The Case Study of Morocco gives a general survey of the forestry sector in Morocco, examining its importance, its functions and the activities of forest resource management and exploitation. It then moves on to an analysis of the national forestry education and training system, examining the various types of training and the strategy and methods used in designing and implementing training plans. It describes the training curriculum and how it is changing as a result of changes in the forestry sector and in forestry strategy. Stress is laid on the assessment approach, which has led to modifications in the role of training institutes and in the profile, curriculum, implementation and organization of training.
Restructuring of the forestry administration was undertaken at the start of 1995 within the framework of the FAO/TCP/MOR/52A Project. This reform led to the establishment of two central-level directorates-the Forestry Development Directorate and the Forest Resource Conservation Directorate-and of the Regional Water and Forestry Directorates. It also initiated a process of deconcentration of central government functions to the regions. Recent government modifications (April, 1998) led, for the first time in the history of Moroccan forestry to the creation of a sub-Ministry for Water and Forestry.
The wide-ranging nature and complexity of the problems entailed to the forestry staff led to a decision in favour of a two-tier training and education approach, with forestry engineers and technicians being trained at two specialized national institutes: the National Forestry Engineering School (NFES) established in 1968 within the framework of the UNDP/FAO/MOR/68/519 Project, and the Royal Water and Forestry Technical Institute established in 1948. Since forestry training was established, constant efforts have been made to adapt it to the changing needs of the forestry sector and of society in general, a line of development marked by three basic trends. The first focuses on forest management, the second encompasses various environmental aspects, especially those of resource protection and development, and the third seeks to entrust responsibility in the forestry and environmental spheres to experts with a multidisciplinary training who are capable of making the syntheses needed in an integrated approach to rural development.
The method and approach used in designing and revising training curricula at the NFES are based on the changing context and environment of the forestry sector and on the forestry administration's concern to plan the future of forests. The Second Forestry Project (1992-1998), the restructuring of the forestry administration (1995) and the drawing up of the National Forestry Programme (NFP), covering the period up to 2020, will be the main thrusts in the country. Implementation of new policies depend on foresters' adaptation to their new functions, the definition of new profiles and the revision of training programmes.
The Water and Forestry Department has undertaken two priority actions for implementation of the NFP: the revision and drawing up of a new training curriculum for forestry technicians and the design of an ongoing training plan for the period 2001-2005. The method used in drawing up the curriculum for technicians is based on assessment of the present programme against the needs of the NFP, its adjustment, and the creation of a new frame of reference. The method used for the ongoing training programme is based on a survey of the functional posts at the Ministry of Water and Forestry, description of activities for each post, statement of the shortfalls in expertise for each post, and definition of training needs.
Recommendations are formulated concerning the training of technicians, adaptation of the training profile for engineers, ongoing training, promotion of research, teaching staff, and strengthening of the institutional framework of training institutes.
In many areas of the world, especially Africa and Asia, forestry is under pressure to change and evolve and adapt to new demands. In Africa, during the colonial period, forests were regarded as a source of wood managed to satisfy the needs of the colonizers, without taking into consideration the role and the needs of the communities. Accordingly, curricula were designed and built up without consulting the stakeholders who are the real users of the forest. As a result of their traditional technical training, forestry scientists perceived forestry problems merely as technical problems rather than as a social construct. The curricula they were following did not regard the forestry sector as a system where different stakeholders are involved and have a role to play. Their curricula lacked objectivity, consideration of local realities and multidisciplinary involvement.
In the 1970s and 1980s, some changes occurred and forestry started to move away from the traditional "forest is a wood" orientation to include economic, social and environmental concerns. Such a shift would not have been possible without a real change in the approach to forestry training and education.
The Southern African Development Community (SADC) has been witnessing a shift towards a participatory approach in curriculum development since 1989. The forestry curriculum development process in the SADC region is based on the training programme, SADC AAA 5.9 Curriculum Development Philosophy and Procedure, the main principles of which are: Participatory approach to curriculum development; emphasis on the learning process; curriculum based on aims and objectives; and multidisciplinary and integrated learning content.
The curriculum development procedure in SADC AAA 5.9 follows a behaviouristic pattern where the result is achieved by a step-by-step process. This process will produce a behaviour-oriented curriculum that identifies the knowledge, skills and attitude to be developed by the students.
Six curriculum development workshops have been conducted since the commencement of forestry training in Namibia following SADC AAA 5.9 Curriculum Development Philosophy and Procedure. The first and the second workshops are discussed in detail to show how the curriculum of the Certificate Programme was developed, while the fifth and sixth workshops showed how the Certificate Programme was upgraded to a Diploma Programme.
