Session 6,1 - Biological agriculture in Central Italy
Session 6,2 - The biological agriculture in the Mediterranean Areas
Session 6,3 - The experience of ANCA - Lega in the field of biological and controlled productions
Session 6,4 - L'agriculture biologique et la recherche agronomique en France
Session 6,5 - Research, development and practice of organic agriculture in Britain
Session 6,6 - Support for organic agriculture in the United Kingdom
Session 6,7 - Biological agriculture in Scotland
Session 6,8 - Ecological agriculture in Norway. Research and teaching
Session 6,9 - Biological agriculture in Sweden: An overview of the current situation
Session 6,10 - The national board of agriculture
Session 6,11 - Ecological agriculture in Finland
Session 6,12 - Danish research in ecological agriculture 1990.
Session 6,13 - Research in ecological cropping systems at the Danish research service for plant and soil science.
Session 6,14 - Methodology for research in organic livestock systems.
Session 6,15 - Present situation and future for research projects within plant production in organic agriculture at the Danish research service for plant and soil science.
Session 6,16 - Research on integrated arable farming and organic mixed farming in the Netherlands
Session 6,17 - Research and education -needs and requirements at universities
Session 6,18 - Biological agriculture in Austria
Session 6,19 - Legislation and measures for the solving of environmental problems resulting from agricultural practices, their economic consequences and the impact on agrarian structures and farm rationalization
Session 6,20 - La coopérative bio Gemüse AVG Galmiz
Summary
1. Relevance
2. Farming structure
3. Associations
4. Extension and training.
5. Marketing and controls
6. Research
Résumé: L'agriculture biologique en Italie Centrale
M. BUSINELLI * and F.M. SANTUCCI. **
* Istituto di Chimica Agraria** Istituto di Economia e Politica Agraria Università degli Studi, Borgo XX Giugno 74, 06100 Perugia
The authors briefly describe biological farming in Central Italy, where the number of farms practicing this type of production is growing very fast. Biological farmers are younger than the average and the size of the farms is bigger than the average. Most enterprises are market-oriented. Recently established groups and associations offer technical support, training and quality control that are not yet normally provided by public institutions. The demand for biological products, both fresh and processed, is very high and a full range of marketing channels exists. Specific, official research programs have not yet begun, but increasing numbers of researchers are showing interest in this subject. Of the 4 regions in Central Italy, only Lazio has already issued a regional law.
At the present moment, the various forms of biological farming in the 4 regions of Central Italy (Toscana, Marche, Umbria and Lazio) are not very significant, comparing the farms' number and outputs (quantity and value) with the corresponding regional totals. Analysing various indications provided in 1989 by some surveys (Albrizio & Donnhauser, Santucci & Rogo, Milanesi, D'Ignazi) we can estimate that there are at least 400 commercially oriented biological farms in Central Italy, with an average size of about 30 ha, leading to a total surface of 12,000 ha. About half of this hectarage is still under conversion from conventional to biological methods.
We must point out that the farmers' interests in this type of farming system is very high and all data may be underestimated and/or surpassed within a short time.
Waiting for the national law and/or for the EEC regulation, the regional governments are aware of this interest and a regional law has already been issued in Lazio (LR n. 51/89), whereas in the other regions legal proposals exist.
The average farm size is 3-4 times bigger than the regional average: for the entire Central Italy it is 30 hectares (33 in Umbria, 45,5 in Toscana, smaller in Lazio and Marche). Biological farming is. not an endogenous movement: many farms have been established only recently, by both farmers coming from other regions and foreigners who have moved from other countries. I.e. in Umbria, non-Italian farmers are 22% of the total and in many other cases the foreign wife has influenced the husband's choice.
Only 22% of farms are located in the plains; the majority (69%) are located in the hills and 19% in the mountains. This is due to three main reasons: the search for a less polluted environment than the plains; the lower land value in marginal areas; the lesser competition with high-income enterprises.
On the largest holdings, the prevailing enterprises are cereals and fodder with animal husbandry, whereas on the smallest we find more labour-intensive orientations, such as vegetables. Vineyards, olive groves and fruit-trees are also very present. Biological farmers, especially those with low output, increase their income by processing the raw materials into richer products, as bread and cakes, jams, conserves etc..
Hospitality is offered by a good number of farms and represents a good marketing opportunity for all products.,
Numerous associations have been founded in Central Italy more or less recently, but two negative aspects still persist: 1) some farmers are not members of any of them 2) the small size of some associations does not allow to give any real technical support to their members, nor to have a sufficient political strength.
In Italy, the public and semi-public extension services are presently recovering from a long period of inefficiency, but biological farming is not yet considered as a priority. A growing number of extension agents, however, are personally interested in this topic. All regions have extension programs aimed at reducing the use of fine-chemicals, which is one of the aspects of biological farming.
Forty-three percent of biological farmers in Central Italy do not receive any advice, whereas 46% are supported by agents from their associations, 9% are somehow assisted by private consultors and/or public extension agents.
The farmers of Central Italy are better linked to public institutions than those in other parts of the nation: 33% have got some financial support (for investments and/or annual anticipations), versus 20% in Northern Italy and 19% in Southern Italy.
Vocational education opportunities in biological farming are becoming more and more available, since local authorities (Regions, Provinces and Municipalities) are funding short courses for Biological Farmers' Associations. No evaluation of these courses has yet been made.
The demand for biological food, both fresh and processed, is very high. The number of specialized retailers and of supermarkets offering some biological products is consequently increasing every year.
Respect of IFOAM's rules and recommendations is controlled on 39% of the farms by association technicians. Twenty percent of producers have their produce analyzed at their own expense by public or private labs.
The prevailing marketing channel is direct sale on the farm, followed by middle men and wholesalers. Many producers have their own local distribution, through markets and retailers. Some very interesting experiences exist, both on the individual farm and co-operative level. They have been able to penetrate into national and foreign markets.
Italian legislation on food processing however is somewhat obsolete and limits some feasible development that could generate new perspectives for biological products.
In Italy many institutions are responsible for agricultural research: universities, the National Research Council, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and also some centres established by regional administrations.
Actually no research program is openly dealing with biological farming, but many programs are focusing on innovations having lower environmental impact.
An "Institute for Biological Agriculture" (INAB) has been recently established, but is not yet operating in Central Italy.
The researchers of all the institutions will hopefully operate in a more coordinated way in order to achieve a more integrated approach to the biological farming systems.
The research in the "Istituto di Chimica Agraria" of Perugia also cover the detoxification of pesticides in agricultural products (Marucchini & Businelli). This research could develop analytical methods useful for determining whether a given product has been treated or not. This could definitively solve the discussion about the trust to be given to biological products.
Les auteurs donnent une brève description de l'agriculture biologique en Italie Centrale, où le nombre d'exploitations qui pratiquent ce système de production sont en forte augmentation. Les Agriculteurs biologiques sont plus jeunes par rapport à la moyenne et la surface des exploitations est majeure. La plupart des productions sont orientées vers un marché bien déterminé. Des Associations et groupes, récemment fondés, offre du support technique, formation et contrôle de qualité, services qui ne sont normalement pas fournis par les institutions publiques. La demande pour les produits biologiques, soit frais et transformés, est très forte et il y a divers voies de commercialisation. On n'a pas encore commencé des programmes de recherches, mais un nombre toujours majeur de chercheurs s'intéresse à ces sujets. Des quatre régions de l'Italie Centrale, seul la région Lazio dispose déjà d'une loi régionale.
REFERENCES
(1) ALBRIZIO, M. and DONNHAUSER, C. (1989). Indagine sull'Agricoltura biologica in Italia. Agricoltura Biologica, 4, 14-18.
(2) D'IGNAZI, G. (1989). esperienze e prospettive dell'agricoltura biologica nelle Marche. Prisma, 14, 40-42.
(3) MARUCCHINI, C. and BUSINELLI, M. (1987). Residui e prodotti di trasformazione di alcuni fungicidi sistemici in vegetali trattati. Atti del 6° Simposio Chimica degli Antiparassitari. Piacenza 26-27 Novembre.
(4) MILANESI, M. (1989). Primi risultati del Censimento delle aziende biologiche toscane. Mimeo. ETSAF, Firenze.
(5) SANTUCCI, F.M. and ROGO, R. (1989). Il movimento biologico in Umbria. Mimeo. Istituto di Economia e Politica Agraria, Perugia.
Summary
1 - Introduction
2 - The development of the biological way of farming
3 - Conclusions
L'agriculture biologique dans le secteur méditerranéen
References
R. ROGO
ERA Ente Ricerca Applicata Soc. Cons. a.r.l.
Perugia - ITALIA
In the south of Europe, the biological way of farming can provide not only an effective environmental protection, but. Also a good economical chance to Increase the Income of the local farmers. The Environment limitations of the mediterranean agriculture could be compensated by high quality productions.
The handicap of a further development of the biological way of farming is fundamentally the lack of transformation industries and delivery organizations.
The most experiences in the mediterranean areas of biological agriculture, is localized in the European countries: Spain, South of France and Italy. Very little experience is in Greece and in the African countries of the mediterranean Sea.
The type or biological production and the biofarm structure it self are in the south of Europe quite different from the continental ones, where anyway the biological method was born. In the south the close-circle farm is uncommon the cuttle with pasture and hay production as well. Sometimes there are sheeps and goats breeding for milk and meat production, however very seldom the farm is self-sufficient in manure production.
The most frequent cultivations based on biological systems are the traditional ones, as they adapt more to mediterranean conditions. Best results are obtained with cereals: wheat and "durum" wheat, spelt and barley, but also with legumes, olive oil and wine production, citrus fruits and so on. In the recent years good productions are obtained with greenhouse vegetables, where the biological pest control gives positive results. Very good productions are obtained with tomatoes, peppers and with strawberries as well. On average, using biological methods for adapted species, the production levels are not inferior then 10% in comparison with the production levels of the conventional methods. Furthermore, when the cultivations are localized on marginal area with restrictive environmental factor, the biological method seems to be more successful to increase the production.
On the other side, for plain industrial cultivations, the production decrease with biological method can be around 30 - 40%. The situation is worse for summer irrigated vegetables, maize and sugar-beet then for fruits production.
Actually the reasons of this heavy decrease are two:
- above all, the genetic varieties of cultivated plants, artificially, hybridized, are low disease resistant, and subject to water and nutritional stresses. These plants are very delicate and in order to yield high quantities they have to be supported by artificial input: chemical pesticide and fertilizer;- the farmers don't have enough technical options in the biological way of production. They need biological pest control, special machines genetic resistant varieties and specific organic fertilizers.
Only in the very last years the research is holding in due consideration the consequences of the extreme use of chemicals and artificial inputs.
The importance of the biological farming system for the environment protection is already accepted, but the method can be really effective only if it is able to produce enough income for the farmers.
The peculiar climatic, soil and altitude conditions of the mediterranean areas and the technical resources for the biological way of farming actually permit sufficient production only with traditional adapted cultivations or on the other side, with greenhouse production, where the use of biological methods of pest control is possible.
This is the present, situation.
The development of biological farming system, especially in the mediterranean area, is linked with the market, increase of biological food. But if we consider that only the 10% of the total biological products can be directly consumed, we assume that the limiting factor of any further development is mostly in the low possibility of transforming the products. The direct sale in the farm of biological products can't actually give any real impulse to increase production, because the way of life today and the distances don't permit, the customers of biological food to spend time to look for biofarms in the country and to transform all products at home. So, most of these products have to be previously preserved packed and delivered to the city.
The cereals have to be milled for bread and "pasta" production, to be flaked, the olives and the oily seeds have to be cold-pressed for the oil production, the grapes have to be transformed in wine, the fruits, that cannot be sold directly have to be transformed in juice or jam. Vegetables have to be frozen or tinned. Generally it is not possible to use the same conventional equipements for biological products too; to save the high quality factors of biological food it is necessary to have biological working schedules, special technologies and equipement. Even in the diary you have to make some change to adapt the process to the biological way.
At present the food industries of biological products in the south of Europe are very small, without any real delivery organization. On the other side the big industries invest money changing in the biological direction in their production lines, need to reduce the risk: at first they wait for an official standard of referring by the laws, then a more constant biological production and finally a warranty of biological quality through an official system of control and analyzes.
As we see, the handicap of any further development of the biological food market in the south of Europe is not to be found, precisely in the agricultural phase, where the farmers slowly have more and more instruments and plants varieties to use but it lies in the following stages of production, in the industrial transformation and in the delivery organization up to the retail sale.
En Europe, du Sud, le système biologique de la culture peut être, non seulement un vrai moyen de sauvegarde d'environnement, mais aussi une meilleure possibilité pour les agriculteurs d'augmenter leurs revenu.
Dans les secteurs de l'agriculture méditerranéenne les limites peuvent être surmontées par les productions agricoles d'haute qualité.
On peut trouver le limite d'un ultérieur développement de l'agriculture biologique surtout dans le manque d'industries de transformation et des maisons de distribution.
(1) P. KNOEPFEL - W. ZIMMERMANN, Oekologisierung von Landwirtschaft. V. Sauerlaender.
(2) G. KAHNT - Biologischer Pflanzenbau. Moeglicheiten und Grenzen biologischer Anbausysteme. Ulmer.
(3) L.R. BROWN - State of the world. ISEDI
Introduction
The situation in Italy
The ANCA - activity
The activity in research and innovation
A. CANDIOLI
Associazione Nationale Cooperative Agro - Alimentari,
Roma, Italia
The quality problems of the agricultural products and of the transformed food products, is one of the major objectives of the realization of the European "Atto unico" to create a big harmonized market.
In order to achieve such an objective the EEC Commission has suggested the adoption of "harmonized regulations" for environmental and health protection, for consumers defense and loyalty and seriousness of commercial operations.
The protection of the agricultural and transformed production can be reached by using several different instruments, ranging from the certification of the total quality to the use of geographical denomination including the use of specific labels and marks. The arrangements, directed towards the protection and the valorization of the biological productions, can find a reference point according both to the regulations and to the operations, in such a context.
As far as our country is concerned, our Ministero dell'Agricoltura e delle Foreste has always been trying to follow a certain kind of intervention to valorize the agricultural productions, which mainly aimed at the use of the geographical denomination through a series of controlled marks, especially guaranteed for wines, cheese, and salami.
Little was the intervention of the certification of the total quality due to the lack of harmonized regulations, institutions and instruments which were to govern the above mentioned rules.
A significant step forward is being made in this sense, thanks to the creation of work commissions, within the UNI - Ente Italiano di Unificazione - and the constitution of the SINAL - "Sistema Nazionale di Accreditamento dei Laboratori" per le analisi di qualita e di certificazione delle produzioni agricole -. A specific section, dealing with the problems of biological productions, has been created within these group, in which two experts of our Association are working and cooperating.
Under the pressure of the environmentalists and consumers associations, the Parliament has elaborated a bill for the protection and the valorization of the biological productions. Such a measure, which came before the idea of a Europea regulamentation, needs - as we see it - a thorough revision and an adjustment to the basic principles and criteria of the EEC issue, which reflects more the needs of the producers.
The national association of the agricultural cooperationes organizes a set of alimentary farms and industries having a total amount of sales up to 6 thousand billion liras (4 billion ECU).
The association, which celebrated its centennary in 1986, has worked to protect the income of little and medium farms, in order to achieve the utmost valorization of the agricultural productions working in combination with industries. Mn such a view, under the spur of both consumers and environmentalists needs, some initiatives have developed in these last few years in the field of biological and controlled productions above all in the cereals, mills, wines, fruit and vegetables, olive oil cultivation, cattle and bees breeding, while on the side of services, more technical assistance has been give to production, and more attention has been paid to organic mineral fertilizers and to pesticides.
The whole of these activities can be valued - at present - around 50 to 60 billion lire of income but with interesting prospects of a future development, since the biological products is a reference factor in the process of productive reconversion of the Italian agriculture.
On the initiative of a group of ANCA firms, operating in the different phases of the agro - alimentary "chain", a Consorzio per il Controllo delle Produzioni Biologiche has been constituted, which aims at checking the impact of some farming processes on the environment, while it provides quality marks and guarantees the commercialization of these products on the markets.
The "Consorzio" coordinates also a network of laboratories and technicians who are to control that rules are observed and environment is respected.
It carries out a series of services intended to favour the concentration and the standardization of the biological product in view of contracts with the organized distribution.
As we said before, here in Italy, the market of biological products is still underdeveloped - compared with the demand of the public - due to the lack of services and a still superficial knowledge of the problem in its whole.
Concluding the Consorzios main target is to eliminate the risk of unloyal attitudes of some farmers which might damage the honest and hardworking farmers who are by far the majority in our association.
The Italian academic and scientific world has regarded sceptically to the development of the biological products market - dedicating only to specific problems isolated from the general context, as for example the reduction of the chemicals inputs, without facing the problem as a whole -which might favour and develop a better knowledge in the field of biological products.
On the other side, the environmentalists haven't yet started working side by side with the world of research and by choosing to endow themselves with their own product testing instruments, they are now cut off from the scientific process.
This choice has generated a variety of different branches of knowledge which prevents a scientifically based testing process and slows down the consumers consent in accepting the product as genuine.
Therefore the ANCA has given birth to a series of relation - ships with the world of research (Universities, CNR, INN, ISS, ENEA, private laboratories) that have coagulated in some projects of research in the biological field, financed by Public Organizations. From their results we expect a big jump forward as well as low environmental impact productions, besides a really remarkable contribution of the academic world in the field of research and - last but not last - the rising of the biological research itself to scientific dignity.
1 - L'agriculture biologique aujourd'hui:
2 - L'agriculture biologique et la recherche
Philippe GIRARDIN, Directeur de Recherche
Chargé des liaisons entre l'INRA et l'Agriculture Biologique
INRA - BP 507 68021 COLMAR - France
L'agriculture biologique aujourd'hui c'est:
· 3000 agriculteurs, adhérents à 12 organismes, ayant accepté fin 1988 de suivre un des cahiers des charges homologués par le Ministère de l'Agriculture, qui leur permet d'obtenir le logo "A B." pour les produits obtenus selon les règles prescrites par ces cahiers des charges· un impact non négligeable sur l'opinion publique
· des actions de lobbying efficaces.
