Prepared by S. Rouchiche
Sahelian Sub-region countries have, in the last 20 years, implemented political, institutional and judicial reforms in order to assure that populations are in a position to participate in all responsibility to natural resources' sustainable development. However, participation can only be made operational, if appropriate methods and techniques are developed in the field of extension and communication (E/C). The significant evolving of the E/C sector, in recent years, has come about in compliance with the major changes that have affected society and environment. It also results from recent trends towards more decentralization and economic liberalization, as well as from the accent put on sustainable development. This inclination results in more approaches being developed and implemented by various countries keen on rethinking, reforming and reorganizing their E/C Systems.
However, the dynamism affecting E/C is also associated with the commotion impinging on the communication and information technologies (CITs), following the spectacular development of computer science. It is therefore essential within this study, to perceive the significance of CIT within the E/C Systems and their eventual aptitude to contribute to their reorganization. In this context, the field investigators have been provided with identical information and survey material in order to facilitate and harmonize the implementation of this part of the study. However, the number of institutions targeted in each country, within the investigation, has been variable.1 Moreover, the execution of the survey in Burkina Faso has faced some difficulties,2 depriving the survey of reliable and current data on CIT evaluation.
The study has been funded by FAO's Forestry Department3 and carried out within the following countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal. Its overall objective is to describe and analyse the current situation and development of the forestry E/C Systems. It also consists in reviewing the constraints, challenges and prospects of the rural E/C. Relevant conclusions and recommendations are to be made in regard to its future development, in the context of sustainable utilization and management of forest resources. The present document represents a synthesis of the investigations carried out to this effect in Sahelian zone of Sub-Saharan Africa.
The four countries correlated to this research belong to the dry tropical zone, whose climatic characteristics, particularly those related to rainfall, are subject to high inter-annual disparities. Three main climatic zones are to be differentiated. The Sahelian zone with its rainy season lasting less than three months, is characterized by a very uneven rainfall distribution and mean annual precipitation estimates inferior to 600 mm. Rainfall which lasts 4-5 months, in the Soudanian zone averages 600-900 mm/year. The Southern Soudanian zone with its 600-900 mm mean annual rainfall distributed over 6-7 months is more humid. Benin, which is blessed with a more humid climate, is also less subject to recurrent drought phenomena. Mali, on the opposite, is crossed by a wide desert zone, marked by the scarcity of its rainfall and vegetation cover.
Natural vegetation formations belong essentially to the Sahelian4 and Soudanian5 phytogeographic domains. The ecosystems have been seriously disrupted, following population increase and successive drought periods, which have taken place in the last decennia. The overcut forests are difficult to regenerate, overgrazing is on the rise, clearing for the sake of additional cropland is gathering speed and soils are deprived of their fertility and productivity.
Their multiple ethnic backgrounds, their youth and, the rapid increase of their populations6 that are generally unevenly distributed across their respective national territories highlight the particular features of the sub-region's societies. Urbanization is in progress as are the internal and external migrations of their inhabitants.
Life conditions are often precarious in the sub-region. National economies are nearly essentially based on the rural sector that contributes 35-42.5% to the BIP and provides 30-75% of export revenues, depending on the country. The respective agricultural sectors, which employ 60-80% of the nationals, represent the main source of employment and revenue in each country. Scarcely modem, agriculture, which is exposed to climatic hazard, has experienced a marked trend in decreased productivity ail through the last 20 years. This results in an ever increasing, pressure on natural resources.
The forestry branch holds an ever more significant position in the sub-region's economy. As an illustration of this, and according to FAO, the revenues derived from forestry in Burkina Faso were equal to FCFA 66 billion in 1987. Their contribution to the BIP was distributed as follows: 9.4% for wood products, 2.5% for tree fodder, 1% for Butyrospermum fruit and 0.9% for medicinal plants.
The history of E/C in the sub-region is marked by four, more or less similar phases, in the countries studied. These are:
There existed no formal extension structures or Systems as such. However, each ethnic group possessed its own organization System and its specific methods for agricultural production management and natural resources' exploitation. Besides the "Dina" 7 there existed in ail likelihood, no other written judicial groundwork. However, supervision mechanisms meant to keep order and settle differences and conflicts, made it possible to protect efficiently natural resources in general and forest assets in particular. Handing over responsibilities from one generation to the next, took place simultaneously with the transmission of knowledge. Beyond the broadcasting of the latter towards the non-initiated members of the community, the traditional channels of interpersonal communication from village to village and from region to region also allowed dissemination of successful practices in ail domains.