This case study is about participatory curriculum development (PCD) in Vietnam. It describes the rationale for change, the strategy, the approach, the methodology and the process for curriculum revision and development, with special emphasis on social forestry, at the university level since 1994.
Forestry education and training is an important component of the education system in Vietnam. The institutions involved in forestry education and training include: five vocational schools, three technical schools, one agriculture and forestry college, one university and four faculties of forestry in agriculture and forestry universities. Since 1993, an agriculture and forestry extension system has been established throughout the country in order to improve informal training for farmers. With the support of the Social Forestry Support Program funded by the Swiss Government, a Social Forestry Training Network was established in 1996 and consists of five forestry education institutions at the university level, a research institute and an agriculture and forestry extension centre.
Since the implementation of the government's doi moi policies in 1986, the economic, political and social context of Vietnam has changed dramatically, with a trend towards decentralization, democracy and co-operation. Vietnam has thus shifted from a planned economy to a state-regulated market economy, applying multi-sectored economic development policies. There have been fundamental changes in agricultural and forestry land use rights, and a new land law has created a legal basis for offering long-term land use rights for individuals, social institutions and communities. There is a shift from forestry based on state management, towards forestry by the people and for the people. This shift is creating new employment possibilities in forestry-related fields.
Previously, forestry curricula at the university level were highly specialized and based mainly on silviculture techniques imported from European models. Additionally, separation of the functions of training, research and extension meant that many of these curricula were not closely linked with field practices and were often overly academic. The national training needs assessment (TNA) and workshop on social forestry training in 1996 indicated an urgent need for change in forestry curriculum to correspond with the new social, economic and political development of the country.
In 1998, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Ministry of Education and Training approved the introduction of a major in social forestry at the Forestry University of Vietnam. Other universities are also revising forestry curricula. Many international rural development projects and programmes in Vietnam have contributed to the curriculum development process. International training and research institutions, such as the Regional Community Forestry Training Centre (RECOFTC), the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) and the International Institute for Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) have provided training or experts for the curriculum development process.
The curriculum development strategy of universities in Vietnam indicate an orientation to train new foresters for the future. Modern foresters should have capacity as technicians, managers, trainers as well as facilitators to work effectively with farmers and their communities in order to maintain and develop the natural resource. In previous years, training of foresters had focused mainly on silviculture techniques and on management of state forestry enterprises. With the emergence of new capacities for foresters, the philosophies and principles for curriculum development need to be agreed upon by different stakeholders. Curricula should be cognitive, learner-centred and guided by research results which have been tested in the field.
Curriculum development in Vietnam throughout the 1990s can be divided into three main stages. The first stage is before 1993, where the main approach was expert-centred curriculum development. The second stage may be considered since the creation of a social forestry specialization and major, between 1994 and 1997, based on consultation with experts at the Xuan Mai Forestry University. The third stage, since 1998, includes four main subjects developed based on a PCD approach with all working partners of the training network, as well as, a range of other stakeholders.
Curriculum development should be based on certain foundations and some boundaries need to be defined in order to establish a manageable process. In Vietnam, curriculum development should be based on a legal system for education adopted by the Ministry of Education and Training, and based on regulations for natural resource management adopted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Other legal systems and policies should also be considered, such as, priorities for ethnic groups and remote areas, gender, national cultural identity and biodiversity conservation. All of these areas may influence which topics may be included in the new curriculum.
In general, curriculum development may require various resources for collecting, analysing and synthesizing information as well as the development of teaching and learning materials. In recent years, forestry curriculum development in Vietnam has shown the importance of the establishment of an information exchange system between domestic and foreign training institutions. Human resource development plays a key role in this process.
PCD is a dynamic and continuous process for long-term development. As such, it requires financial inputs over a long period of time. It begins with stakeholder analysis and includes the identification of key stakeholders participating in curriculum development, an assessment of their interests and the ways in which these interests affect curriculum development viability. Results of stakeholder analysis show the list of stakeholders, their functions and contributions and the types of participation in different stages of the training cycle, which includes situation analysis, TNA, setting aims, planning, implementation and evaluation. This methodology can be applied to curriculum development for any type of training course.
In order to encourage participation and to obtain feedback and inputs from stakeholders, some mechanisms and solutions should be developed. These may include involvement in TNAs, participation in workshops, establishment of a network on training, research and information exchange systems, joint research and training initiatives with other institutions, inviting visiting lecturers from other projects or programs and participatory monitoring and evaluation.
Participatory curriculum development in forestry education in Vietnam started in 1996 with two main processes: PCD for a social forestry specialization and the social forestry major at the Forestry University of Vietnam and; PCD for four common subjects for five agriculture and forestry universities.