Mais c'est aussi:
· un manque quasi total de structure représentative au niveau national
· de faibles réseaux de commercialisation
· des divergences idéologiques internes
· une histoire récente qui a conduit à un éclatement du mouvement
· aucun programme de recherche officiel se référant à l'Agriculture Biologique
Cette caricature à grands traits n'aurait aucun intérêt si ne se cachait derrière un type d'agriculture particulier avec des systèmes de production, des systèmes de culture et des techniques culturales originaux. Ceux-ci permettent de produire différemment, avec un projet de respect de l'environnement, et d'obtenir, des produits de meilleure qualité, du moins c'est ce dont semblent convaincus les consommateurs qui acceptent de les payer plus chers
Ce constat interpelle la Recherche sur deux points:
1. Ou est-ce qu'une meilleure qualité?
2. Pourquoi les chercheurs se sont désintéressés de ce mode de production?
La pertinence de ces question? justifie que l'on ne s'attache pas uniquement à l'image d'Epinal qui vient à l'esprit du chercheur quand on parle d'agriculture biologique.
En France, l'action des mouvements écologistes et de l'agriculture biologique depuis les années 70 ne sont sans doute pas pour rien dans l'apparition, des notions de qualité, de diversité et de préservation de l'environnement, dans le langage de politiques et de responsables agricoles.
De l'histoire récente entre la Recherche et l'agriculture biologique en France, on peut tirer 4 enseignements:
1 - L Agriculture Biologique n'a pas su utiliser, par manque de structuration de la branche, les résultats de la Recherche susceptibles de l'intéresser.2 - L'Agriculture Biologique n'a pas su formuler ses questions aux chercheurs
3 La sensibilité aux problèmes soulevés par l'agriculture biologique est très différente suivant les secteurs scientifiques: les économistes, sociologues et zoologistes ont travaillé des domaines intéressant l'Agriculture Biologique beaucoup plus que les agronomes, les zootechniciens ou microbiologistes des sols par exemple.
4 - Les chercheurs de la Recherche publique ne se sont pas investis dans des programmes de recherche prenant en compte les questions intéressant l'Agriculture Biologique
Ce non-engagement des scientifiques français a 4 causes profondes:
1. la peur de ne pas être reconnu et d'être marginalisé,2. la nécessité de travailler de façon pluridisciplinaire,
3. le type d'expérimentation à mettre en oeuvre: longue, coûteuse en temps, en terrain et en main-d'oeuvre.
4. les difficultés méthodologiques (le "dogme" de l'essai factoriel ne fonctionne plus pour la mise au point et/ou la comparaison de systèmes de culture).
Toutes ces causes se conjuguent pour rendre difficile la publication de tels travaux.
Signalons cependant que. sur des thèmes intéressant l'agriculture biologique, des recherches ont néanmoins été menées depuis 13 ans en France:
- diversification des modèles de développement rural
- liaisons entre les pratiques agricoles et le paysage et l'environnement
- socio-économie des exploitations en agriculture biologique
- lutte biologique
- engrais verts
Pour tirer parti des acquits de la Recherche, pour lui poser des questions et pour établir un dialogue fructueux, il faut;
1. que l'Agriculture Biologique soit organisée,2. qu'elle dispose de personnes capables d'établir et de poursuivre un dialogue avec les chercheurs,
3. quelle ne fuit pas les questions difficiles, ce qui est important si on veut établir un certain capital confiance au sein de la Communauté des chercheurs
En particulier, deux d'entre elles me paraissent ne pas devoir être éludées
La première concerne la qualité des produits:
- Quelles sont les caractéristiques qualitatives (bactériologiques, organoleptiques, physiques, chimiques, biologiques...) d'un produit issu de l'Agriculture Biologique comparé au même type de produit issu de l'agriculture conventionnelle?
Autrement dit, l'Agriculture Biologique accepte-t-elle d'objectiver la notion de la qualité et accepte-t-elle que, dans l'avenir, ses produits soient éventuellement payés en fonction de critères de qualité?
La deuxième question est celle du refus des produits chimiques de synthèse et par là même de la faisabilité des cultures spécialisées (arboriculture, viticulture...).
- Pourquoi maintenir le dogme de la non utilisation de produits chimiques de synthèse alors que l'utilisation raisonnée d'engrais azotés, par exemple, peut ne pas être n visible à l'environnement, ni altérer la qualité des produits?
Accepter de discuter de ce type de questions me parait indispensable pour qu'un dialogue en profondeur s'établisse. II n'y a en effet dialogue que s'il y a un minimum de confiance réciproque.
Accepter de se remettre périodiquement en question, comme le chercheur, c'est pour l'Agriculture Biologique la meilleure manière de convaincre les sceptiques.
Dans ce cas la Recherche et l'Agriculture Biologique pourront alors, je pense, coopérer sur un certain nombre de thèmes; à titre d'exemple (la liste n'est pas exhaustive), j'en retiens 4:
1. La lutte biologique
Le cas de l'utilisation de la lutte biologique en arboriculture fruitière et en culture protégées est exemplaire. Il a montré l'impossibilité de l'Agriculture Biologique à s'associer à l'INRA (Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique) pour reprendre et diffuser les travaux des chercheurs dans un domaine qui les intéresse au premier chef, et cela, faute d'une structure efficace, alors que l'INRA avait, là, investi beaucoup de moyens et joué un rôle de pionnier.
L'utilisation de ce moyen de lutte va se généraliser en Europe. Il serait dommage que les agriculteurs biologiques ne soient pas parmi les premiers à employer la lutte biologique sur Maïs, Vigne, Tomate, Chou, voire Châtaignier dans quelques années.
2. La microbiologie des sols
La recherche de critères "sol" plus englobant que les critères classiques de fertilisation, l'étude de la dynamique de l'azote dans le sol. en particulier, la fourniture d'azote endogène, et de la fatigue des sols (parasites vrais et parasites "de faiblesse"),sont des domaines où la coopération peut s'engager. La confrontation des différents tests d'activité biologique des sols, et leur normalisation devraient être entreprises.
3. La fertilisation azotée
"Ne pas apporter d'engrais chimiques de synthèse" est une règle, qui est devenue un dogme puisqu'elle ne peut être remise en question Cette règle, si elle n'a pas de fondement scientifique, pousse, et c'est là son principal intérêt, à l'innovation.
Notons en effet que le radicalisme consistant à refuser d'utiliser engrais et pesticides de synthèse, a conduit les agriculteurs biologistes à trouver des solutions de rechange quelquefois originales et efficaces. Celles-ci posent aux chercheurs des questions intéressantes (rôle des associations de cultures, successions de cultures disponibilité en azote du sol, évolution des populations d'adventices, allélopathie, etc.).
4. La caractérisation de la qualité
II reste à caractériser un produit du champ à l'assiette tout le long de la chaîne.
La lourdeur des caractérisations biochimiques, chimiques, bactériologiques, morphologiques ou organoleptiques, ainsi que le caractère non systématique des réponses aux tests de comparaison des produits issus de l'agriculture conventionnelle et de l'agriculture biologique, ont amené l'administration et les producteurs biologistes à définir le produit par la façon dont il est cultivé (respect d'un cahier des charges). Le contrôle, là aussi, est très difficile et pour l'heure, effectué par la profession elle-même. Cette façon de faire, qui a l'avantage d être simple et pratique, ne satisfait pas le chercheur et ne devrait pas satisfaire le consommateur, produire "autrement" ne signifie pas forcément produire "mieux".
Mais les aspects idéologiques et juridiques ne suffisent pas à définir les pratiques agrobiologiques: il manque à celles-ci des bases scientifiques et techniques.
L'INRA, les Ministères français, tout comme la Commission des Communautés européennes, intègrent, officiellement aujourd'hui, dans leurs appels d offre, le concept d'Agriculture Biologique: une occasion pour les mouvements d'agriculteurs biologiques à inciter les chercheurs à se pencher sur leurs problèmes,
Summary
Research - Approach
Research - Priorities for organic agriculture
Elm Farm Research Centre
C. STOPES & L. WOODWARD
Elm Farm Research Centre
Newbury, Berkshire, RG15 OHR
Organic agriculture in Britain has received little serious attention from the R&D community, it is only recently that funds have been made available from government for specific R&D relevant to organic farming systems. The approach to research must take account of the unique features of the organic system as a whole. Therefore trials must take place within an operating organic system, with researchers fully understanding organic agriculture. Priority research areas are identified.
It is obvious that to begin to attempt to improve organic agriculture it is necessary to understand the key features of the system, what makes it work and why it may break down. This can only be done by studying and working within an operating organic system: a 'research bench' which is large enough to be likely to include the relevant interactions within and through the rotation, the livestock management and the weed, pest and disease control measures adopted. This conclusion has not been reached hastily; after many years of seeing attempts at comparative trials where small plots are treated 'conventionally' or 'organically' we consider that this approach does not really improve our understanding of organic systems. Even less does it lead to any real developments.
The Research Group of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) has also rejected the approach of small plot comparisons in favour of R&D work within effectively operating organic systems. "They also have firmly recommended that anyone undertaking research into organic systems should have a thorough knowledge of organic practice, theory and philosophy.
Unfortunately, much of the 'conventional' scientists approach still tends to result in 'organic' being equated with either the non-use of agro-chemicals or the profligate use of animal manures. If trials are based on this rather limited approach, then it is not surprising that organic farming systems attract criticism and even ridicule from conventional researchers. An example illustrates this problem.
Workers at Rothamsteds' Institute of Arable Crops Research concluded that organic farming systems are liable to large losses of nitrate. This view was based on the results of the potential nitrogen losses from small plots heavily fertilised with manure in the autumn and winter. They also mentioned the substantial mineralisation and potential losses following the cultivation of the ley. However the research team failed to recognise that organic farmers place a premium on the nutrients in manures, unlike heavily stocked conventional farms often confronted by manure disposal problems. Furthermore, the rotation (which is a central feature of the organic system) ensures that the flush of nitrate following the cultivation of the ley occurs only once every six to eight years.
The conclusion of the work was that organic systems are not a viable method for limiting nitrate pollution. In fact, if the trials had been conducted with an understanding of organic systems, where the rotation and rational manure use are key features, then a different conclusion may have been reached.
The researcher needs to appreciate the way in which organic systems seek to be sustainable, what controls the turnover of nutrients, or the limitation of disease expression as a result of soil or leaf surface interactions. To avoid understanding these issues is like trying to carry out trials with a herbicide in a conventional system when you do not know how or when to apply it.
Increasingly, research teams are appreciating these points, and this is leading to more work aimed at the development of organic farming systems rather than the comparisons which yield so little useful information. If a fraction of the research and development resources which have been spent on conventional systems had been devoted to the improvement of genuine organic systems the potential of such methods would be greatly improved.
Although there has been an increase in government funding for research in organic agriculture in Britain in recent years, it has been insufficient to match the demands from producers for improved methods of production. Research priorities have been widely discussed, and the list below briefly outlines some of the key areas of research where an increased effort is urgently needed:
1. Nutrient cycling, availability and losses: Accumulation and release of N by legumes; N losses following cultivation of the ley; manure and slurry management; the use of green manures; the impact of organic systems on soil structure and activity; the availability and release of rock fertilisers.
2. Weed control: Mechanical weed control; biological weed control; control of specific problem weeds (eg Rumex spp).
3. Pest and disease control: Extent of pest and disease problems under organic management; anti-phytopathogen effects of compost and manure; biological methods for pest and disease control.
4. Stockless systems: Development of appropriate, sustainable rotations which do not include livestock.
5. Varieties: Selection and trailing of varieties for pest and disease resistance; selection of varieties with other variety characteristics - weed competitiveness, nutrient uptake, quality.
6. Livestock husbandry: Control of internal and external parasites; development of appropriate non-ruminant animal production systems.
7. Grassland: Extended grazing seasons for early and late grazing; use of alternative forage crops; control of bloat; variety selection.
8. Agriculture/environment interface: Nitrate leaching from organic farming systems; ecological impact (habitat, conservation of species, species diversity) of organic and conventional farming systems.
9. Food quality: Development of appropriate methods of determination of 'quality' in food and the demands of consumers.
Elm Farm Research Centre is based on a 95Ha fully converted organic farm. The research programme is conducted at the Research Centre and on other organic farms around the country. Thus all trials are carried out within the correct rotational position. In addition to the research programme, there is an Advisory service, a laboratory equipped to undertake soil analysis appropriate to the needs of the organic farmer, and an education office dealing with course development and staff training.
Research activities currently lie within the area of the conservation and losses of nutrients, and funding from government departments supports some of this research programme. A key area of research is the development of stockless organic farming systems. We are exploring nitrate leaching from mixed (ley/arable) organic farming systems, focussing particularly on the losses following cultivation of the ley. A three year study on the use of leguminous green manures including both pot and field trials is being undertaken; whilst a further project is studying phosphorous and potassium sources and the interaction with mycorrhizal fungae. In addition a number of PhD programmes are being supported. These include a study of the intercropping of beans and wheat in organic systems; the marketing of organic produce and a study of the social and environmental costs and benefits of different farming systems.
There is an increasing interest in research in organic agriculture and horticulture, and this is encouraging. However, there are two key issues which must be considered. Firstly, it is vital that the approaches and methods of organic husbandry are understood by the researcher. Secondly, the research must be carried out on an appropriate site within an operating organic system. There is no doubt that research carried out within this framework will be of great benefit to the organic farmer and grower, it is also likely to prove of benefit to the rest of the agricultural community.
Summary
1. Background
2. United Kingdom register of organic food standards
3. Financial aid for organic agriculture
4. Advice
5. Research and development
R. J. UNWIN
Agricultural Development and Advisory
Service Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Bristol, England
Organic agriculture in the United Kingdom is still a very small part of the industry as a whole, although interest from farmers and consumers is growing. The Government has supported the setting up of the UKROFS to introduce and oversee a nationally agreed set of organic standards. It is hoped to introduce specific financial support to organic farmers for conversion during 1990. Meanwhile other aids are available and advisory and research facilities are expanding.
During the 30 years from 1950 organic production in the United Kingdom was practised on a commercial scale by only a handful of dedicated supporters. These people were openly ridiculed by conventional agriculturalists participating in the technological changes taking place in the industry. During the 1980's as environmental issues - and surplus food production came into prominence more people began to consider the role of organic farming. The prospects for commercial viability increased as this interest became translated into a demand for organically produced food bearing price premiums
Although the expansion was relatively rapid it began from such a small base that by the end of the decade only some 0.2% of the agricultural area (20,000 ha) was being farmed organically or was thought to be in conversion. This does not include large tracts of upland and rough grazing which are used for livestock production but which receive no agrochemical inputs. There are only some 7-800 practising farmers or growers, the majority of which are registered with one or other of the organic sector bodies operating a system of inspection and certification according to published Standards.
Although the average size of holding is small, farms up to 600 ha are being farmed organically. At present a survey of all known organic holdings is being coordinated by the University of Cambridge for the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. It aims to obtain a comprehensive view of the structure and production of the sector. A random sample of businesses will also be subject to a scrutiny of financial performance. A final report is planned for mid-1991.
The UK Government is committed to the provision of safe-food for all of the population, together with a freedom of choice. Organic food is seen as one part of v meeting these objectives. The industry is encouraged to adapt to meet the demand for organic produce from UK production. As such organic farming is seen as a viable alternative for certain producers. There has been concern to protect the consumer from false claims relating to methods of food production. Consequently in the absence of a legal definition of organic produce steps were taken in 1987 to introduce a national system for verifying organic standards by setting up the United Kingdom Register of Organic Food Standards (UKROFS).
The aim of UKROFS is to ensure that food sold under a recognised organic symbol had been produced according to a nationally agreed standard.
Although it is supported by Government funds UKROFS is an independent body administered by Food From Britain. Its affairs are governed by a Board of invited members drawn from a wide spectrum of interested parties - standards organisations, producers, processors, retailers, trading standards officers and consumer groups.
The Board has been assisted by specialist committees to agree and operate organic standards and more latterly to advise on future research and development requirements. The first set of agreed standards were published in May 1989 and welcomed by the Ministry of Agriculture.
A scheme has been introduced whereby producers or processors can be registered directly with UKROFS as meeting the standards and thus obtain the right to market under its logo. However it is hoped and expected that the main role of UKROFS will be to provide confirmation that standard schemes operated by other bodies are consistent with the agreed national system. There is thus in place a body able to undertake functions as envisaged in the Draft EC Regulation on organic agriculture currently under negotiation.
The UKROFS standard lays down the guidelines for methods of production and processing for virtually all foodstuff s including livestock products. It includes list of allowable inputs and the circumstances in which they may be used. In these aspects it has progressed significantly beyond the scope of the initial draft of the Regulation.
At the present time there are no financial aids specifically to support or encourage the expansion of organic agriculture in the United Kingdom. However the Minister of Agriculture has announced his intention to go to public consultation on proposals to introduce a pilot scheme under EC Extensification rules to support farmers during an organic farm conversion.
There are however other aids which are generally available to farmers which can be of benefit to the organic sector. The United Kingdom has an active Set Aside scheme, also in accordance with EC rules. Some 110,000 ha of cereal land have been taken out of production for a minimum of 5 years. Although there can be no agricultural production during the set aside period a number of farmers are using the payments of £180-200/ha to help finance the holding of land fallow during a conversion period. This scheme is available throughout the country. This is also true of a range of other aids such as Diversification grants, the Farm Woodlands Scheme, restoration of traditional farm buildings and upgrading of manure handling facilities. All of which are likely to be of interest to organic farmers.
In more limited areas of the country payments available under the Environmentally Sensitive Area schemes and the proposed Nitrate Sensitive Area scheme would also be available to organic farmers who were able to meet the requirements.
The government: sponsored Agricultural Development and Advisory Service (ADAS) provides advice to all sectors of the agricultural industry in England and Wales. Since 1987 the service has been chargeable although aspects of environmental and pollution advice remain free. In the last few years ADAS has been developing its services for the organic sector. There are no advisers dedicated solely to organic production but an increasing number of staff are able to assist would be and practising organic producers. As well as husbandry advice a wide range of topics are covered from business management appraisals to quality assurance schemes for processed foodstuff s.
Government sponsored R&D directly aimed at, or, undertaken in organic systems has increased markedly in the last five years but from a very low baseline. There is a strong lobby for increasing the funds available. However it must be acknowledged that there are many projects within conventional research which provide information of value to organic systems. Notably work on pest and disease control, nutrient cycling and manure handling.
R.G. McKinlay
Edinburgh School of Agriculture
West Mains Road
Edinburgh EH9 3UG
United Kingdom
Biological agriculture in Scotland will be considered under 3 headings: Research, Teaching and Advice. The information presented is current at the time of writing (June 1990).