Extension was introduced in West Africa during the colonial period. The first interventions in extension and farmer training took place in the French Sudan around 1928. However, it was only towards the end of World War II that agricultural services were multiplied/enriched and that timid efforts were attempted to improve farmers' livelihood. The System in use for the transmission of technical messages to the producers was more concerned with production than with adhesion. Indeed, satisfying the needs in agricultural produce of the metropolis was the sole justification to the colonial agricultural policy. It is only from 1957 onward that adequate measures were taken in Senegal, by establishing mobilization and education structures8 and providing assistance to development9.
In the area of forestry, colonial extension was performed in a constraining, directive and restricting style. In fact, in spite of the meetings/debates organized and the training provided for the benefit of the rural, the main management tool remained the forest legislation as applied by the forest police force. Extension broadcasted knowledge, old and recent, to the exclusive benefit of the State.
The post-colonial period, which runs approximately from 1960 to 1980, includes two phases. The first one (1960-1971) associated with the promotion, supervision and organization of the rural world, was also devoted to adjusting national agricultural policies. This phase resulted in trying out a variety of support approaches as well as various organization patterns for the rural environment. Supervision did not include unified agricultural E/C Systems. Extension was then often based on a "product/speculation" approach. It was characterized by numerous inadequacies in the selection of both, beneficiaries and extension topics, and in relation to extension's expertise and organization. Towards the end of the phase, extension Systems started to innovate by assigning more significance to the improvement of the livelihood conditions of the populations. More than a mere technology transfer operation, extension endeavours to include education, training, incitation, motivation and organization measures. Forestry extension on the other hand, is most often carried out within the frame of the "journées de l'arbre".
The second phase (1972-1980) has been one of administrative reforms, aiming among others at enhancing me rural E/C Systems. It has been the starting point in launching the concept that claims the right of the people to take on the responsibility of their development. It was then, that the "Training and Visit System" was introduced in Africa. It resulted in setting up extension and training components in ail agricultural development projects. This phase has also been the starting point in introducing "unified extension Systems"10 and in making a more extensive use of communication tools, among which, rural radio networks broadcasting in national languages.
From 1980 onwards, a new era begins for rural development, as well as, for extension and communication. The new discourse advocates more responsibility to be taken by people in achieving their development. To this avail, some guidance is provided to the producers in the field of management, together with technical training and literacy campaigns. The concept of participatory approach takes on a more concrete connotation as more attempts are made to put it into practice with the objective of sustaining agro-sylvo-pastoral resources' utilization. The various approaches to participation are developed within the numerous projects and programmes initiated in this period. In the course of the same phase, NGO's are strengthened and, well structured, farmers' organizations, with clearly defined objectives are created to help rural populations assume their own development. National extension programmes (NEP) are initiated (Mali-1988/89, Senegal-1990) which aim at improving farmers' production environment and revenues. These NEPs are faced with difficulties such as the lack of supervision at field level, the lack of credit loans for producers, etc.
In their objectives, the E/C programmes introduce new concepts aiming at reinforcing the powers of local institutions and communities, at diversifying farmers' sources of revenue and at endorsing a more integrated approach to development. Cooperation and consultation mechanisms between development partners are initiated and multiplied at various levels. The role of NGOs within rural communities becomes stronger. However, in spite of these achievements, it remains true that the existence of experienced and skilful research institutions and of a minimal stock of technical innovations which, condition successful extension, are difficult to come across in Sahelian countries. Nevertheless, research links with rural producers is steadily improving.
Since the easing of restrictions on the audio-visual sector, following the initiation of decentralization and democratizing processes, the rural radio networks are in full expansion. The other communication and information technologies, while less developed, have made the proof of their potential. Traditional communication and information modes remain, however, marginalized, in spite of the increased awareness of their importance and utility in any approach to rural development.
The perception of forestry activities as a possible source of revenue is at its early stage. This explains why forestry extension has been implemented under a different set of indicators, than agricultural extension.