From 1994 to 1997, all five agriculture and forestry universities participated in the TNA, a national workshop on social forestry training and the development of a framework for the social forestry specialization and major at the Forestry University of Vietnam in Xuan Mai. Based on these foundations, the lecturers of the Forestry University developed detailed contents, teaching methods and teaching materials. Two social forestry specialization courses were organized in 1997 and 1998, with the creation of the social forestry major in 1998. For these, 14 new subjects were developed based on a participatory approach, including: introductory social forestry, land use management, social forestry project management, forestry extension, rural appraisal, communication, local organization, social analysis, non-wood product management, agriculture cultivation, animal husbandry, rural economics, household and farm economics and agroforestry.
Since 1998, seven working partners in the Social Forestry Training Network have developed four common subjects: introductory social forestry, forestry extension, social forestry project management and agroforestry. There has also been joint production of educational products such as curriculum frameworks, learning materials, detailed contents and methods for teaching and learning.
Forestry curriculum development and revision in Vietnam has taken some positive steps forward. A number of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats can be identified based on this experience. The main strengths include: the capacity for co-ordination and co-operation between other training units; the ability to develop programs and; the potential to develop teaching staff and improve institutions and organizations.
The main weaknesses as identified in this study include: a lack of awareness about PCD, lack of knowledge, skills and experience about co-operation and collaboration; poor conditions for teaching and learning; inadequate time and financial resources, and; the lack of information and documentation. The main opportunities arise from the support of government and different international organizations. The main threats include the difficulties of making curricula development a sustainable process using the PCD approach and the lack of consistent government policies.
Curriculum development for forestry education should be based on the foundation of human resource development for training institutions. Curriculum needs to be closely linked with scientific research and extension activities. Special attention must also be given to integrating the development of curriculum content, teaching methods and learning materials. The establishment of a training network is an effective way to channel support and co-operation. A range of suitable mechanisms and incentives for stakeholders are needed, however, to establish a sustainable curriculum development process.
Based on the achievements and experiences over the past few years in Vietnam some recommendations are made. These include, the establishment of a training network and a human resource development strategy; address the development of content, methods and materials; design mechanisms for collaboration and information exchange systems; link training, research and extension and; development of a system for participatory monitoring and evaluation.
Within the rapidly changing socio-economic scenarios of the countries that are in transition to the market economy, educational processes and curricula revisions are playing a key role. Traditional forestry education is part of the process of institutional revision and, in the case of Ukraine, recent reforms have been introduced.
This Case Study focuses on the most relevant aspects of the existing system of forestry education in Ukraine, both at the technical (college) and higher education (university) level. It is presented as an example of the situation in an eastern European country, that is in the primary stages of transition to a market economy.
The discussion opens with a general introduction to the geography, socio-economic situation and the educational system in Ukraine, with specific focus on the forestry sector. The system is reviewed within the economic, political and social contexts; a detailed picture of the main changes in management that have occurred since Ukraine's recent independence from the former USSR is provided. Since that time, Ukraine has taken the first steps towards an autonomous development process; within which a radical revision of the entire educational sector has been initiated.
A new approach to curricula development has been proposed within the framework of the European Union TEMPUS TACIS `ENARECO' project. This project aimed at introducing a new study course, at the Master level, to prepare young forest specialists with a strong economic and ecological background, at the Ukrainian State University of Forestry and Wood Technology (USUFWT) in L'viv. This innovative multidisciplinary approach has been highlighted as an essential element for offering students proper expertise in this field. International scientific and technical co-operation is playing a key role to ensure the success of the program and the future development of higher education in Ukraine. This is reviewed in the second part of the paper.
The third part of the report offers a review of the recently modified process of definition and revision of forestry curricula: a detailed analysis of the situation, both at the technical and higher education level, is given. In addition, the role of stakeholders is considered along with the mechanisms to encourage their participation. Finally, some recommendations for further development of the educational system in the country are offered .
In conclusion, this work points out that, even if curricula design and revision in forestry education is still primarily in State hands, crucial steps have been taken in the direction to move toward a more decentralized and autonomous system. Clearly, additional reforms are necessary, and international and scientific co-operation is expected to play a crucial role in bringing the Ukrainian system internationally competitive.
The National School of Forestry Sciences (ESNACIFOR) is a higher education institution which, over its thirty years of existence, has earned a prestigious reputation within the Central and South American region for its diversified academic, research and extension programmes.