Several research initiatives are underway in Scotland, centred on the cities of Aberdeen, Dundee and Edinburgh. At Aberdeen (School of Agriculture), both crop and animal studies are being done, viz. cropping systems trial (conventional v. mid-organic v organic); crop variety trials (cereals, in collaboration with the School of Agriculture in Edinburgh); green manures trial (various leguminous, brassica and graminaceous plants); biological v. conventional beef production (biological and financial evaluations, etc.). At the Scottish Crop Research Institute in Dundee, varieties of potatoes are being bred with resistances to diseases important in biological cropping systems, e.g. cvs Shelagh and Teena with very good resistance to late blight. Cereal variety and pest control trials are being done at the Edinburgh School of Agriculture: the cereal variety trials on spring barley, spring oats and winter wheat in collaboration with the School of Agriculture in Aberdeen; the pest control trials have examined various methods of suppressing the general incidence of insect pests on simulated organically grown vegetable brassicas.
Work which has just begun, or is about to begin, includes at Aberdeen: environmental benefits/disbenefits of biological farming, practicality and financial consequences of adopting biological agriculture to United Kingdom Register of Organic Food Standards, veterinary investigations, and soil microbial transformations of organic matter in biological farming systems in collaboration with the Organic Farming Centre, Edinburgh (see below); and at Edinburgh, mechanical weed control systems in cereals, manure and slurry applications to cereals, permitted sprays with additives for prevention of cereal diseases, and the various studies of the Organic Farming Centre.
The Organic Farming Centre (Research Coordinator: Dr R.G. McKinlay) is a joint initiative between the Edinburgh School of Agriculture and the University of Edinburgh's Centre for Human Ecology. It is based both at the School of Agriculture in Edinburgh and at a farm in Fife region. Starting October 1989, the Centre achieved substantial funding for its first 2 years of operation from the European Commission, the Scottish Development Agency, Safeway pie, and the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland. The Centre has a wide-ranging programme covering research, information and training, and economics and marketing. The research has 2 key objectives: to assess the problems associated with maintaining a regular high quality supply of vegetables and beef using a range of organic production techniques/and to monitor for changes in some key soil nutrients and species of flora and fauna. So far as information and training are concerned, a pan-European information service on organic husbandry will be created and training courses for farmers and advisors will be set up. The economic research programme will determine the costs of production at field and representative farm levels for a range of crops and farm types. In addition, it will aim to show the role that organic production methods can play in meeting EC extensification targets. In an endeavor to recognise the role of the consumer in the food production and retailing business, the Organic Farming Centre has devoted staff and resources to determining what the consumer of organic produce requires in terms of price, quantity and consistency of quality.
For Higher National Diploma students of Agriculture, there will be from October 1990 the choice of studying a course in organic agriculture at the campuses of the Scottish Agricultural College (Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Auchincruive). The course will be accredited by the Soil Association.
The Scottish Agricultural College has taken the decision to train a number of its agricultural advisors in biological agriculture techniques, beginning September 1990. The training courses are being put together in collaboration with already existing Agricultural Training Board courses which were written originally largely by Organic Advisory Services based at Elm Farm Research Centre.
The Scottish Agricultural College has formed ah Organic Farming Group, the aim of which is to become a contact/focal point for all organic farming advice, education, training and research and development throughout Scotland, both to all staff within the College and, in the longer term, to Organic organisations out with the College.
In conclusion, the Scottish Agricultural College and the Scottish Agricultural Research Institutes with backing from the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland are taking forward-looking initiatives in biological farming.
H.R. GISLERØD and G. LIEBLEIN
Agricultural University of Norway
The Agricultural University of Norway gives priority to research and teaching activities in the field of ecological agriculture. In 1989, the University started a research program on ecological agriculture. Four scientists and two Ph.D-students are presently attached to the. interdisciplinary program. Within few years the University will give several student courses on ecological agriculture. Several research projects are carried out at regional research stations and at the Norwegian Center for Ecological Agriculture.
In 1930, the first Norwegian farm was converted to ecological (bio-dynamic) farming. Up to 1970 increase in number of ecological farms was minute. In the period 1970-1980 the increase was marked, but still this area of agriculture received no support by the government. In the beginning of the 1980's the government started to fund on farm trials and extension service activities linked to locally based research circles. By 1989 the total number of ecological farms was slightly above 100, covering an area of about 800-1000 ha (0.1%, of total agricultural land in Norway). In 1990, 460 farmers have applied for governmental funding (max. NOK 60000 over a 3 year period) for conversion to ecological agriculture, and we expect a rapid expansion over the coming years.
In 1987-88 the Agricultural University went through a strategic planning process. To meet the challenges of the future within the area of agriculture, ecological agriculture was incorporated as one important strategy within the framework of a differentiated development strategy. Research and teaching in ecological agriculture is one of the areas that the University will give priority to during the coming years.
A Steering Committee for Ecological Agriculture was established at the University in 1989 with a mandate to build up this new field within the University. The Steering Committee also includes representatives from outside the university.
A separate project, "Establishment of a research - and teaching environment within ecological agriculture at the Agricultural University of Norway", was carried out in 1989-90. The aims of the project were 1) to establish a distinct understanding of what ecological agriculture is, 2) to define the role of the University with respect to ecological agriculture and 3) to map the organizational consequences for the University.
In 1989 a research program on ecological agriculture was started at the University, financed by the Norwegian Research Council for Agriculture. Presently, four scientists are attached to the program within the fields of plant production (horticulture), soil science, animal science and entomology. In addition, two ordinary Ph.D-students, within economy and microbiology, are linked to the program. From 1991 we hope to add personnel on plant production and agricultural engineering. The main activity areas of the program are interdisciplinary case studies of farms, partly farms converted to ecological agriculture and partly farms in the conversion process. The case studies focuse on methodological issues, and the farms will be studied both within a system as well as an organism perspective. A further aim of the studies is to be able to outline basic problems and frameworks for diagnostics related to ecological farming practices. Such an outline will form a basis for experimental research work. The case studies are developed in cooperation with the Norwegian Center for Ecological Agriculture (NORSØK) which has the responsibility to map farming practices, including several aspects among them yields, economy and sociology, on 35 ecological farms over a period of 4 years. NORSØK is responsible for the main part of the data collection on the farms. The University case study project use the collected material from a selected number of farms to be studied more intensively.
At regional research stations several projects within ecological agriculture have been launched during the past two years. Main areas of work are soil fertility, fertilization, organic manure treatment, agricultural pollution and system studies. The. research stations also cooperate with NORSØK.
Six research circles have been established in different regions of Norway, with the aim to develop on-farm trials and extension service activities within ecological agriculture.
An organization for production control of ecological farming practices has been established, with funding from the government. The control is bound on rules set by IFOAM.
Presently we have an introductory course at the University. In addition we plan to give a general advanced course as well as specialized courses in animal husbandry, plant production and soil science. These courses are planned to be available for the students in 1992/93. We also plan to develop a graduate course for Ph.D-students on a Nordic basis, to be given the first time in 1993. We are this autumn aiming to convert positions at the University from research and teaching in conventional agriculture to ecological agriculture. Although there is à great demand and need for an increase in the supply of student courses, we do see that we might have to postpone some of them, due to the present lack of qualified personnel at the University.
Elementary courses to educate farmers are at the moment supplied by one school which teaches only ecological farming. Other schools for farmers also give single courses.
Presently there is a great demand for knowledge on ecological agriculture within many sectors of the Norwegian society (farmers, agricultural advisers, the political system and the consumers). Our main goals are to speed up the competence building process to enable us to meet such an increasing demand and to participate in the development of ecological agriculture in Norway, through research and teaching activities.
Background
Agricultural extension advisors
Research
A contact group between ecological farmers and researcher, a research staff and a research committee for alternative agriculture.
Education
Some final points
Dr Artur Granstedt
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Box 7080
S-750 07 Uppsala
FAO/FAC
Expert Consultation
Bern, 28-31 May 1990
During the 1980's there was a sharp increase in the degree to which Biological Agriculture was practiced in Sweden: The amount of land area under this type of management increased from 1,500 ha (0.05% of the country's arable land) in 1981 to 33,000 ha (over 1% of the arable land area) in 1990. The most dramatic increase took place 1988-1989, when State financial support was given to encourage the use of biological methods among farmers, whether or not they had already been engaged in biological farming. The biological farming activities presently receiving State support are controlled by two organizations: The Demeter Association and the control organization KRAV. To sell products labeled with a control-mark from one or both of these organizations requires documentation that, during a certain qualifying period, the producer has not used chemical pesticides or artificial fertilizer. The control is based on a written contract, containing farm maps and cultivation descriptions, combined with on-site inspections.
Swedish agricultural politics went through great changes during the 1980's with regard to attitudes related to the environment. State-financed advising in biological agriculture was introduced in 1986 and has gradually expanded since then. Twenty advisors are now working full-time with biological agriculture; 17 of them are financed by the State or receive some other type of public funding. At the same time, an increasing number of other State agricultural advisors are becoming involved in advising or monitoring activities related to biological agriculture. The Biodynamic Association has two advisors who are not funded the State. At the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences there is now a State consultant (research and information) who deals exclusively with matters related to biological agriculture (A. Granstedt).
A shift of priorities is underway in Swedish agricultural research: the previous emphasia on maximizing yields is giving way to a new emphasia on developing strategies for minimizing the environmental impacts of farming. This change in priorities has been brought about by the rise in significant environmental problems, in the form of the eutrophication of lakes and streams, nutrient-salt induced injury in the Baltic and Kattegatt, the contamination of drinking water with nitrates and the pollution of water with pesticides.
Direct financial support for research related to alternative agriculture began in 1986. Earlier research efforts were only possible where foundation support could be obtained. The knowledge and experience gained during the biodynamic work carried out in the 60's and 70's has contributed substantially to the rapid expansion that, with State support, is now occurring within the area. The research work carried out during the 1970's focussed on quality-related matters. Improvements in crop quality obtained through the use of organic fertilizers, especially with regard to potatoes, were documented. Trials have also revealed that biological agriculture affects soil fertility characteristics.
The new research project, currently underway, has been focussed on the following areas:
1. Nitrogen supply and conservation in biological agriculture.a) Case studies on N-flowb) Green manure and cover crops (botanical composition, ploughing-in techniques, ploughing-in times)
c) Green manure handling and care
d) Control of N-mobilization and immobilization
2. Mineral supply
a) Plant nutrient balances and within-farm circulation
b) Soil improvement materials3. Weed control
a) Techniques for weed removal and row-hoeing
b) Developmental biology and control of vegetatively propagating weeds
c) Thermal weed control4. Reorganizational studies
a) Case studies of farms undergoing converting to alternative agriculture and the advice received in this connectionb) Field studies of various plant rotations used in connection with converting
c) Business economics consecvenses
5. Economic studies
a) Farm business economics
b) Market- and socio-economics
c) Natural resource economics - vulnerability6. Cereal varieties in alternative agriculture
a) Selection criteria
b) Variety testing7. Animal management in alternative farming
a) Case studies on fodder supply, fodder exchange and animal health
b) Poultry management
The research program for ecological agriculture is the result of the work in a special contactgroupe. We are meeting two times a year between representants from the ecological farmers and researcher from different institutes in agriculture at the University. We are about 25 researcher which are working with project specially in ecological agriculture and together we have an informal researchstaff and a secretariat which serve this group.
Some special demonstrate and research farms are under evolution and one of them is an own project on the University of Agriculture together with Ekhaga foundation (Research Commitee for Alternative Agriculture).
Finally, the position of Professor in Alternative Agriculture will soon be filled, and it is our hope that this person's area of work will correspond to that encompassed by biological - ecological agriculture.
At the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, agronomy students can pursue studies in biological (ecological) agriculture, corresponding to about 1/8 of a study year. A university teaching position has been established for this purpose, and an expansion of teaching activities in this area is being planned. Seven of Sweden's agricultural schools offer special courses in biological agriculture. In Järna offers a non-State financed, two-year-long educational programme in biodynamic farming. The current offering of shorter courses in biological agriculture, taught by advisors, is very broad throughout the country.
Biological agriculture is not an exclusively technique-related matter, nor is it - as some believe - steered exclusively by economic considerations (i.e. produce products in demand in order to obtain a higher price). Rather, it encompasses much more, including a change in life styles; at all levels of society we must learn to conserve finite resources and stop contaminating the environment with nutrient salts and synthetic poisons. Methods based on increased nutrient recirculation and recycling play a major role here. Our responsibility to preserve the environment for our descendants and to show solidarity with peoples living on other parts of the planet, in our mutual struggle to preserve life on earth, demands drastic action. Insight into these matters applied in practice will lead to a higher level of self-sustenance at the local community level, thereby affecting food bundling and transport. This trend is, however, opposite to the ongoing specialization and commercialization of agriculture, seen as a process of deregulation and decrease in obstacles to trade in agricultural products now occurring in Europe and other parts of the world.
Finally, a few words regarding terminology: The alternative farming organizations in Scandinavia have decided to use the term "Ecological agriculture" instead of the previously used term "Alternative farming". Hopefully, this change will soon become generally accepted in Sweden.
Represented at the conference by:
Torbjörn Anger
Senior Administrative Officer
Animal Husbandry Department
THE NATIONAL BOARD OF AGRICULTURE
|
Main objective Promoting effective and environmentally orientated Swedish agriculture |
The five fields of activities are as follows:
Effective enterprises
|
Overall objective Promoting the development of effective enterprises in the fields of agriculture, horticulture and reindeer production |
Effective enterprises are precondition for environmentally friendly production and long-term rural development.
It is important to retain and develop existing enterprises with good opportunities.
Mixed enterprises of which agriculture and horticulture represent a part should be developed.
The National Board of Agriculture's inputs are based on:
* Information and advisory services free from commercial interest
* Broad competence in different fields
* Comprehensive course activities
* Land acquisition permits and sale of land
* State support
* Regionally adapted knowledge
Rural development
|
Overall objective Creating employment opportunities and stopping the urban drift |
Resources which remain after changes in agricultural production methods shall be used in new combined activities.
Projects with good prospects should be developed, supported and used in information work. Collaboration with other regional and local authorities and organizations is important.
The National Board of Agriculture's inputs are based on:
* Information and advisory services on complementing activities
* State support
* Courses for rural enterprises
* County projects for new employment opportunities in the rural areas
* Special input for women in rural areas
Plant production with regard to environment and quality
|
Overall objective Promoting effective and environmentally orientated plant production |
Nitrogen leaching can be reduced by means of improved manure handling and by increasing the percentage of covered arable land in autumn and winter.
The risks in handling herbicides can be reduced by lower consumption, better knowledge and equipment as well as improved forecasting and warning activities.
Organic farming can be promoted by extension and financial support Nature conservation activities on farmland shall be promoted.
The National Board of Agriculture's inputs are based on:
* Information and advisory services on crop nutrients, weeds, plant protection and organic farming
* Crop and fertilizer planning for animal farms
* Test of fertilizer sprayers
* Advisory services on reduced consumption of fertilizers
* State support and contributions
Livestock production with regard to environment and quality
|
Overall objective Improving animal environment and animal health, promoting effective production of high quality food |
Good animal health shall be promoted by satisfying the animals' natural behavioural patterns.
Animal protection legislation and feed legislation demand comprehensive inputs of information and advisory services.
The National Board of Agriculture's inputs are based on:
* Information and advisory services on animal environment, building techniques, stable climate and alternative animal production* Herd analyses in case of disturbances
* Inspection of plans for animal quarters
* Feed control
Adaptation of production
|
Overall objective Promoting the adaptation of food production to meet domestic requirements |
The market development for different branches of production should be closely observed.
The adaptation of production influences profitability, farmland and employment in the countryside.
The National Board of Agriculture's inputs are based on.
* Information and advisory services in questions of change-over* Work with present change-over support programmes
* Change-over plans and alternatives for crop and animal production
* Handling of immediate matters of change-over, e.g. afforestation on arable land (land management legislation)
Translation
1989-11-15
B. Wiberg
THE ACTIVITIES OF THE NATIONAL BOARD OF AGRICULTURE IN THE FIELD OF ORGANIC FARMING
THE NATIONAL BOARD OF AGRICULTURE
General Crop Production Division
Birgitta Carlsson
1989-08-28
Government support increases organic farming
The National Board of Agriculture has drawn up the regulations for the government support to be applied as from the growing season 1989.
The support runs for three years. Either can the whole area be changed over in 1989 or it is possible to change over step-wise during five years at the most. The change over shall be sustainable - the area must be farmed organically for six years at the least Also for areas which are already fanned organically, support can be granted.
For the first three years support can be granted for:
- Grain (wheal, rye, barley, and oats)
- Oil plants (rape, turnip rape, sunflower, mustard and poppy)
- Peas
- Mixed grain
- Soya beans
- Broad beans all of these up to ripe crop
- Potatoes
- Sugar beets
In the first year of change-over support can also be granted for:
- Ley (grass/or seed, cultivated grass for cutting and pasture on arable land)
- Green crops.
- Crops for green manuring
If the area is not organically farmed for six year, the support shall be paid back in full or part.
The County Agricultural Board administers the support and has also the responsibility for the control. KRAV (Control Association for the Organic Farming) or Svenska Demeterforbundet control the cultivations.
Thanks to the government support the organically farmed area is estimated to increase from about 10,000 hectares (1988) to slightly more than 40.000 hectares (the ire a applied for in 19S9) distributed on about 2,000 farmers. It corresponds to about 1.5 percent of the total arable area in Sweden.
More advisors for organic farming
As there is a great interest for organic farming the need for advisory services is increasing. In 1988 the County Agricultural Boards have employed more advisors for; organic production. Now we have in all nine organic advisors at the County Agricultural j Boards. One of them is specializing in domestic animals and two are working with gardening. In addition there are at least one advisor at each County Agricultural Board i who to some extent works with organic advisory services.
The advisory services of the County Agricultural Boards in organic fanning to individuals has tripled from budget year 1987/88 to 1988/89. Also courses and field demonstrations in organic fanning are increasing in number. In the budget year 1988/89 slightly more than 300 such courses and field demonstrations were held.
Advisory officers in organic fanning also work with
- Advisory services by telephone
- Change-over planning for individual farms
- Collaboration in field trials
- Advisory services to groups
The advisory officers have. also taken part in exhibitions and have attracted great publicity in the mass media.
Printed material
The increasing interest for organic fanning has brought about a great need of information and advisory material in this field. Course material "Change-over to organic farming" has been elaborated.
Three broschures on organic fanning have been included in the series Agricultural Information:
What is organic farming? (16/88)
Change-over to organic farming (17/88) and
Organic farming-economy and market (1/89)
These broschure have been written by advisers in organic farming.
Council for organic farming
As commissioned by the government the National Board of Agriculture set up a Council for Organic Farming in autumn 1988.