After independence, forestry services had preserved the colonial perception giving full priority to the surveillance of the state owned and administered forest estate. Reforestation activities of modest scale were initiated under state control. In the early seventies, drought, desertification and continued disintegration of the forestry estate "under surveillance" announced the beginning of the environmental crisis, bringing to the fore the forestry question, its importance and issue. Massive plantations' projects were then initiated, to eradicate droughts and combat desertification. However, in spite of these huge efforts, the forestry branch was not successful, being penalized by its pyramidal structure that constituted also the context of implementation of forestry extension and communication. The strategy unmistakably showed its limits in terms of sustainability and in the early eighties, people's participation became clearly obvious, marking a turning point in forestry extension.
Stimulation of participation was first assumed in a directive way; incitation measures had immediate, but ephemeral effects, while forest legislations provided no right of property to the people. However, the development of community and village forestry did help mature the participatory approach. It has above ail, allowed to refine and polish the E/C techniques, leading to effective participation of the people. It has also resulted in progressively conducting the crucially needed judicial, legislative and institutional reforms.
This trend has resulted in revising national forest legislations, launching plans for national forestry development and for combating desertification as well as starting numerous forestry programmes and projects. Structures in charge of leading/guiding the approaches' harmonization process and of ensuring cohesion between extension organizations are created. Efforts towards more cooperation and consultation take place; farmers' organizations become the legitimate interlocutors of local authorities and of the partners in the development process. The objectives of the E/C are supplemented with new concepts, such as: granting people more responsibility in the process of community development, reinforcing the powers of local institutions and communities, promoting integrated production Systems etc.
The implementation of the participatory approach is based on an iterative process, whose phases go from contact-making and background reconnaissance, to implementation and self- evaluation by ail parties involved. Communication in its large sense is the keystone to any participatory approach. The introduction of modem CITs11 provides new alternatives of success in communication and information, but is hindered by its high cost and by the competence deficit at field level. Three types of communication are used to establish a true and sustainable dialogue process between various actors of development. These are: the institutional communication, which serves to exchange knowledge and expériences, social or mass communication and individual communication used in educational exchanges.
The data pertaining to CITs have been gathered in three countries (Senegal, Burkina Faso and Benin12), and analysed based on answers provided to the questionnaire handed to the institutions selected to take part to the survey.
The missions of the institutions surveyed may be summed up as: rational natural resources’ management, desertification control, developing national strategies in the field of extension as well as promotion of sustainable development processes with active involvement and participation of neighbouring populations. More specifically, the missions related to forestry deal with institutional support, capacity strengthening as well as holistic, participatory and sustainable management of forest formations. The missions relate also to: increasing forestry's contribution to national economy, developing participatory management methods, developing approaches to finding adequate solutions to issues identified with the farmers, combating poverty through productivity improvement as well as supporting communities in training, organization and self promotion. The other missions concern research on desertification, woody and non-woody forest products' utilization etc.
The main fields in which extension activities are provided by the surveyed institutions are, in decreasing order of importance: forestry, soil and water utilization, general agriculture, nutrition and food security, rural credit and funding as well as mechanization and agricultural engineering. Other more secondary activities mentioned are: agricultural marketing, livestock marketing, fishing etc. Other fields of activity have been identified, in addition to those suggested in the questionnaire. The following have been indicated by at least two countries: gestion des terroirs villageois, training, communication as well as livestock breeding and pastoralisme. The other fields mentioned13 are: rural organization, education and health, désenclavement, watershed management, hydraulique villageoise, boosting research achievements, energy and environment etc.
Whatever their specifies inside the field of global rural development, the main E/C activities may be summed up as being: organization, information, training, communication as well as monitoring and evaluation. More specifically, and depending upon the missions assigned to the institutions, one comes across the following activities: deliberation over extension and forestry policies and strategies, supporting the establishment of communication channels, developing communication tools, and examining the technical and technological requirements.
Field projects identified mainly the following technical activities: lucrative and domestic activities, formulating and implementing forests ’and terroirs’ management schemes, extension/information for the benefit of rural populations, operational training for extension agents, technical and sylvicultural works etc. In the area of forest research, the activities deal with training, field experimentation, organization of conferences/seminars, compiling technical files and publishing technical and scientific notes.
The activities of NGOs and farmers' associations as identified in Senegal and Benin reflect their concern for capacity strengthening. Their programmes deal with the organization of the following: études diagnostiques participatives, support to programme formulation sessions, training/promotion of innovations workshops, stimulating/coordinating of CIT networks and extension structures.