Located in Siguatepeque, Honduras, ESNACIFOR was founded in 1969 in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The objective of the school was to develop human resources and specialists in forestry who could help solve the country's problems with forest management. Prior to 1999, a total of 981 students from various countries within the region had graduated from ESNACIFOR. Throughout its history, the following four stages of forestry education can be identified:
The following is a list of graduates of ESNACIFOR, distinguished by the type of training and diplomas they received:
Within the first 25 years of its existence, curricula revision at ESNACIFOR depended heavily on the State of Honduras' policies. The School was a department of the Forestry Development Corporation of Honduras, and therefore any change in forestry policy also implied changes in the School's curriculum. Due to the economic crisis in the early 1980s, however, Honduras went through a series of structural changes regarding the management of its natural resources. The first concrete initiative for curricula revision was triggered by these structural changes in order to modernize the forestry sector.
Since then, it has been observed that private enterprise should play a more prominent role in the sustainable use and management of forest resources. Within this context, ESNACIFOR initiated a revision of its curriculum in 1993 with the international co-operation through the project "Strengthening the National Forestry School".
This curriculum revision process followed the guidelines set out by the higher education system of Honduras. The final product was a general and rigid plan of work, which did not allow for optional courses. A review of the profile of the School's graduates in terms of knowledge, skills, aptitudes and values, found that graduates generally responded well to the functions expected from them in their professional practice.
The process of curriculum development at ESNACIFOR may be divided into three phases: the identification of the professional profile, the development of an appropriate education system and the modification of the plan of study. The first phase is done through an external diagnosis which gathers the labour market demands. The second phase consists of an internal process that creates or adapts the educational structure in order to respond to the information collected in the first phase. The third phase - which is what ESNACIFOR is currently working on - aims to respond to the demands of the labour market as well as to the requirements of the higher education system of Honduras.
Revision of the teaching program of ESNACIFOR has always been based on external and internal parameters. External parameters considered during a curriculum review include the Law for Higher Education in Honduras and its general regulations, the academic norms for higher education, the labour market, technological changes, forestry policy of Honduras and the Central American region and the vulnerability of natural disasters. The internal parameters for curriculum review include the founding statute of ESNACIFOR, the regulations of the academic council, the academic norms and its founding law.
The curriculum revision process is continuous because of the changing context in which ESNACIFOR operates. The participatory process begins with a series of reunions of professors. These meetings have the following objectives:
The major stakeholders involved in the curricula processes are faculty and staff members, past and present students, employers as well as other institutions. The mechanism used to promote the participation of the stakeholders consists of individual and well-structured interviews every five years. The relevant results are then analyzed and amendments are made according to national and regional needs.
Some technical and administrative obstacles have emerged from the process of curriculum revision. Prior to 1994, there were technical problems because ESNACIFOR had few professionals to carry out the revision. All teachers have now received special training so they are better prepared for curriculum development. The main problem in running curricula revision processes, however, remains the lack of experienced and trained personnel as well as follow-up in the implementation stage. In terms of the administrative problems, the School's academic creativity is greatly limited because of its dependence on the Higher Education Director's Office at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras.
In Latin America, institutions for higher agriculture and forestry education have to prepare their graduates for two main types of clients. The first group is concerned with the strengthening of small-scale farming through training, the generation of appropriate farming systems and the organization of farmers' groups. The second group is engaged in commercial agriculture. Higher education in agriculture and forestry is therefore an essential tool to impel agricultural and forestry development.
This Case Study describes the procedures and methodology used when the curriculum of the Faculty of Agronomy and the Department of Forestry was developed and more recently reviewed by an external team.
The approval of the Forestry Law in 1987 has been a significant boost to the forestry sector in Uruguay. In the period between 1990 and 1997, forestry products increased from US$13 million to US$76 million, an increase of 475 percent.
Besides the rigidity of the older curricula, the primary motivations for revision have been the students' initial lack of knowledge about agronomy and rural life, as well as a general lack of field experience.
The way in which multi-disciplinarity was built into the curriculum is demonstrated through its division into three distinctive phases:
Over the years, the periodic revision of curriculum (1963, 1980, and 1989) has improved students' contact with the reality of forest management. Positive measures have been introduced into the new curriculum. Students now have better insight into forestry problems and of how these may be solved, as well as a more general understanding of rural practices.
Based on the experiences gained from past curriculum revision processes, there is a unique opportunity to develop a new curriculum which considers the future demand for forestry professionals. Curriculum development must also consider new techniques that are being used successfully by other practitioners.
The participatory curriculum development (PCD) process has yielded tremendous results in other parts of the world. An organized and methodological process should start at the Faculty of Agronomy, beginning with the creation of a faculty task-force consisting of professors and other stakeholders. The challenge for developing a curriculum that addresses the problems of sustainable agricultural and rural development in Uruguay is great. It has been recognized by faculty authorities and the Forestry Division that to move forward will require a new vision shared by teachers, managers, decision makers, students and other stakeholders about how to design forestry curriculum for the twenty-first century.