The Council consists of authorities and representatives for the organic farming and trade. The Council changes experiences and gives its view on how the organic farming shall be promoted and developed.
J.H. VAEISAENEN
Agricultural Research Center,
Research Station of Ecological Agriculture, Partala, Finland
The area cultivated ecologically in Finland has steadily increased during the last years. In 1989 there were about 250 certified farms with about 1550 ha, which makes some 0.07 % from the total cultivated area in Finland.
From April 1990 the finish government has started to support conversion from conventional to ecological farming. The background is the law of production balancing, from which "balancing support" for ecological farming and following are paid. This "balancing support" for ecological farming, 2800 FIM/ha, is paid during three years conversion period. The whole farm must be converted. The support for following is about 1 800 FIM/ha and depends on the county and condition of the field. The reasons for these supports are mainly overproduction of fodder cereals, milk and eggs, but also the environmental effects of modern agriculture, which are daily discussed in the newspapers.
With these subsidies the objective of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in 1990 was to get 200 000 hectares out of production and some 1500 ha to ecological farming. The objective of following was not reached but ecological farming exceeded all expectations. The state subsidy will be paid for about 660 farms and some 9000 ha will be converted to ecological agriculture during next two years. This jump upwards will have lots of side effects to the extension, trade of agricultural equipment and ecologically grown products.
The boom has been a great challenge to the agricultural extension centers, because the practical knowledge in ecological agriculture has been mainly absent from the knowhow of the centers. Still there are at the moment 9 full time and more than twenty part time advisors or contact persons around the country, and they are regularly trained.
The provincial ecological farmers associations are organized in the finish Union of Ecological Agriculture, which also is a member of IFOAM. It has defined the minimum standards of ecological farming in Finland and organized labeling of products from certified farms. At the moment the union tries to unify the wholesale trade practices and is working with authorities to get a law protection to ecological farming. The union also takes care of the farm certification. The control is organized through provincial inspection boards, which consist of representatives of producers, consuments, food authorities and advisors.
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry has appointed during the 80ies three committees to investigate and make proposals concerning ecological agriculture. The two first have handled with concepts of ecological farming, education, extension and research. The last of them is working at the moment on manufacturing and trade of ecologically grown products and will give its report in the autumn 1990.
The state support to research and organizations of ecological agriculture has steeply risen from 50 000 FIM in 1985 to 2.2 million FIM in 1990. One fourth of this was given directly to research and 1.26 million to the extension. The rest was given to the Union of Ecological Agriculture to be spread to provincial associations and to cover the inspection costs.
Research of ecological agriculture is very young in Finland. The research started in 1982 with two comparative field trials. The first one made by Helsinki University compares different cultivation methods of conventional and ecological farming and the second one made by Agricultural Research Center (ARC) simulates crisis situations, where there are no or very low external inputs from abroad. Also a case study describing plant production methods in finish ecological farms has been published.
The approaches trying to improve or develop ecological farming have been going on only some years. For that purpose a private research institute, Partala Center for Rural Development, was started in 1986 and it was financed for the most part by the state. From 1.3. 1990 it belongs to the Agricultural Research Center as a research station for ecological agriculture. The main idea of the research station will be to investigate and develop ecological production methods according to a special research program and coordinate research of this field in ARC.
La surface agricole cultivée selon les méthodes écologiques en Finlande est croissante. On y compte 250 exploitations certifiées qui couvrent environ 1550 ha, soit 0,07% de la surface agricole totale.
Depuis avril 1990 le gouvernement finnois soutient la conversion des exploitations conventionnelles en exploitations écologiques. Au cours des deux prochaines années le soutien du Ministère de l'agriculture et des forêts sera accordé à environ 660 exploitations couvrant une surface de 9000 ha. Cette évolution pose un problème au Service de vulgarisation car les connaissances en agriculture écologique font encore passablement défaut. On dispose actuellement de 9 vulgarisateurs à plein temps et 20 à temps partiel.
Les agriculteurs écologiques forment une association qui est membre de l'IFOAM. Elle a défini un standard minimum d'agriculture écologique en Finlande et organise la création d'un label pour les produits en provenance des fermes certifiées. Le Ministère de l'agriculture et des forêts a mis sur pied pendant les années 1980 trois comités pour s'occuper des concepts de l'agriculture écologique, de la formation, de la vulgarisation de la recherche ainsi que de la production et de la commercialisation des produits écologiques.
L'Etat soutient la recherche et les organisations de l'agriculture écologique. La recherche est encore très jeune. Elle a commencée en 1982 avec des travaux comparatifs. On essaie depuis peu à réaliser des projets de développement de l'agriculture écologique proprement dite. Un institut privé de recherches a été créé à cet effet en 1986: le Centre pour le développement rural de Partala, soutenu en grande partie par l'Etat. Depuis le 1.3.1990, il fait partie des Centres de recherches agronomiques comme Station de recherches en agriculture écologique.
Summary
1. Introduction
2. Research and development projects in progress.
3. Comment on the recent development.
Résumé
References - Research institutions involved in ecological agriculture
P. KØLSTER AND L. SIGSGAARD
The Royal Veterinary- and Agricultural University
Department of Agricultural Sciences
Thorvaldsensvej 40
DK-1871 Frederiksberg C
Research and development projects in ecological agriculture are carried out within a number of Danish research institutions. The activity has increased during the past few years along with the development of ecological agricultural production and as a result of the Act on Organic Farm Production. Most of the research is financed by government research grants and is carried out within short term projects aimed at solving practical production aspects. The basic research related to the development of an ecological agriculture has a low priority and should be stressed in the future. The abstract gives a brief presentation of the activities at the different institutions and is followed by a list of relevant addresses and contact persons.
Ecological agriculture has become a significant part of agriculture during the last decade. In total more than 400 farms or approximately 10000 ha's are managed in Denmark in accordance with the rules of the ecological organisations and the "Executive order on Organic Agricultural Production" (the State authorisation of farms). Similarly, during the last years a number of projects have been initiated to speed up the process of conversion to ecological agriculture, to develop the ecological agricultural methods in production and processing, to assess environmental and social impacts, to expand the trade with organic products, and to improve the extension service and the knowledge of the consumers.
In the following we will briefly describe the most recent projects, which are relevant to research, extension service and education in ecological agriculture. The text is followed by a list of research institutions, which are carrying out research in ecological agriculture. Later this year a comprehensive list in English of projects in progress will be available at the authors.
In 1987 the Royal Veterinary- and Agricultural University (10) established both research and teaching in ecological agriculture. One permanent post with responsibility for the discipline is offered so far. Approximately 90 students complete the course "Alternative Agriculture" every year, and a number of the students continue by doing a thesis within ecological agriculture. Similarly, several students projects are carried out in relation to the activities at the other universities. The research carried out deals with studies of ecological crop rotations and cropping systems. A theoretical two-year project was initiated this winter to extend the scientific documentation, to develop the basic scientific identity and paradigm of ecological agriculture within research, and to identify key questions in research. Moreover, two short term projects in the fields of pest and weed regulation are carried out. Other relevant research activities could be identified, however they are not strictly related to ecological agriculture.
A number of research projects are being carried out at other universities. Questions concerning the marked for ecological products and the consumer behaviour are studied at the University of Roskilde (13) while the ecological products and their elaboration are studied at the Technical University of Denmark (11). An evaluation of the ecological aspects of biotechnology in relation to ecological agriculture is carried out at the University of Suthern Jutland (14). Finally, studies of earthworms and other soil organisms as a measure of soil fertility are being carried out at the University of Aarhus (12).
A major research project covering a case study of 18 ecological farms was initiated in 1988 at the Department of Research in Cattle and Sheep (9). The project has emphasized studies of animal production and the overall farm management aspects. However, as a consequence of the multidisciplinary research approach a number of other projects mentioned below concerning economics, plant protection, weed regulation, product quality and field crop production and nutrient balances are associated.
At the Center for agricultural Research (1) cropping systems research including ecological cropping systems at three experimental farms are carried out to study long term aspects of different cropping methods and to develop each cropping systems on its own premises. This project is also carried in cooperation with a number of projects with emphasis on specific topics like studies of weed regulation, disease surveys, use of municipal waste composts, technical means of manuring and vegetable growing, which are parts of other projects managed by different institutions within the Danish Research Service for Plant and Soil Science. The cropping systems research may be considered as a master project, which should benefit from the associated projects and which, continuously, should produce new associated projects.
Several projects on mechanical and thermal weed control and weed biology relevant for ecological agriculture are carried out at the Institute of Weed Research (3). The projects include studies of weed harrowing and row cultivation in cereals, thermal weed control in row crops, weed flora surveys of ecological farms, variability in weed competition between different cultivars, weed seed production, optical steering systems of weed harrows, and in cooperation with the Institute of Agricultural Engineering (5) studies of working technique and time involved in weeding.
At the Center for Horticultural Research (2) three projects are of interest. One project is concentrating on investigations of the nitrogen economy in relation to the utilization of green manure in vegetable production. Another project is concentrating on efficiency in manuring and the quality of ecologically grown vegetables. Finally, ecological fruit production is studied with special emphasis on plant protection and the selection of appropriate cultivars in apple production.
The Institute of Agricultural Economics (7) is in charge of economical investigations of farm economy in ecological agriculture and. These are partly studies on the above mentioned 18 farms and partly studies in a selected group of 40 ecological farms compared to a conventional group of farms of similar size and production.
A number of projects studying wildlife populations (birds) at organic and comparable conventional farms have been carried out at the National Environmental Research Institute (8) but are now terminated. Similarly, the quality of organic milk has been compared with conventional milk in a cooperative study carried out by the Danish Government Research Institute for Dairy Industry (4) and allergy experts at the National Hospital.
From the major research programme, where 18 ecological and biodynamic farms are carefully studied, the first results are now being published. Result from other projects will follow in the near future.
It appears that all the research projects are initiated within the traditional institutional structure. This reflects that the activities are sectored as in current agriculture and solely carried out by the traditional research and development institutions. There is a risk that ecological agriculture and the single staff members carrying out the daily work become hidden in the large system, and that it may be difficult to carry out the research according to the coherent perspectives and the "spirit" of ecological agriculture. However, there is a pronounced cooperation between the different projects and the two major projects on farming systems and on cropping systems. They may be considered positive through helping to avoid the potential isolation.
The major part of the projects are time-limited and financed by the governmental development programme according to The Act on Organic Agriculture. There is some uncertainty concerning the future financing of these projects, as the continuation of the development budget has to be negotiated in 1990/91. Other financial possibilities appears in different EC collaborative agricultural R&D programmes.
It is evident that ecological agriculture still is a minor activity at the different institutions, but that the level of activity is somewhat comparable to its economic importance in agriculture as such. It may be questioned whether ecological agriculture has been given a low priority. However, the public opinion and the general opinion among scientific staff members and especially among students at the different universities is very positive and indicates a potential for a future increase in R&D activities concerning development of ecological agriculture. Hopefully, the government support given for a research worker at the agricultural university the next two years will strengthen the ecological topic in the university, and increase the interest in other parts of the university.
Recherche et agriculture biologique au Danemark 1990.
Un grand nombre des institutions de recherche danoises out mené des projets d'études et de recherche sur l'agriculture biologique. Ces travaux sont devenus de plus en plus courants ces dernières années, ceci avec l'essor de l'agriculture biologique, et par suite d'un décret gouvernemental. La plupart des ces recherches ont été financées par des bourses allouées par l'Etat Danois et out porté sur certains problèmes pratiques de la production rencontrées dans ce type d'agriculture. Mais la recherche fondamentale, quant à elle, a été négligée, et devrait dans le futur se développer. Cet article présente brièvement les différent travaux entrepris par les instituts de recherche danois et se termine par une liste exhaustive des adresses des organismes et des chercheurs impliqués dans ces projets.
(1) CENTER FOR AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH, Dept. of Forage Crops, P.O. Box 21, Forsøgsanlæg Foulum, DK-8830 Tjele, tlf +45 86 65 25 00, fax +45 86 65 30 03. Contact: G. Mikkelsen and J. Vester.
(2) CENTER FOR HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH, Inst. of vegetables, Kirstinebjergvej 6, DK-5792 Arslev, tlf +45 65 99 17 66, fax +45 65 99 17. Contact: L. Hagelskjaer.
(3) CENTER FOR PLANT PROTECTION RESEARCH, Inst. for weed research, Forsøgsvej 1, Flakkebjerg, DK-4200 Slagelse, tlf +45 53 58 63 00, fax +45 53 58 63 71. Contact: J. Rasmussen.
(4) (THE) DANISH GOVERNMENT RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR DAIRY INDUSTRY, Roskildevej 56, DK-3400 Hillerød, tlf +45 42 26 25 25, fax +45 48 24 08 55. Contact: H. Werner.
(5) DANISH INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, Bygholm, Postbox 536, DK-8700 Horsens, tlf. + 45 75 62 31 99, fax + 45 75 62 48 80. Contact: V. Nielsen.
(6) EXTENSION SERVICE FOR ECOLOGICAL AND BIODYNAMIC AGRICULTURE, Udkærsvej 15, DK-8200 Arhus N, tlf. +45 86 10 90 88. Contact: E. Fog.
(7) INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS, Toftegårdsplads, G1. Køge Landevej 1-3, 2500 Valby, tlf. +45 36 44 20 80, fax +45 36 44 11 10. Contact: S. Rude.
(8) NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, Terrestrial Ecology, Thoravej 8, III, DK-2400 København NV, tlf. +45 31 19 77 44, fax. +45 38 33 26 44. Contact: A. B. Hald.
(9) NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE, Dept. of research in cattle and sheep, Forsøgsanlaeg Foulum, DK-8830 Tjele, tlf + 45 86 65 25 00, fax. + 45 86 65 30 03. Contact: E. S. Kristensen.
(10) (THE) ROYAL VETERINARY AND AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, Dept. of Agricultural Sciences, Ecological Agriculture, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, tlf +45 3.1 35 17 88, fax +45 31 39 04 23. Contact: P. Kølster.
(11) (THE) TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF DENMARK, Science Shop, Lundtoftevej 100, Bygning 208, DK-2800 Lyngby. Tlf +45 46 88 22 22 lokal 2256, fax. 42 88 20 14. Contact: N. H. Kristensen.
(12) UNIVERSITY OF AARHUS, Inst. of Zoology and Zoophysiology, Zoological Laboratory, Bygning 135, DK-8000 Aarhus, tlf +45 86 12 51 77 lokal 2461 eller +45 86 20 27 11 lokal 2461. Contact: 0. Christensen.
(13) UNIVERSITY OF ROSKILDE, Inst. of Planning and Economics, Hus 24.2, RUC, Postbox 260, DK-4000 Roskilde, tlf +45 42 75 77 11 (lok. 2509), fax. 46 75 66 18. Contact: F. Bjerke.
(14) UNIVERSITY OF SUTHERN JUTLAND, Niels Bohrs vej 8, DK-6700 Esbjerg, tlf +4575 13 32 05. Contact: P. Kiel.
Summary
Introduction
Experimental design
Characterization of the experimental sites
Results
G. Mikkelsen
Department of Forage Crops
Research Centre Foulum
P.O. Box 21, DK - 8830 Tjele
In 1987 research in cropping systems started at the Danish Research Service for Plant and Soil Science. The research project is located at three state research stations with well established research facilities.
The crop rotations consist of ecological and integrated rotations. An ecological crop rotation with fodder crops is established at Research Centre Foulum and an ecological crop rotation with vegetables, grains and green manure is established at Research Station Ødum.
Each field in the rotation is about 1 ha and is divided into research- and reference areas.
Prior to the start of the experiment, the experimental areas were characterized with respect to physical, chemical and biological parameters.
In Danish agriculture there is a general need for research in ecological agriculture and in interactions between the agro-ecosystem and the environment.
In 1987 research in cropping systems started at the Danish Research Service for Plant and Soil Science at three state research stations and at three different locations. At the three locations the research project comprise ecological- and integrated crop rotations (systems).
The objectives of the research project are:
- to develop and improve cropping systems- to acquire a greater knowledge of biological interactions and contribute to the development of economic and environmentally acceptable crop production
- to consider the agricultural system as an ecosystem and to describe its characteristics.
Activities in the Danish experiments include examining possible long-term trends in physical, chemical and biological parameters of the systems, e.g. yield, plant quality and nutrient balances in the different crop rotations. Research projects concerning N-cycling, winter green fields, optimal utilization of manure and bioindicators have been started.
The Danish experiment were established in 1987 at three locations:
- Research Centre Foulum, 25 ha, coarse sandy loam
- Research Station Ødum, 16 ha, fine sandy loam
- Research Station Jyndevad, 18 ha, coarse sandy soil.
Ecological crop rotations are established at Foulum and Ødum only. At Foulum is a six-year fodder crop rotation typical for Danish dairy farmers. Fertilization is by cow slurry only. The crop rotation is based on:
1. Spring barley under s own with clover grass
2. 1st year clover grass
3. 2nd year clover grass
4. Spring barley and pea mixture undersown with rye grass
5. Oats
6. Fodder beet, potato
At Ødum there is a six-year crop rotation with vegetables, grains and green manure. Fertilization is pig slurry. The crop rotation is based on:
1. Spring barley undersown with clover grass
2. Clover grass (green manure)
3. Cabbage
4. Peas.
5. Winter wheat
6. Beetroot
At each location, crop rotations have been established within fields of about 1 ha. Each field is divided into research- and a reference area. In the reference area the effects of the farm management and the crop rotation are studied. In the research area research projects for further development of the cropping system take place. Selected subsystems will be studied in detail and the farm management in the reference area will be implemented based on the results of the research area.
Prior to the start of the work, the experimental areas were characterized with respect to physical, chemical and biological parameters. A grid-net of 40 × 40 m were established and in the interceptions the measurement were made. The results from this soil survey gave an opportunity to study the spatial variation of the varies parameters and the initial status for the areas. The long term trends of these parameters are measured in the reference areas.
Experiments with mechanical weed control, optimal utilization of manure, N-leaching, fauna and flora monitoring have been started. The first three years with ecological agriculture shows a very little depression of the plant yield.
These results are based on optimal farm management in handling manure and in controlling pests. Pests are controlled directly by mechanical weed control and by resistant varieties and variety mixtures. The crop rotation itself control pests indirectly.