The main beneficiary groups of E/C activities are: rural populations, farmer/village organizations and associations, individual producers and operators, groups of producers, field supervision agents and their superior in rank. There are also beneficiary structures/institutions such as: NGOs, technical services, local forest management units, research centers, international organizations, training institutions etc.
With regard to the forestry sector, it is worth taking notice of the experience it has built up in: raising awareness among elected members of local communities, administrative and customary authorities and the private sector and in involving them in activities related to participatory management of natural forests and of terroirs.
The investigations have indicated that the participatory and the training and visits approaches are the most utilized.14 The cost participation, and production Systems development approaches were named respectively by Mali and Senegal. They are followed by other approaches15 whose importance is variable according to the country. These are: "approche par projet", "de développement par système de production", "par les institutions d'éducation ", "généralisée de la vulgarisation agricole” and "par produits".
Other approaches not listed in the questionnaire were identified; they are: approche "par la communication verbale", "formation de personne à personne", "gestion des terroirs", "communautaire et globale" and "du développement intégré".
All the institutions participating to the survey acknowledged being familiar with the CITs, even when barely utilized. After analyzing the answers provided by ail institutions, it appears that the computer assisted publication (CAP) and the "base de données informatisées" are the best known and, most widely utilized technologies. They are followed, in decreasing order of importance, by the "systèmes d'aide à la décision", electronic communication and electronic publication technologies. CITs undergoing some utilization are the: written and audio-visual support materials, publications, periodic reports, documentaries, edition, posters, slides, TV and radio reporting, audio cassettes, meetings, workshops, supervising, demonstrations, exchanges of experiences etc.
Together with the usual communication means, the CITs are considered by ail structures taking part to the study, as very important in accomplishing the E/C objectives because: they authorize vertical/horizontal communication as well as better access to and a larger coverage of the "groupes-cible". The CITs make it possible to achieve collective awareness over what is at stake in sustainable development and in rational natural resources management. They also allow for rapid decision-making and improvement in activities implementation.
The results of the survey indicate that the frequency of utilization of CITs is variable according to the country and to the domain of activities carried out by the institutions/projects. In short, the CITs utilized on a daily basis are the radio cassette, les boîtes à images, photo albums, extension files and booklets, communication, electronic mail and computer developed education support. The CAP, electronic databases, bibliographic research on Internet as well as the edition, are used on a regular basis. However, the very specific CITs are only utilized on a very occasional basis.
As regards the main reasons justifying CITs utilization, the answers given 16are: putting all of the rural population at the same level in terms of informing and expressing themselves; achieving better implication of the actors of development, thanks to the greater number of people benefiting from extension; providing improved dissemination of technical and scientific information and a better transfer of skills towards the beneficiaries; the aptitude to operate in "real time", thanks to the rapidity of information transfer; the reliability and accuracy of the information provided, as well as its reduced cost. The Benin report recalls justly "the high percentage of illiteracy coupled with the limited number of field supervision agents" as another major reason that justifies the use of CITs.
In terms of their role in relation to the institutions' activities, CITs are considered as a means of dissemination and exchange of information, knowledge and experiences. They also represent a procedure to achieve improved communication and information accessibility.
Following the analysis of the responses supplied by the institutions, it appears that the CITs contribute largely to the resolution of the constraints facing E/C. However, there is a great diversity of results, as related to the ranking of the constraints solved through the use of CITs. In fact, this diversity of results concerns the ranking of the main constraints facing E/C, as well as the score attributed to the degree of utility of CITs in resolving them. Such differences may be attributed either to the diversity of missions17 or to the fact that interventions are interdisciplinary and multi-sector-based.
With regard to the most important constraints facing E/C, only the following three have been systematically identified in ail case studies: sustainability, coordination/liaison and taux de couverture. Considering the scores attributed to the degree of utility of CITs in resolving the constraints, the following, very cautious ranking may be proposed: CITs are considered very useful in resolving the funding and coordination constraints; they are seen as useful vis-à-vis the taux de couverture and l'objectif; they are neutral when it comes to solving the constraints of control, adequation and management.
The evaluation of the level of impact of CITs on each E/C constraint demonstrates the complexity of the problem for the institutions investigated. Given the great diversity and imprecision of answers, it was impossible to make a synthesis of the level of impacts. Appreciating the significant changes that have occurred since the introduction of the CITs, the interlocutors indicated that their impact on implementing E/C objectives might be considered as globally positive.
