |
55.9 |
|
Rye |
100 kg/ha |
29.3 |
41.5 |
|
Potatoes |
100 kg/ha |
171.2 |
279.2 |
|
Milk production |
kg/cow/year |
3,655 |
4,216 |
|
Return on business including |
DM/ha FL |
4,712 |
4,774 |
|
Crop products |
DM/ha FL |
1,097 |
636 |
|
Animal Products |
DM/ha FL |
2,447 |
3,168 |
|
Business expenditure including |
DM/ha FL |
3,492 |
3,551 |
|
Fertilisers |
DM/ha FL |
38 |
275 |
|
Pesticides |
DM/ha FL |
3.5 |
90 |
|
Labour costs |
DM/ha FL |
334 |
71 |
|
Profit |
DM/ha FL |
1,221 |
1,203 |
|
Profit |
DM/Farm |
34,801 |
33,670 |
|
Profit |
DM/FE |
24,105 |
22,129 |
AGÖL = Association for Ecological Agriculture
FW = farmworker
AL = arable land
LU = large livestock units
FL = farmland
FE = family employe