La Recherche des Rotation des Cultures æologiques à l'Institut Expérimental de l'Etat pour des Cultures
Research in ecological cropping systems at the Danish Research Service for Plant and Soil Science
En 1987 on a commencé "la Recherche en systèmes de cultivation" au Danemark. Les surfaces de 3 centres de recherche des cultures étaient cultivés écologiques et intégrés. Les rotations de cultures dont la plupart comprends des récoltes à vendre au comptant.
Summary
1. Introduction
2. A conceptual model for organic livestock farming
3. Research methodology
Résumé
4. References
E. Steen Kristensen and J. Tind Sørensen
National Institute of Animal Science
Foulum, Denmark
Production in, organic livestock systems is a complex process involving man as well as animals and plants, which interact in a changing environment. Thus research and development in organic systems through redutionistic research with factorial experiments has some obvious short comings. This paper describes a systemic methodology for research, which is applied in the research project "Organic Livestock Systems": An on-going process, of a) observations and reflections in commercial organic farms, b) development of a simulation model, which mimic the production system and c)improvement of the model through experimentation's.
Pollution of the environments is considered a serious and increasing problem in many countries in the industrialized part of the world. The modern agricultural industry has some responsibility for these environmental problems e.g., pollution with Nitrogen and decreasing "landscape value". Srikandarajah et al. (8) argued that modern agricultural "progress" had been costly due to the degradation of rural environments, both bio-physical and socio-cultural.
In organic farming a farm is considered as a balanced unit, where production, environment and human activity are integrated. Organic farming means limited off-farm inputs and thereby minimize pollution from the farm. Organic farming systems may consequently be a good "frame" for researching and development of more sustainable agricultural systems. This paper presents the research methodology from the project "Organic Livestock Systems".
Production in organic livestock systems is a complex process involving man as well as animals and plants, which interact in a changing environment. Any kind of communication of hypothesis, beliefs or knowledge concerning that kind of system need to be described by a model. A feasible terminology is given by the General Systems Theory (3). Figure 1 shows a conceptual model of an organic farm including the major compartments and their interactions. It is important to acknowledge the farm as an unity, where the components are strongly interrelated. For conventional farming it is important, for organic farming with reduced possibilities for external input, it is vital.
In figure 1 management is considered as an iterative process of 1) measurement in the production system, 2) comparisons between measurements and set goals for the production and 3) adjustments in controllable factors in order to narrow the distance between goal and measurement in the future. This aggregation of the production subsystem and the management feedback (the control subsystem) is described by Ashbye (1) and is called a cybernetic system. In this model management is seen as a process of adjustment (iterative planning) rather than a rational choice between existing alternative plans (7). The individuality of each particular farm (physical and mental) is taking into account directly. This is an important issue for many organic farmers.
Figure 1. A farm as a cybernetic system.
In "Organic Livestock Systems" the methodology, which is inspired by Bawden et al. (2) can be summarized as an on-going process of steps as shown in Figure 2:
Figure 2. Methodology for development of a simulation model.
Step 1 is performed on the basis of the conceptual model shown in Figure 1. In 18 different commercial organic farms, the structure of the production is monitored closely through systematic recordings by technicians visiting each farm 3-4 times per month. The objective of the recordings is to describe the turnover in terms of nutrients and energy as welt as economy in the different enterprises in order to be able to explain the turnover on the whole farm level.
In step 2 the data are compiled in a central database. Scientific staff members are responsible for the data processing and discuss the results with the individual farmers during 2-3 yearly meetings on each farm.
The developed simulation model in step 3 has to be dynamic (time dependent) and mechanistic (the behaviour of the system is explained by the individual parts of the systems) (France & Thornley, 4). Mechanistic refers to a hierarchical view of the world where a particulary system is a subsystem of a larger system, while it at the same time is build up of subsystems, which is themselves composed of subsystems (4, 6). Mechanistic modeling is a balance between the degree of explanation and the acceptable degree of reduction of the system behaviour. As a rule the mechanistic description is not taken more than one level down in the hierarchy in order to minimize the reduction.
With the model, it is possible to simulate the effect of a range of different management adjustments in the production. In this process the researchers acknowledge the significance of the interrelation between the management and the production system. By using portable computers it is further possible to use the model or significant parts of it on the farm as an advisory tool (7).
Steps 4 to 7 produce an extra loop in the modeling process. The significance of this loop depends of the starting level of scientific knowledge. In "Organic Livestock Systems" this part is developed in cooperation with other research disciplines e.g., with plant science, to evaluate effects of different strategies for weed control. Preliminary results and a discussion of the methodology is given by Kristensen & Sørensen (5).
Production des systèmes d'élevage organiques est un procès complexe comportant l'homme ainsi que les animaux et les cultures. C'est la raison pour laquelle recherche et développement des systèmes organiques par recherche analytique et synthétique avec experiences partielles présentent des inconvénients évidents. Cet article décrit une méthodologie systématique de recherche qui est appliqué dans le projet: "Des Systèmes d'élevage organiques", un procès continue de a) Observations et réflexions des fermes commerciales cultivées organiquement, b) Développement d'un modèle de simulation imitant le modèle de production, c) L'improvement du modèle par des experiences.
(1) Ashbye, W.R. 1956. An introduction to cybernetics. Chapman & Hall Ltd., London, 295 pp.
(2) Bawden, R.J.; Macacam, R.D.; Packham, R.G. & Valentine, I. 1984. Systems thinking and practices in the education of agriculturalists. Agricultural Systems 13, 205-225.
(3) Bertalanffy, L. von. 1973. General systems theory. Foundations, development, application. Revised edition George Brazziller, New York, 295 pp.
(4) France, J. & Thornley, J.H.M. 1984. Mathematical models in agriculture. Butterworths, London, 355 pp.
(5) Kristensen, E.S. & Sørensen, J.T. 1990. "Organic Livestock Systems": Research Methodology and Preliminary Results. Paper presented at NJF-seminar nr. 166, 19-21 March 1990, Uppsala, Sweden.
(6) Rountree, J.M. 1977. Systems thinking - some fundamental aspects. Agricultural Systems 2, 247-254.
(7) Sørensen, J.T., Kristensen, E.S. & Kristensen, T. 1990. An iterative approach to the farm planning process. Submitted for publication in So. J. Agr. Econ., 15 pp.
(8) Srikandarajah, N. Bawden, R.J. & Packham, R.G. 1989. Systems Agriculture - A paradigm for sustainability 9th Annual Farming Systems Research/Extension Symposium, Univ. Arkansas, Fayetteville Arkansas USA, Okt. 9-11. 17 pp.
Summary
1. Background
2. Present research work
3. Future situation
Résumé
References
J. VESTER
Ministry of Agriculture
Danish Research Service for Plant and Soil Science
Crop Protection Section
Forsøgsanlæg Foulum, P.O. Box 25, DK-8830 Tjele
Denmark
The present work and the existing documentation related to organic farming are reviewed. So far most of the documentation concerning organic agriculture in Denmark has been produced at the Danish Research Service for Plant and Soil Science. Projects concerning nutritional questions and cooperative projects should have high priority in future.
The Danish Research Service for Plant and Soil Science in 1985 summarized the present situation of organic agriculture in a report (1). Before this report the situation was briefly summarized by (2) and (3) in 1983. Until this time organic farming was only examined in one experiment at the Danish Research Service for Plant and Soil Science (4). In that experiment the quality of vegetables was compared two by two on biodynamical farms and their corresponding conventional neighboring farms. On the background of these reports and recommendations from both the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Environment several projects have been initiated at the Danish Research Service for Plant and Soil Science.
The possible effects of organic farming on soil fertility (microbial activity (5), soil fungi (6) (7), earthworms (8) and microarthropodes) have been investigated on a couple of farms. The investigations on soil fertility are continued.
In 1986 the Department of Forage Crops initiated case studies at several organic farms. The main purpose of these case studies is to investigate the cycles of nutrition at farm level. The yield reducing effects of weeds and pests are quantified. No results have been published yet.
In 1987 long-term experiments with farming systems were established at three different research stations under the Danish Research Service for Plant and Soil Science. The farming systems comprise organic systems, integrated systems and a technological(conventional) system (9). Before starting the farming systems, the experimental areas were characterized in detail with respect to chemical, physical and biological factors (10) (11) (12) (13).
Since 1985 the Department of Weed Control has initiated different series of research within alternative methods of weed control. The work has been divided between development of improved technique, comparisons between herbicides and alternative methods and more detailed studies of the working mechanisms of mechanical/thermal weed control methods. A preliminary weed flora survey on an organic farm has been reported (14) (15). From 1989 these weed flora surveys were carried oh again on 4 organic farms. Harrowing and hoeing in cereals have been carried out since 1987 in a great number of experiments on both organic farms and at the research stations (16) (17) (18) (19). A new steering technique for hoeing in cereals at small row distances (20 cm) is under development. Flame cultivation for weed control in agricultural and horticultural crops has been investigated since 1985 (20) (21) (22). A new equipment has been developed. It is now possible to make flame treatments under windy conditions with a high working capacity without increasing the gas consumption. Especially for seed production of potatoes a technique for mechanical/thermal desiccation of potato, haul has been developed. This technique has been investigated both on organic and conventional farms (23). The possibilities of improving the hoeing technique in row crops have been investigated. Especially the row brush hoe seems to have several advantages, especially under difficult conditions (24) (25) (26). Experiments with different varieties of barley and their ability of competing with the weeds have been carried out since 1987 (27).
At the Department for Vegetable Growing a project initiated in 1989 concentrates on manuring strategies and other quality parameters when growing organic vegetables.
Organic fruit production methods have been investigated at the Department of Fruit Growing since 1987. Plant protection methods are of particular interest.
There already exists considerable documentation and research projects concerning organic agriculture in Denmark. Many new projects related to organic farming have been initiated during the last few years at many different institutions (28). Since on the one hand many of these projects are overlapping and on the other hand leave essential gaps a considerable coordination is required. This would also make it much easier to carry out interdisciplinary projects. Many specific topics are well covered today except from studies on the efficiency of nutrition and soil fertility on organic farms. Beside cooperative projects this topic should also have a high priority in future.
La situation actuelle et l'avenir des projets de recherche avec relation de production végétale biologique au Centre Danois des Recherches de Science Agricole.
Le travail actuel et la documentation existante avec relation d'agriculture biologique sont résumés. Jusqu'ici la plupart de la documentation d'agriculture biologique au Danemark a été produite par le Centre Danois des Recherches de Science Agricole. Des Projets avec relation des questions de nourriture des plantes et des projets de collaboration doivent être encouragés à l'avenir.
(1) HØG, K. (1985). Dyrkningsmetoders indflydelse på udbytte, plantekvalitet, jord og miljø. IV. Økologisk jordbrug. Tidsskrift for Planteavl, Beretning nr. S 1805. 131 pp.
(2) ROSENSTAND, A. (1983). 0kologisk jordbrug i Danmark 1981. Land - husholdningsselskabets Forlag. 167 pp.
(3) VESTER, J. (1983). Organic agriculture in Denmark. In: International scientific colloquium on comparison between farming systems, Uppsala, March 21-24, 1983. Proceedings. Ed. by J. Dlouhy and G. Nilsson. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Dep. of Plant Husbandry, Uppsala. Report 124: 44.
(4) HANSEN, H. (1981). Comparison of chemical composition and taste of biodynamically and conventionally grown vegetables. Qual. Plant. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 30: 203-211.
(5) HELWEG, A. (1988). Microbial activities in soil from orchards regularly treated with pesticides compared with the activity in soils without pesticides (organically cultivated). Pedobiologia 32: 273-281.
(6) ELMHOLT, S. (1987). Measurement of the length of fungal hyphae by the membrane filter technique as a method for comparing fungal occurrence in cultivated field soils. Soil Biol. Biochem. Vol 19 (6): 679-682.
(7) ELMHOLT, S. (1989). Comparison of the occurrence of the saprophytic soil fungi in two differently field soils. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture. Vol 6: 229-239.
(8) CHRISTENSEN, O., DAUGBJERG, P., HINGE, J., JENSEN, J.P. & SIGURDAR-DOTTIR, H. (1987). Effekten af dyrkningspraksis på regnorme og deres mulige rolle som bioindikatorer. Tidskrift for Planteavl Vol 91 (I): 15-32. Beretning 1873.
(9) MIKKELSEN, G. & MIKKELSEN, S.A. (1989). Start of farming systems research in Denmark. In: Current status of integrated farming systems research in Western Europe. Working group "integrated arable farming systems". WPRS Bulletin, Bulletin SROP, 1989/XII/5. Ed. by P. Vereijken & D.J. Royle: 6-15.
(10) HEIDMANN, T. (1988). Startkarakterisering af arealer til system-forskning. I. Forsøgsarealer, måleprogram og metoder. Tidskrift for Planteavls Specialserie, Beretning S-1958, 89 pp.
(11) HEIDMANN, T. (1989). Startkarakterisering af arealer til system-forskning. II. Resultater fra arealet ved Foulum. Tidskrift for Planteavls Specialserie, Beretning S-2007, 186 pp.
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(13) HEIDMANN, T. (1989). Startkarakterisering af arealer til system-forskning. IV. Resultater fra arealet ved Jyndevad. Tidskrift for Planteavls Specialserie, Beretning S-2021, 163 pp.
(14) RASMUSSEN, J. (1983). Comparisons between farming systems in Denmark 1982. - International scientific colloquium on comparisons between farming systems, Uppsala, March 21-24 1983. Proceedings. Inst. for växtodling. Rapport 124. Uppsala 1983: 88.
(15) RASMUSSEN, J. & HAAS, H. (1984). Sammenligning af ukrudtsfloraen i biodynamisk og konventionelt landbrug. - 1. Danske Planteværnskonference/Ukrudt: 302-315.
(16) RASMUSSEN, J. & VESTER, J. (1988). Mekanisk ukrudtsbekaempelse i landbrugsafgrøder. 5. Danske Planteværnskonference/Ukrudt 1988: 151-167.
(17) RASMUSSEN, J. (1989). Forsøg med ukrudtsharvning og radrensning i korn. Nordisk Plantevaernskonference, 1989: 345 - 354.
(18) RASMUSSEN, J., NEMMING, A. & VESTER, J. (1989). Harvetyper og bekæmpelsesstrategier ved ukrudtsharvning i vårsæd. 6. Danske Planteværnskonference/Ukrudt 1989: 144-157.
(19) RASMUSSEN, J. & PEDERSEN, B.T. (1990). Forsøg med radrensning i korn - rækkeafstand og udsædsmængde. 7. Danske Plantevaernskonference 1990 Ukrudt. 187-199.
(20) VESTER, J. (1985). New experience with flame cultivation for weed control. In: "Flame cultivation for weed control". Proceedings of the international meeting, 20-22. Nov. 1984, Namur, Belgium. Ed. C. Castille. Side 10-20.
(21) VESTER, J. (1986). Flame cultivation for weed control, 2 years' results. Weed Control in Vegetable Production. Proceedings of a Meeting of the EC Experts' Group/Stuttgart 28-31 October 1986 (Ed. R. Cavalloro og A. El Titi): 153-167. A.A. Balkema.
(22) VESTER, J. (1987). Der biologische Effekt des Abflammens in gemüsebau- und landwirtschaftlichen Kulturen in Danemark. I: Beikrautregulierung statt Unkrautbekämpfung - Methoden der mechanische und thermische Regulierung. Ed. B. Geier & M. Hofmann. Bind 58 "Alternative Konzepte" G. F. Müller Verlag, Karlsruhe.
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Nagele experimental farm
Farming methods and techniques
Results of farming and research
Experimental introduction of integrated agriculture
Perspectives on organic farming
References
P. Vereijken
Centre for Agrobiological Research (CABO),
P.O. Box 14, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
As doubt is growing on the perspectives of current agriculture, interest is increasing in alternative systems of production. As a result, many new research activities have been started, especially in the field of plant production. In Europe, a working group of the International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) is Crying to develop integrated arable farming systems inspired by the aims and methods of integrated pest management (IPM) (Vereijken et al., 1986). The two oldest projects are the Lautenbach experimental farm near Stuttgart, West Germany (El Titi, 1989) and the Nagele experimental farm in The Netherlands. The latter study is subject of the current paper, considering 9 years of scientific coordination by the author (1979-1987).
Research of this national experimental farm for the development and comparison of alternative systems started in 1979. The farm is situated near the village of Nagele in the NorthEastpolder, three to four meters below sea level on heavy sandy marine clay (24 percent lutum). The size of the farm is 72 hectares. Three farming systems have been studied: organic, integrated, and conventional. They are run on a commercial basis by one manager and four co-workers. The organic farm is managed according to the biodynamic method, which is one of the organic systems practiced most in Western Europe to date. It is a mixed farm of 22 hectares, with 20 dairy cows and a 11-year rotation, including 55 percent fodder crops. Its main objective is to be self supporting in fertilizers and fodder. No pesticides are allowed. The conventional and the integrated farms are concerned exclusively with arable farming. They are each 17 hectares and have the same 4-year rotation. The conventional farm, which serves as a reference, seeks to maximize financial returns. The integrated farm should produce a satisfactory financial return, but is also aimed at minimal input of fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery to avoid pollution of the environment and save nonrenewable resources. So it may be characterized as an intermediate system.
The research on the farms has three objectives: (a) development of the organic mixed farm and the integrated arable farm in theory and practice, (b) evaluation of the results of the systems, based on their specific aims and (c) comparison of the results of the experimental systems with those of the conventional reference system.
The aim is not to choose between development or comparison of systems but to consider them both as necessary. The experimental systems have to be developed fully before they can be judged oh their feasibility and viability, in comparison with conventional agriculture. In a previous paper, the initial results of farming and research were presented relating to animal husbandry, crop growth and yield, soil cultivation and weed control, pest and disease control, quality of products, farm economics, effects on nature and the environment (Vereijken, 1985). One of the most crucial questions in organic farming, that of how to maintain soil fertility, was treated separately (Vereijken, 1986). Herein, the latest research results are evaluated, with special emphasis on development of farm management, inputs of fertilizers and pesticides and economic results. Based on these results, the perspectives of the two alternative farming systems can be discussed.
Crop rotation. An appropriate crop rotation can be very effective in controlling pests, diseases and weeds and in maintaining soil fertility. In conventional agriculture, the chances for a good rotation have been strongly reduced, because roost farming holdings in The Netherlands are small and farmers have to grow high yielding crops in an intensive way,. facing increasing production cost and decreasing returns for their products.
For this reason, the integrated system had the same crop rotation as the conventional: potato - variable - sugar beet - winter wheat (Fig. 1). The crop choice for the variable-year crop field depended on the market situation. Since 1985, peas were grown on half of the field and onions and carrots on a quarter each. A longer rotation would have offered a better barrier against soil-borne pests and diseases, but it also would have been less profitable than the current 4-year rotation.