The positive changes identified, concern essentially the quality and effectiveness of extension and information, the identification and broadening of the beneficiary groups, and most of ail, the change in people's behaviour and their awareness of natural resources and of the need to manage them within the framework of partnership and sustainability. Other positive aspects relate to the improvement of performances, to the strengthening of people's intervention capacity and to the appropriation of the techniques and programmes by the beneficiaries.
The negative changes result mainly from errors associated with the lack of proficiency in the use of modem CITs. They also are the consequence of the increasing dependency towards them, which leads to the decline of local, traditional CITs. The Benin report considers the steadily increasing complexity of CITs' manipulation, as a negative modification. As to the Senegal paper, it identifies the following negative alterations: increase in telephone bills and the tendency for some to behave as "extremists" in the field of rural E/C.
When it comes to appreciating the consequences of these changes on the E/C activities, unanimity has been reached on one account only. Indeed ail agreed that the most important consequence is the greater receptivity of rural people in regard to their involvement and implication in the management of the forest resources of their terroir. The other answers, though complementary to one another, vary according to the country. The case study of Senegal refers to the imbalance between social and technical aspects in extension programmes and activities. It also mentions the improved presentation of extension's tools and technical packages. The Benin report sees as important consequences, the increased transparency in discussing and deciding on development options. Mali's report notes the following consequences: extension's status/standing improvement, better allocation of human and material means, recovery of the environment, and a more systematic monitoring and evaluation of projects.
The institutions have furthermore stressed the importance of traditional communication and information techniques and agreed to the conclusion that it is necessary to consent more efforts towards their rehabilitation. They also take note of the fact that modem CITs are costly. To gain access to them, it is necessary to provide training and adequate equipment. It is also important to establish national communication programmes.
The following outstanding features of the present forestry development environment seem to affect positively the rural E/C Systems in the sub-region.
Speaking of political measures, it is worth mentioning the important reforms affecting national forest policies, which on the whole, encourage people's involvement at all levels of the development process. Moreover, forest services have evolved and are about to become true partners in the process of development, conservation and rational, participatory and sustainable management of the forest estate.
Legal measures are about reforms affecting national forest laws that, as of now, acknowledge people's right to act as partners of the State, in the participatory and sustainable management and utilization of the national forest estate. Another measure is, putting into effect the laws pertaining to decentralization. These transfer a share of the State's responsibility and functions to local communities, allowing them to take in charge their own development process.
In terms of administrative aspects, and besides the creation of numerous communes, it is worth noting the efforts made to unite extension Systems and approaches. The end-result is an improved collaboration between development partners, particularly research, extension and production entities. It is also useful to note the emergence of associations and NGOs acting in the area of forestry development. The establishment of telecentres, in Senegal, satisfies in concrete terms the communication needs of the less favoured social groups, particularly in the rural world.
The four case studies indicate the existence of various positive results relating to E/C Systems' utilization. Some of these achievements are as follows:
In terms of extension, pertinent, relevant and well-adapted tools have been developed and put into practice. In fact, CITs have made a timid, but promising entry in the field of forestry. They authorize extension organizations to have access to specialized data banks, as well as to new extension approaches. Other E/C achievements identified are: improved collaboration between research, extension and production sectors; presence of only one extension interlocutor to deal with the producers; improved relationships between forestry agents and local rural populations; as well as the availability of greater numbers of technological packages put into practice by farmers.
Positive achievements made in relation to approaches concern the integration of sector- based components, in the process of development, management and administration of forestry estate resources. Also worth mentioning, the improved partnership relationship between the various actors of forestry development, the better organization of producers and the involvement of NGOs, in forestry interventions.
In terms of social development, the increased share of responsibility of populations, local communities, farmers' organizations and NGOs in the fields of conservation and management of forest resources, constitute a very important achievement. It has authorized rural populations to achieve more self-promotion with regard to tree planting. It has also resulted in their stronger involvement in managing and administrating gazetted18 and protected19 forests. Finally, the improvements observed in the management and maintenance of community infrastructures, constitute an important social development achievement.
From the political and legal points of view, some important legal and regulatory gaps and deficiencies persist. They have to do with the lack of security in terms of land property, the non- existence of a legal status for village organizations etc. Moreover, the States' declared aspiration, to associate populations in development, has not entirely eliminated their determination to remain the main masterminds and beneficiaries of the management of natural resources. Finally, there subsists in every country a fundamental issue regarding the process of relating and integrating customary and modem rights, privileges and liberties.