By contrast, the mixed character of the organic system offers excellent opportunities for a diversified and sound rotation. Perennial pastures with grass and clover suppress weeds, restore the soil structure, and increase the organic matter and nitrogen content of the soil. Moreover, a high proportion of grassland in the rotation reduces the cropping frequencies of the marketable crops, such as potato and cereals. As a result, the pressure of soil-borne pests and diseases is kept to a minimum. Until 1985, fodder cereals, such as winter barley and oats, were also part of the rotation. However, their low gross margins had a negative impact on the economic results of the organic farm. Therefore, they have been replaced by high-yielding crops, such as onion and carrot. Consequently, a limited amount of supplementary feed has had to be purchased since 1986. At the moment, the rotation is potato-winter wheat - carrot - 3-year mowing pasture (alfalfa, red clover, English rye grass) -onion - winter wheat - 3-year pasture (white clover/grass mixture) (Fig. 1). This crop sequence was based especially on alternating positive and negative influences on the structure and the nitrogen reserves of the soil.
Fertilization and crop protection. As is usual in Dutch arable farming, fertilization on the conventional farm was mainly of a mineral nature. Organic manure, preferably solid chicken manure, was applied only to the wheat stubble land to supply organic matter. On the integrated farm, fertilization was mainly organic; mineral fertilizers were used only as a complement. In this system, crops were moderately supplied with nitrogen to avoid abundant leaf development and, as a result, high disease susceptibility. Liquid chicken manure was applied right before the sowing of sugar beet and the planting of potatoes and was plowed under immediately to achieve a maximum nitrogen effect.
In conventional agriculture, green manure is applied to improve the soil structure. On the integrated and organic farms, green manure crops also were grown to fix the nitrate that had been left behind by the main crop or that had mineralized after harvest. Thus, green manure crops served to prevent nitrate leaching.
Fig. 1. Experimental farm development of farming systems in 1989,
I - Conventional farming system with a 4-year crop rotation: potato (0.5 ware, 0.5 seed) - 0.5 pea, 0.25 onion, 0.25 w. carrot -sugar beet - winter wheat (17 ha).II - Integrated farming system with the same rotation as I (17 ha).
III - Biodynamic ley farm with 20 dairy cows and a 11-year rotation; ware potato - winter wheat - carrot - 3-year mowing pasture with Italian rye grass + lucerne + red clover - sowed onion - winter wheat - 3-year grazing pasture with white clover + English rye grass (22 ha).
a - Office of scientific coordinator dr. F. Wijnands at Havenweg 6, Nagele. Post to PAGV, P.O. Box 430, 8200 AK Lelystad, tel. 03200-22714.b - House of the farm manager.
c - Loose-housing for 25 cows at the biodynamic farm.
On the organic farm, only organic manure from the same farm was used. Clover was the main source of nitrogen in the farm cycle. After being consumed as protein by dairy cattle, nitrogen was collected in the loose-housing as stable manure. Together with the other nutrients, nitrogen then was distributed over the various crops, as required. Because products are sold off the farm, soil reserves of phosphorus and potassium were depleted gradually (Vereijken, 1986). This was compensated by purchasing straw and roughage (from natural areas) and some concentrates (partly from conventional origin).
In conventional agriculture, crop protection is chiefly of a chemical nature. On the integrated farm, however, pesticides were used only as a last resort. Chemicals that are known to be highly toxic, persistent, or mobile were avoided. Weeds, diseases, and pests were controlled mainly by using resistant varieties, lowering of the nitrogen-dressing, mechanical weed control, use of appropriate sowing times and sowing distances, etc. (Vereijken, 1989a). On the organic farm, ample rotation was indispensable for the prevention of weeds, pests, and diseases because chemical control was prohibited. In both experimental systems, some loss in yield caused by weeds, pests, and diseases was accepted.
Cropping systems based on these principles cannot be perfect. Regular observations and reports on management and crop reactions are needed to track imperfections. Ideas from outside the experimental farm (practices, extension, and research) also can improve cropping programs. The fundamental choice of natural practices on the organic farm often called for unusual and risky cropping measures. If successful, they could be introduced on the integrated farm, too. Thus, the biological system serves as a source of inspiration and a pioneer for the integrated systems.
Economics and the environment represent the two main criteria for the social acceptability of the three production systems. The inputs of fertilizers and pesticides were important indicators of the environmental impact. The economic viability was indicated especially by net surplus and labor returns. Because of considerable changes in the management of the systems since 1984, only the latest results are presented (1985-1987).
Table 1. Average farm economic results of the conventional, integrated and organic farming systems, 1985-1988.
|
|
Economic Results (Dutch guilders/hectare) |
||
|
Conventional |
Integrated |
Organic |
|
|
1. Returns from marketable crops |
6,490 |
6,110 |
12,090 |
|
2. Returns from grassland and fodder crops |
- |
- |
9,170 |
|
3. Total returns |
6,490 |
6,110 |
10,630 |
|
4. Labor cost* |
2,190 |
2,190 |
5,790 |
|
5. Contract work |
1,230 |
1,200 |
1,290 |
|
6. Equipment and machinery |
1,670 |
1,760 |
2,490 |
|
7. Total operation cost (4 to 6) |
5,090 |
5,150 |
9.570 |
|
8. Land and buildings |
1,390 |
1,390 |
2,640 |
|
9. Cattle and fodder |
- |
- |
1.920 |
|
10. Fertilizers |
450 |
300 |
- |
|
11. Seeds |
670 |
780 |
440 |
|
12. Pesticides |
700 |
260 |
- |
|
13. Other cost |
590 |
610 |
880 |
|
14. Total cost (7 to 13) |
8,890 |
8,490 |
15,450 |
|
15. Net surplus (3 minus 14) |
-2,400 |
-2,380 |
-4.820 |
|
16. Labor returns (15 plus 4) |
- 210 |
- 190 |
970 |
|
Technical and economic data |
|||
|
17. Marketable crops (ha) |
17 |
17 |
10.7 |
|
18. Grassland + fodder crops (ha) |
- |
- |
11.4 |
|
19. Livestock units |
- |
- |
21.8 |
|
20. Number of labor units |
0.7 |
0.7 |
1.7 |
|
21. Standard holding units (SHU) per ha |
6.1 |
6.1 |
5.7 |
|
22. SHU per labor unit |
154 |
156 |
69 |
* 27 guilders/hour was the normal gross reward for the farmer's own labor in Dutch agriculture during 1985-1987.
Total returns of the organic farm appear to be considerably higher, because of the high premiums on standard produce prices (Table 1). Marketable organic crops clearly have higher returns than grassland and fodder crops. However, the total production cost was much higher than on the conventional and integrated arable farms, especially in labor, buildings, and cattle/fodder, which renders by far the lowest net surplus. In spite of this, returns on labor on the organic farm were highest, although insufficient compared to other professional groups. The integrated farm fell short of the conventional farm in total returns because of less physical yields. However, the integrated farm gave considerable savings of expenses in fertilizers and pesticides. As a result, the integrated farm achieved an almost equal net revenue. The three farms were hardly different in intensity of soil use (standard holding units per hectare). Labor productivity of the organic farm, however, was less than half of those of the two other farms (standard holding units per labor unit).
Table 2. NPK-balances (kg/ha/year) and nitrate-nitrogen content of the drainage water (mg N03-N/1) in the systems, averaged for 1986-1988.
|
|
Conventional |
Integrated |
Organic |
||||||
|
N |
P |
K |
N |
P |
K |
N |
P |
K |
|
|
Inputs |
|||||||||
|
fertilizers |
135 |
15 |
145 |
55 |
- |
50 |
- |
- |
- |
|
manure |
80 |
40 |
65 |
100 |
35 |
65 |
- |
- |
- |
|
biol. N. fixation |
35 |
- |
- |
35 |
- |
- |
100 |
- |
- |
|
concentrates |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
50 |
8 |
50 |
|
straw |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
20 |
3 |
15 |
|
deposition |
45 |
1 |
5 |
45 |
1 |
5 |
45 |
1 |
5 |
|
total input |
295 |
55 |
215 |
235 |
35 |
120 |
215 |
12 |
70 |
|
Outputs |
|||||||||
|
plant products |
165 |
30 |
135 |
150 |
25 |
130 |
35 |
7 |
40 |
|
animal products |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
25 |
5 |
5 |
|
total output |
165 |
30 |
135 |
150 |
25 |
130 |
60 |
12 |
45 |
|
input - output* |
130 |
25 |
80 |
85 |
1.0 |
-10 |
155 |
- |
25 |
|
NO3-N drainage water |
10 |
- |
- |
8 |
- |
- |
3 |
- |
- |
* N-emissions - NH3-volatilization + NO3-denitrification + NO3-leaching;
N-leaching (kg/ha) - precipitation surplus (1/m2) × N-content drainage water (mg/l) × 10-2.
K-emissions = K-leaching - ± 20 kg/ha/year ac Nagele. P-emissions < 1 kg/ha/year at Nagele.
On the organic farm, inputs of NPK were the lowest by far (Table 2). On the integrated farm, inputs of NPK were considerably lower than on the conventional farm and an important shift has taken place from mineral to organic fertilization. Only the organic farm had a satisfactory balance between inputs and outputs of P en K. All three systems could meet the standards of the Dutch Ministry of Environment for shallow waters (10 milligrams of nitrate-N per liter). But the drainwater of the organic farm was so clean that it could also reach the European Economic Community guidelines for the maximum admissible nitrate content of drinking water (5.6 milligrams of nitrate-N per liter - 25 milligrams of nitrate per liter).
Table 3. Detailed balance sheet of N, P, K nutrients on the organic farm in 1986.
|
|
N |
P |
K |
|
kilograms/year |
|||
|
Outputs |
|||
|
84 tons milk with 33.8% protein |
455 |
75 |
125 |
|
4,5 tons fresh weight of cows and calves |
115 |
35 |
75 |
|
4 ha cereals, 5,5 t/ha |
330 |
65 |
85 |
|
1 ha potatoes, 45 C/ha |
80 |
25 |
155 |
|
1 ha onions, 50 C/ha |
30 |
20 |
145 |
|
1 ha carrots, 60 c/ha |
55 |
15 |
180 |
|
2 ha peas, 3.5 C/ha |
245 |
25 |
35 |
|
1 ha cichory, 30 c/ha |
25 |
5 |
80 |
|
1 ha cabbage, 70 c/ha |
80 |
40 |
170 |
|
Total output over 22 ha by sale of products |
1,515 |
305 |
1,050 |
|
Total output/ha by sale of products |
69 |
14 |
48 |
|
Inputs |
|||
|
0.5 ton concentrates |
15 |
3 |
8 |
|
2.1 tons roughage (natural areas) |
42 |
6 |
45 |
|
1.3 tons straw (natural areas) |
13 |
2 |
4 |
|
Wet and dry deposition (air pollution) |
35 |
1 |
4 |
|
Biological nitrogen fixation |
80 |
- |
- |
|
Total input/ha |
185 |
12 |
61 |
|
Natural losses + mutations in soil |
|||
|
reserves/ha (input/ha - output/ha) |
116 |
-2 |
13 |
Nitrogen availability was clearly the main limiting factor for production on the organic farm, as evidenced by yield comparisons between experimental plots in the pasture with and without clovers (Van der Meer and Baan Hofman, 1988). From these results, it has been concluded that biological nitrogen fixation was the main source of nitrogen input in the organic system (Table 3). This table also shows that a deficit on the nutrient balance of phosphorus and potassium caused by sale of products was compensated for by purchase of feed. Although this deficit existed from 1979 until 1986, the phosphorus and potassium status of the soil is still sufficient, according to conventional standards.
Table 4. Chemical control in the conventional and integrated systems 1986-1988.
|
|
Average number of treatments per field |
Input of active ingredients (kg/ha) |
||
|
Conventional |
Integrated |
Conventional |
Integrated |
|
|
Herbicides |
3.5 |
1.9 |
4.2 |
1.4 |
|
Fungicides |
3.8 |
1.6 |
5.6 |
2.2 |
|
Insecticides |
1.3 |
0.7 |
0.5 |
0.2 |
|
Growth regulators |
0.3 |
0.1 |
0.3 |
0.1 |
|
Subtotal |
8.9 |
4.3 |
10.6 |
3.9 |
|
Nematicides* |
0.3 |
0.0 |
42.3 |
0.0 |
|
Total |
9.2 |
4.3 |
52.9 |
3.9 |
* Soil fumigation against potato cyst eel worms.
On the conventional farm, 8.5 pesticide treatments per field were applied; only 3.6 were applied per field on the integrated farm (Table 4). If the use of chemical means per year are expressed in kilograms per hectare active ingredient, differences are still greater, that is, 10.4 versus 4.6 and even 53.1 versus 4.6 if routine fumigation of the soil against potato cyst eelworm on the conventional farm is included. When soil fumigation was introduced on the conventional reference farm, as most farmers did at the time, we decided to grow eelworm-resistant potato varieties on the integrated farm.
From the experimental results, we have concluded that drastic reduction of the usage of fertilizers and pesticides by means of integrated farm management is attractive from an environmental point of view. The resulting cost reductions also may offer sufficient compensation for lower yields and may bring higher profits. As increasing cost of production, and especially decreasing prices of agriculture products, put profits under pressure, it becomes attractive to convert to integrated management (Vereijken, 1989b). Considering the saturation of markets and growing restrictions by environmental legislation, research on integrated farming should be extended by experimental introduction of the systems into practice. This latter would imply the testing of the prototype-system developed at Nagele by experienced and commercial arable farmers to attain technically and economically feasible farming scenarios. Undoubtedly, this will also lead to the improvement and broadening of the current integrated cropping programs, promoted by the wide variety of practices in attitude and skill of farmers, nature and size of holdings, soil types, crop rotations, and other factors. Finally, a general strategy for the development and introduction of integrated farming systems is presented (Table 5),
Tabel 5. Strategy for the development of integrated arable farming systems and their introduction in practice.
1. Research institutes develop and test the components for integrated farming systems:
- varieties with broad resistance and sufficient production.
- biological, physical and chemical methods of crop protection
- methods for the maintenance of soil fertility.
- efficient cropping systems with emphasis on quality.
- equipment, machines and buildings for a technically optimum management.
- ways of investment with maximum returns of soil, labor and capital.
2. Experimental stations coordinate the composition and testing of experimental systems on Regional Experimental Farms:
- experimental farms on representative locations in specific growing areas. For example in the Netherlands: Nagele in the central clay district (1979), Veendam in the peaty sand district (1986) and Vreedepeel in the light sand district (1989).
3. Research and extension introduce and test the experimental systems on a small scale:
- regional formation of pioneer groups of farmers for planned conversion from conventional to integrated farming (5 regions 1990).- technical, economic and environmental progress has to be monitored and evaluated.
- Major input/output relations have to be optimized and generally usable cropping and farming scenarios have to be developed.
4. Extension and education introduce integrated production systems on a large scale:
- manuals and courses for extension specialists/and teachers
- adaptation of subject matter in agricultural schools
- courses and study groups for farmers;
- appropriate cropping manuals and view-data.
The net output of the organic mixed farm has increased steadily since 1985 when low-profit fodder crops were replaced by high-profit vegetables and milk production was raised to a higher level through supplementary purchase of concentrates. Consequently, an acceptable income can be expected in the next few years. To achieve this, it is important that a 50-percent (milk, meat) to a 100-percent (grain, vegetables) higher price level be obtained for the organic products compared to the conventional market to make up for the higher investments in capital and labor. This need of high premiums, however, appears to be too high a threshold for the majority of farmers and consumers up until now.
This does not mean that organic farming is doomed to play a marginal role. Several developments are occurring that offer new opportunities to a more radical organic approach (Vereijken, 1989b). In areas with sensitive ecological characteristics and also in water collection areas, organic
farming may play an important role, because of its minimum introduction of nutrients and its rejection of chemical pest control measures. Therefore, organic farming in these areas deserves financial support from public funds. Finally, an increasing demand on the European market for organic products is occurring, inspired by growing concerns for mankind and the environment and for the well being of animals. Sooner or later this may lead to a breakthrough of organic farming into the conventional practices of farm production, trade, and consumption.
El Titi, A.. 1989. Research on integrated farming systems at Lautenbach. This bulletin.
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Vereijken, P., 1985. Alternative farming systems in Nagele: Preliminary results and prospects. In Thomas C. Edens, Cynthia Fridgen and Susan L. Battenfield (eds.) Sustainable Agriculture and Integrated Farming Systems. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing. pp. 124-135.
Vereijken, P., 1986. Maintenance of soil fertility on the biodynamic farm in Nagele. In Hartmut Vogtman, Engelhard Boehncke, and Inka Fricke (eds.) The importance of Biological Agriculture in a World of Diminishing Resources. Proceedings, the Fifth IFOAM International Scientific Conference at the University of Kassel (Germany). Witzenhausen: Verlagsgruppe Wetland, Happ, Burkhard, West Germany. pp. 23-30.
Vereijken, P., C.A. Edwards, A. El-Titi, A. Fougeroux & M. Way, 1986. Report of the Study Group Management of Farming Systems for Integrated Control. Bulletin 1986/IX/2. International Organization for Biological Control, West Palearctic Regional Section (IOBC/WPRS).
Vereijken, P., 1989. a. From integrated control to integrated farming, aft experimental approach. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment (in press).
Vereijken, P., 1989 b. Experimental systems of integrated and organic wheat production. Agricultural Systems 30, no 2, 187-197.
1) How it is:
2) What we need:
3) What is desirable:
Résumé - Recherche et éducation - Besoins et demandes aux universités.
J. RAUPP
Coordinator for Ecological Agriculture, Technical University of Munich
Today we notice an increasing interest in biological farming which leads to new institutions for research and/or education at universities and other state-run institutes. The effect of this principally welcome fact is limited by another one. Many times no experts of biological farming are occupied with lectures or research projects. This fact indicates not only a lack of knowledge, but also a lack of interest in gaining knowledge, because of a preconceived opinion on biological farming.
A lack of knowledge can be eliminated by learning; a preconceived opinion, however, is a psychological problem.
Two different ideas are discussed today: the one is "research first", first we need more research in order to get enough scientific information for teaching; the second one is "education first", first we need well instructed people.
From my experience the second one is the more effective perspective. Of course, we need both - research and education - but with priority to education in order to realize more and qualified research, and to realize more and qualified teaching.
An important thing is to establish a subject "biological farming" for all kinds of agricultural education, run by competent teachers and constructed as an interdisciplinary subject. Because it is very, very difficult to work in an Interdisciplinary way - which is essential for biological farming - after having passed a highly specialized study, concentrated on either crop production or animal husbandry or economic or social aspects. The Interdisciplinary structure, which in principle would be useful for all the agricultural study, has to combine the sound knowledge from several disciplines and must not reflect the motto "a little bit from everything".
Desirable are more jobs for scientists, who are already qualified for biological farming. Today many qualified scientists migrate into another profession, because of the very limited number or finished financing of the jobs at universities.
Desirable are research activities, focussing on improving the system biological farming, not focussing on comparison of systems like "biological versus conventional". Such comparisons have no practical importance for biological farming.
Desirable are research projects on urgent problems: for example nitrogen efficiency, pest and weed control, problems of farm conversion (aspects of the production techniques as well as economic and social aspects), and some general social problems of biological farming people in their "conventional background" of our industrialized society.
Desirable are, last not least, some supporting measures, for which I would like to give two examples only. First: a general promotion of an environmentally beneficial agriculture, with the aims of de-intensification and de-specialization. Second: the development of agroecology as a positive strategy. Today in most cases agroecology investigates the negative consequences of modern farming. Very much effort, time and money are consumed to find out, where nature is polluted, damaged or destroyed. However, we should have an agroecology, which gives a positive assistance, which helps us to use nature with a biological way of farming.
Aujourd'hui, l'intérêt porté à l'agriculture biologique ne cesse d'accroître. Ceci donne lieu à l'établissement de nouvelles institutions de recherche et/ou d'éducation aux universités et à d'autres instituts d'état.
Dans beaucoup de cas, ce ne sont cependant pas des experts de l'agriculture biologique qui s'occupent des cours ou des projets de recherche.
Qu'est-ce qui est désirable?
- Etablir une discipline "agriculture biologique" pour tous les genres de l'éducation agricole, enseignée par des éducateurs compétents et conçue comme une matière Interdisciplinaire;- Plus de postes prévus au budget pour des scientifiques qui se sont déjà spécialisés en agriculture biologique;
- Des activités de recherche visant à l'amélioration de l'agriculture biologique et non pas aux comparai sons de systèmes comme "biologique par rapport à conventionnel";
- Des projets de recherche concernant des problèmes urgents;
- Quelques mesures de soutien, p. ex. la promotion générale d'une agriculture favorable à l'environnement, le développement de l'écologie agricole aboutissant à une stratégie positive qui aidera l'agriculture biologique.
G. Plakolm, Federal state institute for agrobiology/Linz
Especially the contact to organic farmers and to Dr. H. Muller in Switzerland motivated many farmers to convert to organic agriculture. Now we have more than 1000 biological farms In Austria, mainly working with the organic-biological method. The number is growing very fast. The main organisation is the "Verband organisch-biologisch wirtschaftender Bauern" of Austria who includes more than 80 % of the organic farmers of Austria. About 80 farms belong to the biodynamic movement and are organized by the Demeterbund.
The 4 traditional organisations for the organic farming in Austria. were member of the umbrella organisation "ARGE-Biolandbau". Some new organisations were recently founded. Now there are some communication problems between one of the new ones and the old organisations. Because this situation a new organisation structure of the ARGE is build up.
This was a description of the organisation structure. Now follows the official regulations:
Since 1985 in Austria we have the "Codex-Richtlinien". These are standards and are part of the food-law. First they regulate the declaration of "products of organic farming". The use of the name "bio-product" is not allowed. The next part are the production standards. In addition there are levels for residues of pesticides and nitrates (in vegetables) and maximum levels for heavy metals in soil. Standards for animal production and food processing, especially for milk will be published soon.
Political measurements to promote organic farming with subsidies (during conversion) eventually regularly direct payments are in discussion. One region (Upper Austria) has already started.
In 7 regions advisers for organic farming are employed by the regional agricultural administration (Landwirtschaftskammer). These advisers are also making inspection and some administration. work for the main producer organisation.
In Austria research for organic farming consists mainly of comparative studies. There are very few projects to develope the method of organic farming. In Vienna there is a half private (L. Boltzmann) institute for organic farming, where mainly quality research is done.
On the agricultural university in Vienna a course in organic farming can be given since 1981. In autumn 1990 the course will be expanded from two to six hours/week in the 7th respectively 8th semester. In Innsbruck there is an education center for agroecology, which organizes courses for farmers and agronomists.
May 1990
1. Development in the intensity of agriculture
2. Impact of modern agriculture on the environment
3. Integration of agricultural and environmental policies
4. Description of consequences
5. Concluding remarks
RESTRICTED
FAO/ECE/AGRI/WP.3/R.114
21 November 1989
ENGLISH
Original: ENGLISH
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPE
COMMITTEE ON AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION ON THE UNITED NATIONS
FAO/ECE Working Party on Agrarian
Structure and Farm Rationalization
(Tenth session, Wageningen, Netherlands,
12 to 17 February 1990)
Transmitted by the Government of Sweden
Prepared by
C.J. Lidén, National Board of Agriculture, Jönköping
R. Anderson, National Environment Protection Board, Stockholm
At about the tine of the' Second World War, Sweden had its largest cattle population ever and grassland comprised 50% of the area of arable land. Pig production, on the other hand, was small and grain, oilseeds and potatoes were grown mainly in southern Sweden.
In several respects this form of production was ecologically well-balanced. Cattle grazed the land that could not be used for production of other crops. In this way an open landscape was obtained with a successive transition between agricultural land and forest land. As a result of the large proportion of ley in the crop rotation only minor problems with rotation-related attacks of fungi and insects occurred and subsequently there was little need for pesticides. Nutrient leaching to the surface and ground water was also a small problem in the grassland-dominated crop production.
Since then, agriculture has undergone a comprehensive structural change. At the same time as 25% of the arable land has been afforested or removed from production from other reasons, the remaining land has been more intensively utilized. Meadows and wooded pastures that are important habitats for flora and fauna have decreased strongly during post-war years as a consequence of this abandoned land. In addition, structural changes have implied that the number of cattle and horses have decreased whereas production of pigs and poultry has increased. Simultaneously, livestock keeping has become concentrated to certain regions and to a smaller number of farms. Cereal growing has increased whereas grassland production has decreased.
The development is shown by the following figures:
|
|
1961 |
1986 |
|
Acreage of arable land, 1,000 ha |
3296 |
2908 |
|
Acreage of ley, percentage of total arable land |
42 |
31 |
|
Number of farms > 2 ha |
233000 |
106000 |
|
Number of milk cows |
1200000 |
600000 |
|
Percentage of farms with milk cows |
85 |
31 |
|
Number of pigs, mill |
2 |
2.4 |
The area of different types of land in 1981 is shown below:
|
|
ha |
per cent |
|
Arable land |
3000000 |
8 |
|
Meadows |
580000 |
1.5 |
|
Forest land |
22700000 |
60 |
|
Other land |
11670000 |
30.5 |
Organic farming is increasing. In 1988 10,000 hectares were farmed organically, i.e. without input of fertilizers and pesticides. Within a support programme for organic fanning initiated in 1989 the acreage applied for is 40,000 hectares.
The use of fertilizers in Swedish agriculture increased up to the beginning of the 1970s. Since then the use of phosphorus and potassium has decreased. Since 1984 the use of nitrogen has levelled off. The average yearly doses of fertilizers per hectare of arable land are at present 80 kilos of nitrogen, 15 kilos of phosphorus and 30 kilos of potassium. There is a wide variation between different parts of the country, especially for nitrogen. In the southern plains the corresponding dose is 120 kilos of nitrogen per year. The consumption of nitrogen through manure is, as an average for the country, 30 kilos per hectare and year (total N).
The consumption of pesticides has decreased considerably as is shown in table 1. This is a consequence of a special pesticide programme introduced in 1987 which is further described in section 3.2.2.
Table 1
Sale of pesticides in agriculture, tons of active ingredient
|
Year |
Seed dressings |
Fungicides |
Herbicides |
Insecticides |
Growth regulators |
Total |
|
1981-1985 |
161 |
599 |
3536 |
150 |
82 |
4528 |
|
1986 |
199 |
869 |
4207 |
160 |
243 |
5678 |
|
1987 |
119 |
470 |
1781 |
63 |
84 |
2519 |
|
1988 |
101 |
662 |
2029 |
112 |
75 |
2982 |
In several respects the structural changes described in section 1 have had a negative effect on the countryside and its environment. Grain-dominated crop rotations and higher nitrogen rates have, for example, increased the need for chemical control and have led to large amounts of nutrients being leaked. In this way the surface and ground water has become increasingly eutrophicated and polluted with nitrate. In addition, the abandoning of arable land, meadows and wooded pastures has impoverished the Swedish countryside, particularly in areas bordering forests. The positive influence of agriculture on the environment has successively decreased.
The agricultural policy has for many years laid the main emphasis on quantity and efficiency. This optimization has caused conflicts with other social interests such as the retention of an open landscape and dynamic rural areas as well as protecting the surface and ground water against pollution.
2.1. Soil and groundwater deterioration
A more intensive cultivation and use of chemicals influence the soil fauna as well as the soil itself.
About 35% of all farms in Sweden are run without animals. The separation of animal production from crop production has led to imbalances in the circulation of nutrients and organic matter. While surplus characterizes the situation on animal farms, a deficit prevails on specialized crop production enterprises. Low content of humus in connection with heavy machinery has had a deteriorating effect on the soil structure. Research has shown that the yield on approximately 1.5 million hectares could have been 10-20% higher today had the soil structure been as favourable as in the 1940s.
To compensate for the acidification of arable land lime has been used over decades. However, due to acid rain and the use of acidifying fertilizers the need for lime has constantly increased. Today about 170 kilos of CaO per hectare must be supplied to neutralize the annual acidification. For many years, however, only half of that amount was used. As a result an acidification process is now going on creating lower pH levels in Swedish farm soils. At present there is a cummulative lime deficit of about 3 million tons CaO.
Soils are polluted by heavy metals due to deposition from the air and the use of fertilizers. Most attention is paid to the input of cadmium, mercury and lead. The yearly input of cadmium to Swedish farm land from different sources are as follows:
|
Fertilizers |
2900 kg |
Cd |
46% |
|
Deposition |
2300 kg |
Cd |
36% |
|
Manure |
800 kg |
Cd |
13% |
|
Sewage sludge |
280 kg |
Cd |
4% |
|
Lime |
50 kg |
Cd |
1% |
The input of Cd with fertilizers amount to 1g Cd per hectare and year. On land where sewage sludge is spread, this is the main source and amounts to 2.6 g Cd per hectare and year.
There has been an intensive debate on whether to use sewage sludge on farm land or not, due to its content of heavy metals and organic chemicals. During the early 1980s about 601 of the yearly production of sewage sludge was spread on 110,000 hectares of farm land. That means a yearly dose of 1 ton (dm) per hectare and year on the land where sewage sludge was spread.
Today the Federation of Swedish Farmers recommend farmers not to use sewage sludge on their land in order to avoid conflicts with consumers. It has been shown that the content of cadmium in wheat has doubled over a period of 60 years. However, present concentrations (50 m g/kg (dm)), are not considered to constitute any health hazards.
Nitrate pollution of ground water is a problem in areas with sandy soils and intensive agriculture. Ground water is the main supplier of drinking water. About 100,000 people are obliged to drink water with 50 mg NO3 per litre (the Swedish health standard) or more in the south of Sweden. In most cases leaching of nitrate from cultivated soils is the main source of pollution.
Nitrate pollution of drinking water is a severe problem in relation to private water supply in agricultural areas. In several districts in the south western part of Sweden up to 80% of the shallow private wells have a nitrate content above the health standard. In a few cases even deeper (20 m) municipal water supplies have been abandoned due to high nitrate content of the ground water.
Full-scale experiments have shown that it is possible to reduce nitrate pollution of ground waters by taking measures within agriculture. To limit the spreading of manure to springtime and keeping the ground green by using under-sown catch crops in spring cereals have appeared efficient means to reduce nitrate leaching to an acceptable level.
Residues of pesticides, mostly phenoxy adds, have recently been found In water supplies in Sweden. Inaccurate handling Is suspected to be the main reason but leaching of pesticide residues from treated soils le another possibility which can not yet be excluded. Pesticide pollution of drinking water Is not yet considered to be a health hazard but according to policy guidelines no pesticide residues should be accepted in ground water.
2.2. Eutrophication of surface waters
Phosphorus is often limiting plant and algae growth in fresh waters. In coastal waters nitrogen can have the sane limiting effect. In the 1960s and 1970s eutrophication of lakes was the main environmental concern. A more efficient treatment of sewage water reduced the phosphorus pollution of streams and lakes during these decades and the water standard improved. Today when the point sources have been removed, nutrient run-off from arable land plays a significant role as regards pollution of shallow lakes in flat country.
In the early 1970s even the sea began to show signs of eutrophication. Heavy algae blooming appeared along the west coast. Oxygen deficit in extensive water areas led to deteriorated fishing. Leaching of nitrogen from agriculture was considered to play a significant role but nitrogen deposition from the air was also of Importance. Recently an Increased nitrate leaching from forest land (10 kg N/ha and year) in the south of Sweden has been reported. It is assumed that this can severely influence adjacent water ecosystems i.e. the sea. Eutrophication of coastal waters has been one of the most serious environmental problems dealt with in Sweden during the 1980s.
Residues of pesticides have been found in most streams discharging agricultural areas. As in the case of groundwater pollution, mismanagement in the use of pesticides is probably the main reason but other explanations as leaching are still possible. A recently started research programme in Sweden "Soil Biological Variables in Environmental Hazard Assessment" is going to study, inter alia, the movements and breakdown of pesticides in soils. The main goal of that project is to produce a manual for initial hazard assessment of pollutants in the soil.
2.3. Air pollution
Agriculture contributes to air pollution through odour and ammonia emissions in connection with animal breeding. About 90% of the total emissions of ammonia in Sweden emanate from agriculture (40,000 tons per year). The total deposition of ammonia in Sweden is about 80,000 tons per year. The same amount is deposited as nitrate nitrogen. A great deal of the nitrogen deposit in Sweden is a consequence of transboundary transport.
Ammonia volatilizes from stables and in connection with storing and spreading of manure. Ammonia contributes to soil acidification and damages on vegetation (forests) have been registrated adjacent to livestock buildings.
2.4. Nature and landscape
Meadows and wooded pastures are the areas with the greatest variety of species. In the eighteenth century such land constituted 2 million hectares. Today only about 300,000 hectares remain.
Structural changes in agriculture have resulted in the removal of stone walls, open ditches, native islands in the fields, water holes, etc. These biotopes are important as shelter and food searching areas for wild animals. They are also vitally important to many beneficial insects and to the flora. Consequently, the removal of these biotopes has deteriorated the value of the agricultural landscape for the fauna and flora.
Among the highest fauna in agricultural areas about 15 species are considered to be "actually threatened", 24 are "sensitive", 23 are "rare" and 42 species need "special care".
In total there are about 2,000 vascular plants in Sweden. Four hundred of them are considered to be more or less acutely threatened. Of these, 300 belong to the agricultural landscape.
The removal of essential biotopes is considered to be the most important reason for the impoverishment of the flora and fauna but the use of pesticides is also an important factor. Ditch banks and other adjacent biotopes are often exposed to pesticides when crops are treated, either as a consequence of wind drift or as a consequence of active actions. Also fertilization of meadows give rise to a more trivial flora.
Afforestation of arable land was a common activity in Sweden, especially during the 1960s. About 30% of the arable land was planted with trees in the period 1950-1980 in the central and northern parts of Sweden. The landscape which used to be open became darker and old cultural land disappeared. The afforestation of arable land, which is now taking place in order to adopt the production of foodstuff to the available market, can be regarded as a serious threat to the flora and fauna as well as to the attractive open landscape. However, afforestation of arable land decreases the leaching of phosphorus and nitrogen as well as of pesticides.
In recent years it has become evident that a lot can be done to link high efficiency in agriculture with an acceptable environmental influence. Objectives such as preserving and preferably improving the production ability of arable land have been included in the Swedish food policy for a long time. External environmental considerations were not, however, emphasized in the agro-political decisions until the late 1970s.
In 1985 an environmental objective was introduced in the Swedish agricultural and food policy equal to traditional objectives such as, self-sufficiency, farm income and reasonable consumer prices. The environmental objective implies:
- that the agricultural sector must take into consideration the demands for a good environment;- that farmers should use as far as possible cultivation measures and cultivation techniques that are environmentally sound;
- that farmers should to a reasonable extent take part in the efforts to conserve genetic variation and valuable species of flora and fauna.
This objective has had a strong influence on the work of agricultural authorities in the implementation of the food policy. The environmental effects are taken into consideration before decisions are made.
The principle of sector responsibility for the environment has also been Introduced in the Swedish Government. According to that. the Ministry of Agriculture is now responsible for programmes which deal with pure environmental problems related to agriculture.
3.1. Soil
There is no special legislation which restricts soil pollution or defends soil fertility. However, there are guidelines, authorized by the National Environment Protection Board, concerning the use and storage of sewage sludge on arable land. According to these guidelines not more than one ton sewage sludge (OM) per hectare and year should be spread on arable land. Further, the sewage sludge used, should not exceed the following concentrations of heavy metals, mg/kg OM;
|
Lead |
Pb |
200 |
|
Cadmium |
Cd |
4 |
|
Copper |
Cu |
600 |
|
Chromium |
Cr |
150 |
|
Mercury |
Hg |
5 |
|
Nickel |
Ni |
100 |
|
Zinc |
Zn |
1500 |
It is stated that until 1995 the input of cadmium with sewage sludge should not exceed the input of phosphorus fertilizers.
The general policy aim is that sewage sludge should be used very moderately on land where food is produced. To use sewage sludge on green areas in connection with construction work is considered safer. In such cases ouch more than one ton per hectare can be used as a one-time application.
3.2. Water
3.2.1. Programme against nutrient leaching
The aim of the programme against nutrient leaching is to reduce the leaching of nitrogen from agricultural land by half up to the year 1995. Phosphorus losses and ammonia discharges from manure should also be reduced. A number of measures are being taken.
Animal density
The animal density for the whole of Sweden is regulated in such a way that the supply of phosphorus by manure should correspond to the average need of the crops in a crop rotation period, i.e. about 20 kilos per year. This means approximately 1.5 milk cows or 10.5 fattening pigs per hectare.