Regarding the structural and institutional aspects, the drawbacks are related to the limited capacity and means of action of the structures and associations acting in the field of forestry extension and communication. Indeed, it is worth pointing out to the poor level of training of field personnel, which contrasts with what is required to become proficient in making good use of CITs. It is also important to mention the aging process affecting the limited number of civil servants left, following the suspension of recruitment ordered by the public services. The high cost of computer equipment still represents an obstacle to the development of modem CITs in the rural world. Finally, the transfer of E/C activities, towards NGOs and farmers organizations, is still derisory.
In terms of social constraints, E/C has been unable to achieve significant qualitative social progress, because of the rural world's proper socio-cultural heaviness and low degree of literacy.
The present E/C methodological approach advantages capacity development through setting up local structures, to guide people's interventions. This form of capacity development concerns particularly farmers and their professional organizations, who, should soon be in a position to assume more responsibility in extension interventions. Training, communication and increased availability of management tools, should help strengthen, these structures' capacity. The present context of decentralization should authorize organized and motivated farmers, to take in charge their own affairs.
To turn E/C into an efficient System and tool for the sustainable management of natural resources, a process leading to experience accumulation, knowledge improvement and improved practical field operations, should be initiated. This implies that modem communication tools should be made available to most, and that traditional communication Systems should be rehabilitated.
As regards structural, legal and political reforms, the challenge consists in conceiving policies and regulations that take full consideration of our societies' reality and which are able to generate new behaviours in terms of utilization, conservation and management of natural resources.
In the present context, limited numbers of agents have access to CITs. Those, among them who are in active contact with the populations, possess, as mediators, a real power, which is not totally risk-free.
In order to consolidate the option leading to increased people's responsibility in development, it is recommended to:
The States' responsibility in developing CITs is unequivocal and they should therefore, meet all regulatory, legal, ethical, material etc. requirements to encourage their development. In this regard, the States should also do everything to put together a critical mass of well-trained human resources, in order to properly administer information and its use, in the framework of forestry extension and communication. Forestry services should be provided with more resources to be able to take in charge extension activities at their level. Finally, it would be crucial to make an intelligent implementation of the political, legal, judicial, institutional etc. reforms in order to promote people's responsibility in developing their own resources.
Forestry extension has achieved significant transformations, which were made possible thanks to the political, economical and social contexts of the last two decades. Today, the circumstances are favourable to achieve rapid progress in CITs' utilization for the benefit of forestry extension's actors. But, one must not ignore that "only information can be conveyed. Everything is decided when it transforms into knowledge. It is at this precise moment that it will or not reduce uncertainty and become useful to the beneficiary"20. It is therefore essential to remain highly vigilant so that the extension actors may make the best out of CITs, without becoming unrestrained consumers of technologies that do not consist of advantages only.
1 The number of institutions targeted has been respectively of 3, 10 and 17 for Benin, Senegal and Mali.
2Difficulties in identifying the resource personsl deficient collaboration of the institutions in charge of the E/C Systems, failure to fill in the questionnaires on the part of the institutions.
3 Forest Conservation, Research and Education Service, Forest Resources Division.
4Steppe and/or shrub or tree savannas.
5Dense dry forests, woodlands, woodland and tree savannas.
6For example, the population of Burkina Faso has doubles in 26 years.
7Instituted in Masli in the XIXth century.
8 Animation rurale, Centre d'expansion rurale.
9 Centres régionaux d'assistance au développement (CRAD) et de commercialisation.
10 Sociétés de développement agricoles autonomes (Senegal), Offices régionaux de développement (BKF), Sociétés d'intervention (Benin), Opération de développement rural (ORD) in Mali.
11 Communication and information technologies.
12 In Burkina Faso, the institutions selected to take part in the study did not fill in the questionnaires.
13 Each field of activity was cited by one of the three countries where the investigation was successfully carried out.
14 These are the approaches indicated by ail three countries surveyed (Benin, Mali and Senegal).
15 Five, four and two approaches are named respectively by Mali, Senegal and Benin.
16 These answers repeat, and this is normal, some answers already giuven to jusdtify the importance of CITs.
17 Of the institutions questioned.
18Classified forests.
19Community-owned forests.
20 Eberhard Bauer, Volker Hoffman and Peter Keller.