The regulation will enter into force in 1995. However, farms planning to expand or change their animal production must adjust to the new rules already as from 1989. The adjustment will be facilitated by allowing the spreading of manure also on arable land cultivated by someone other than the animal keeper, provided there i.e. a long-terra spreading agreement. It will also be facilitated by taking grazing land into consideration. In certain areas in southern Sweden, however, the animal density is BO high that it will be difficult to find new areas for spreading. A few hundred farms will have problems adjusting to the new regulation. In such cases the number of livestock will have to be reduced.
Time limitations in the spreading of manure
As from 1989 manure spreading is prohibited between 1 December and the end of February. In the southernmost parts of Sweden and along the coasts manure spreading will, as from 1995, only be allowed previous to autumn planted crops or to ley during the period from August to the end of November.
Storage capacity
The storage capacity for manure must be sufficient to meet the spreading restrictions. As regards swine and poultry the demand will be 10 months and for cattle eight months instead of presently six months for all animals. Until 1991 grants will be paid for enlargement of storage facilities. The grants will amount to 20% of the investment up to a maximum of 25,000 SEK.
Crop production plans, advisory service
Up to 1995 farmers must adjust their management methods according to the new rules. It is important that farmers are assisted by the extension service in finding the best solutions. It is also important to achieve a more efficient use of plant nutrients also on farms which are not directly affected by the new rules. The aim is that all farms with more than 25 animal units (cows) should have made a crop production plan as well as a manure and fertilizer plan before 1992. These are approximately 18,000 in number. The farmers can get assistance from extension officers free of charge.
Spreading technique
A good management of manure as a plant nutrient resource requires that the manure is spread evenly and in controlled amounts. The present situation is not satisfactory. As a means to improve the situation, type approval of manure and fertilizer spreaders is being considered. However, type approval as such does not solve the problems. Therefore, a special research and development programme has been started this year.
Reduction in the use of fertilizers
The programme mainly concerns manure problems. An incorrect use of manure results in problems. Fertilizers can be used under better control. A reduction of the amount of fertilizers used does not give large environmental profits in the short run. In the long run, however, the amounts of plant nutrients circulating in the agricultural system, will be reduced. Thereby the risks for losses will also be reduced. In order to depress the use of fertilizers, the environmental tax on nitrogen and phosphorus was doubled in 1988. The tax on nitrogen is 0.60 SEK/kg and on phosphorus 1.20 SEK/kg, which is around 101 of the price. In addition to this tax there is a special fee of 20Z on the price of nitrogen and phosphorus, which is used to finance the Costs of surplus production of crops. The aim is to reduce the consumption of nitrogen in fertilizers by 20% up to the turn of the century. If the development indicates that this aim will not be achieved, further increases of the fees will be considered.
Green land
Keeping the land covered for as long as possible is an excellent method to reduce nitrogen losses. Overwintering crops such as ley, winter grains and autumn-sown oil plants are used for this purpose. One method is to increase the cultivation of these crops. Another method is to Introduce catch crops, I.e. crops which take up the nitrogen not utilized by the main crop, as well as the nitrogen mineralized during the autumn.
The share of autumn and winter covered land, "green land", will be Increased from approximately 40% today to 60% in 1995. Due to the fact that the risk for nitrogen leakage varies considerably between different parts of Sweden, the National Board of Agriculture is assigned to further elaborate in which areas and to what degree "green land" shall be demanded.
3.2.2. Programme to reduce the risks connected with the use of pesticides
In 1987 a programme was introduced with the aim of reducing the risks to health and the environment from pesticides in agriculture. The aim of that programme is also to reduce by half the amount of active ingredients in the pesticides in a period of five years. Reference point is the average consumption in 1981 to 1985. The aim should be achieved in 1990. A number of measures are being used.
Changeover to pesticides with less risks
Before a pesticide may be used in agriculture it must be approved by the National Chemicals Inspectorate. The tests preceding approval include an evaluation of the risks and benefits of using the substance. In 1985 new legislation was introduced stipulating, inter alia, that certificates of approval shall expire after five years and that the actual need for the pesticide must be re-examined before the certificate is renewed.
The National Chemicals Inspectorate is now preparing for a changeover to pesticides with less risks. The following measures are in progress:
- development of the risk/benefit evaluation as a basis for evaluating new and old pesticides with regard to risks, benefit and need;- extended demands for examination and information about environmental effects as well as registration of these effects in the pesticides register to find preparations with a low risk profile;
- sorting out pesticides with unacceptable qualities;
- restrictions in the number of pesticides which may be used other than professionally;
- surveys and research regarding the effects of pesticides on the environment and lower dose rates for weed control.
Legislation concerning the handling of pesticides
The National Environment Protection Board has issued regulations and recommendations aiming at a reduction of the health and environmental risks connected with the handling of pesticides. The legislation contains rules regarding, inter alia, filling and cleaning of equipment and how the spreading of pesticides should be carried out. It is for example not permitted to fill or clean equipment near lakes and streams.
Mandatory training
As from 1990 all those who carry out pesticide sprayings will need a certificate. To qualify they have to participate in a three-day course at the end of which they have to pass a test. The certificate will be valid for five years and an additional one-day course will be required for its renewal.
Control of pesticide residues
The control of pesticide residues in the environment will be extended and improved. New methods of analysis are being developed and/or introduced. The analyses of pesticide residues in cereals and drinking water will be extended.
Reduced use of pesticides
- Risk-benefit analysis
If equally effective, non-chemical methods are available for a certain control purpose, the use of pesticides will not be permitted for that purpose.
- Low doses
An important objective of the programme is to reduce the doses of pesticides. Recent research shows that the present doses can be reduced by half as regards weed control and even more for crop rotations including ley and fallow. It is now a big challenge for the extension service to pass on this knowledge to the farmers. A special programme has been designed for this purpose.
- Forecasts and warning of pests
Five plant protection centres have been built up in co-operation with the University of Agricultural Sciences. The main purpose of these centres is to promote integrated pest management with chemical control adjusted to the needs. The target group is all extension officers in the field of crop production (state, private and commercial).
- Mandatory type test of sprayers
A mandatory type test of sprayers will be introduced in 1991.
- Voluntary tests of sprayers in operation.
A special programme for voluntary tests of sprayers in operation is in progress. Grants can be given for purchase of test equipment. The tests are free of charge for the farmers.
Charges on pesticides
In 1986 a 20% price regulation charge was introduced on all pesticides used in agriculture. An extra cost of 29 SEK per hectare is charged for each application of pesticides. This charge has three purposes, to reduce the use of pesticides, to cut down surplus production and to contribute to covering the costs for exporting grain and oilseed surpluses.
There is also an input tax of 10% of the price of pesticides. Funds from that tax are used to finance research, extension services and other parts of the programme to reduce the risks connected with the use of pesticides in agriculture.
Research and development
Research and development are essential parts of the pesticide programme. Some of the activities are based on new findings and others demand new knowledge or new technique.
Results
So far the programme has been very successful. The use of pesticides has dropped considerably both as regards the amount of active ingredients and number of applications. The aim of a 50% reduction of the consumption seems to be reached in 1990.
3.3. Air
A programme against air pollution includes the reduction of ammonia emissions from agriculture. So far, the only restrictions concern the spreading of manure. The manure should be covered with earth within a few hours after the spreading. When more results are obtained regarding the prevention of ammonia emissions from livestock buildings and manure storage further restrictions will be considered.
3.4. Nature and landscape
Legislation on environmental considerations in agriculture
In 1984 the Act on the Management of Agricultural Land was supplemented with provisions aiming at the protection of flora and fauna and historical pastures. According to the new provisions headlands and stone walls must not be destroyed, wetlands and waterholes must not be filled up or drained, meadows and grazing areas that have not been fertilized before must not be fertilized.
Financial support for the preservation of particularly valuable grazing and wooded meadows
The non-cultivated grazing lands do not only have a value as being features of the countryside but also as habitats for a flora and fauna, rich In number as well as in species. In order to counteract the impoverishment of these habitats a spécial grant for the preservation of a «election of particularly valuable grazing and wooded meadows was introduced in 1986.
A grant (300-600 SEK per hectare and year) can be obtained by farmers who maintain such native agricultural land, this is done mainly by keeping grazing animals. In 1989 a total grant of 20 million SEK guarantees the survival of about 30,000 hectares. The present operative aim is to double the supported acreage.
In 1989 another programme has been introduced in order to promote landscape variation in the flatlands and to decrease cereal production. Economic support is paid to farmers for leaving uncultivated zones along streams or forest edges and also for the construction of dams and wetlands.
3.5. Organic farming
Organic farming is promoted for two main reasons. In the first place there is an expanding market for organically farmed products. Secondly, organic fanning is more favourable to the environment than conventional farming since no pesticides are used. It is of great importance that non-chemical technique is developed by means of research and development and by taking advantage of the experience of organic farmers.
Extension service programme
Nine government specialists are working with extension services regarding organic farming. Organic farming is also integrated in the work of the extension officers at the County Agricultural Boards.
Financial support to readjustment
This year a programme has been set up to facilitate the readjustment to organic fanning. A grant can be obtained for a three-year period. The amount varies between 750 and 2,900 SEK per year depending on the average yield of the land. The programme has been very successful. The acreage of organically fanned land signed up for, is 30,000 hectares compared to the present acreage of 10,000 hectares.
Research programmes
A special research and development programme on organic farming has been set up by the Swedish Council for Forestry and Agricultural Research.
4.1. General comments
The influence of the environmental programmes on the structure of the agricultural sector is expected to be small compared to that of other
factors. In Sweden lower border protection for agricultural products, market deregulations, deregulation of the land legislation and a new tax system will have a far more important impact on the agricultural structure as well as on farm management.
4.2. Consequences for the farms
The most obvious consequence of the new regulations for the farms is related to the costs for enlarging manure storages. These costs are estimated to between 30.000 and 120,000 SEK per farm. The yearly net cost per farm will be 4,000 to 15.000 SEK. The costs for farms that do not comply with the present requirement of six months will of course be even higher.
The "green land" legislation will lead to more wintercrops.
The environmental legislation will of course add a new factor to the planning and management of farms. In general this is not, however, considered to be a problem.
The present programme to reduce the use of pesticides will result in increased productivity, since the costs will decrease at the same time as the yield will remain unchanged or in some cases even increase.
4.3. Consequences for the structure of the agricultural sector
The legislation is considered to have a small influence on the structure of the agricultural sector. A few hundred farms will have problems with the animal density legislation. Farms with large-scale animal production must have enough land for spreading the manure or prove that the manure can be processed and sold.
Farmers are likely to blame the new requirements for manure storage capacity for the discontinuation of milk production on small farms. It might be true that this regulation will be the determining factor. However, the discontinuation of milk production on small farms is mainly an effect of the age structure of the farmers, their social situation and the low profitability of the production.
The negative impact of modern agriculture on the environment is of a magnitude that motivates strong counter-measures. Examples of this negative impact are drinking water polluted with nitrate and pesticide residues, eutrophication of inland waters and coastal seas and impoverishment of nature and landscape. The long-term consequences for soil fertility of soil compacting and decreasing humus content of topsoil also need to be evaluated.
The experience of the measures introduced in Sweden up to now are as follows:
- The approach of co-ordinated programmes with participation of representatives of different sectors and organizations including the farmers have been successful;- The principle of sector responsibility for environmental matters has been introduced in the Swedish Government. The experience is good;
- The measures introduced to reduce the leakage of nutrients will lead to substantial reductions. So far it is not possible to tell whether the aim of reducing the leakage of nitrogen by half till 1995 will be reached;
- It has been possible to reduce the consumption of pesticides considerably without any productivity losses;
- Taxes and tariffs on fertilizers and pesticides have contributed to a reduced consumption and to a more effective use of manure. They have partly been used to finance different programmes to reduce the negative impact of agriculture on the environment;
- The impoverishment of nature (flora and fauna) is the most difficult problem to deal with. Areas which are rich in species require old-fashioned management practices, fertilizers and pesticides must not be used. Farmers therefore have to be compensated for their additional work and for lower yields on grazing areas. The experience from the present Swedish programme is good, farmers are generally very interested in preserving these areas. The problem is, however, that support will be needed for all futurity.
Commercialisation de fruits et de légumes en provenance d'exploitations bio
La coopérative de production et de commercialisation (AVG) fut fondée en 1946 par le Dr. Hans Müller et un premier groupe de producteurs. Depuis cette époque, l'organisation d'entraide en question a eu pour buts d'encourager le développement de l'agriculture organo-biologique et de commercialiser les biens produits par les membres de la coopérative. Cette coopérative, qui reste comme par le passé la plus importantes des organisations de producteurs biologiques, compte maintenant environ 250 entreprises qui pratique une culture conforme aux directives organo-biologiques. Depuis 1989, cette société qui a pris le nom de "Bio Gemüse AVG Galmiz" fait partie de l'Association Suisse des organisations d'agriculture biologique (ASOAB).
Les membres dela Bio Gemüse AVG peuvent bénéficier les prestations des services suivantes:
- un service de conseil à disposition des producteurs pour répondre aux questions relatives tant à la culture (pendant et après la conversion) qu'à la commercialisation. Les producteurs sont structurés en groupes régionaux qui disposent chacun, à titre de conseiller, d'un cultivateur bio expérimenté.De tels groupements existent dans les cantons de Fribourg, Berne, Vaud, Argovie, Lucerne/Zoug. Bâle-Campagne, Zurich et Thurgovie/St.Gall.
- l'écoulement d'un large éventail de produits végétaux comme les céréales, les pommes de terre, les légumes et les fruits, dont la culture est réglée contractuellement. Tout ces produits sont au bénéfice d'une garantie d'écoulement pratiquement illimitée pour autant la qualité soit bonne.
- la coopérative assure la représentation et la défense des intérêts de ces membres face au publics et aux autorités.
- des engrais et produits phytosanitaires autorisés en agriculture biologique peuvent être commandés au stock de Galmiz.
- le transport des produits est assuré dans les délais par un département spécial parfaitement équipé.
L'objective de tous ces efforts est de fournir des produits de valeur du paysan au consommateur, et ce dans l'intérêt des deux partie en présence.
Ces prestations sont exécutées par l'intermédiaire des canaux suivants:
- Commerce de détail:- Expédition par voie postale: chaque jour, à raison de 4 jours par semaine, ce sont 600 à 900 paquets de fruits et de légumes qui sont envoyées à environ 5'000 clientes et clients domiciliés dans toute la Suisse.- Vente directe à Galmiz et sur un marché à Berne
- Commerce en gros:
- Grossistes/distributeurs
- Revendeurs (magasins, marchands itinérants)- Produits destinés aux industries de transformation:
- Carottes, bettraves rouges, céleris et pommes-de-terre destinés à la production de jus- Céréales et pommes pour la production de Müesli
Au total ce sont près de 5'000. tonnes de légumes de pommes-de-terre et de fruits ainsi que plusieurs centaines de tonnes de céréales qui sont écoulées chaque années par l'intermédiaire de ces canaux.
Les légumes frais et délicats sont produits normalement dans la région de Galmiz, c'est au Seeland berno-fribourgeois. Les producteurs plus loin cultivent raisonnablement sur tout des légumes de garde ou pour l'industrie de transformation.
Pour ces prochaines années notre coopérative cherche surtout des carottes (très tôt, pour garder et pour l'industrie), des céréales (blé, seigle), des pommes et des poires de garde.
Les prix pour les légumes de consommation sont déterminés de la manière suivante:
Prix producteurs conventionnels du Seeland
+ prime bio selon les frais supplémentaires de production et la situation sur le marché bio actuelle
Y résulte normalement un prix de 15 à 60 % au-dessus des prix conventionnels.
Le marché des produits en provenance de cultures biologiques est encore relativement jeune; à l'inverse du secteurs des produits conventionnels, il est en plein développement en ce qui concerne tant les volumes que les structures d'écoulement.
D'une part, pour notre plus grande satisfaction, le nombre d'entreprises agricoles qui se convertissent à la culture biologique ne cesse d'augmenter; d'autre part, les consommatrices manifestent un intérêt toujours croissant pour les produits bio. Actuellement les difficultés ne se situent ni dans la production, ni dans la demande, mais bien entre ces deux points, à savoir dans la commercialisation. C'est dans ce secteurs que des efforts considérables doivent encore être fournis.
Le développement que cette situation connaîtra dans les temps à venir dépend avant tout des réponses aux questions suivantes:
- Comment les consommatrices vont-elles se comporter face à la diversité croissante de produits provenance d'entreprises bio, d'entreprises pratiquant la production intégrée et d'exploitations conventionnelles?- Comment les distributeurs de produits conventionnels et les grossistes vont-ils se comporter à l'avenir?
- Quel développement connaîtront les distributeurs de produits bio qui sont déjà sur le marché?
- Quel comportement les autorités et les politiciens arboreront-ils face aux produits bio, au mode de declaration de ces produits et à l'importation de produits agricoles?
A ce jour, les produits en provenance de culture biologique parviennent au consommateur par des voies relativement directes. C'est-à-dire que la proportion de produits qui parviennent au consommateur en une seule ou en deux étapes (vête directe à la ferme ou livraison directe au commerce de détail), cette proportion est bien plus importante dans ce secteur que dans le commerce de produits conventionnels.
Depuis le milieu des années 80, une mutation en un système de commercialisation plus compliqué se dessine en raison de la croissance importante qu'a montré le volume de ces transactions. Pour permettre de commercialiser une quantité toujours croissantes de marchandises, il s'est avéré nécessaire de resserrer une nouvelle fois les mailles du réseau de distribution. Outre la vente aux consommateurs privés, c'est aussi le secteur de l'approvisionnement des cuisines d'entreprises et de la restauration qui sont toujours mieux desservis en matière de produits bio. L'accroissement de la demande de produits de transformation issus de légumes et de fruits en provenance de culture biologique montre lui aussi une constance réjouissante.
La situation actuelle en matière, de commercialisation de fruits et de légumes produits selon le mode biologique peut être schematizes comme suite:
Légende du schéma de la page suivante:
1) Vente directe à la ferme et sur les marchés:
Requiert beaucoup de temps de la part du producteur - le producteur conserve l'intégralité de la marge de commercialisation.
2) Vente par 1'intermédiaire de grossistes, de distributeurs et de vendeurs en détail:
Le temps de travail consacré à la commercialisation peut être moindre ou plus important que ci-dessus en fonction des conditions de livraison. Il est nécessaire d'établir d'emblée les volumes et les garanties d'écoulement: exiger des conventions en la forme écrite.
3) A titre d'exemple, fourniture par voie postale Bio Gemüse AVG, Galmiz
LA COMMERCIALISATION DE PRODUITS BIO EN SCHEMA:
