All about Eucalyptus seed
Poplars and willows
Studies of Gmelina arborea
Eucalyptus seed, by D.J. Boland, M.I.H. Brooker and J.W. Turnbull with scanning electron microscopy by D.A. Kleinig. Division of Forest Research, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Canberra, 1980, xii + 191 p., 72 figs. Price: $A 18.
With over 4 million hectares of plantations spread around the world, Eucalyptus is the most extensively planted broadleaved genus of tree. Most of the plantations are for the production of fuelwood or pulp, but other uses range from timber to shelter, shade, ornament, leaf oils and honey. This book records how in 1869 seed of E. globulus was sent by Archbishop Gould of Melbourne to the Trappist monks at the abbey of Tre Fontane, near Rome, in order to dry up the swamps surrounding the abbey and so eliminate the scourge of malaria. Though the swamps and the malaria have long since disappeared, Eucalyptus still contributes to the Trappist economy, since it is the main ingredient in the liqueur sold by the monks as "Eucalittino."
Nearly all eucalypt plantations are established from seed and one of the factors which has facilitated the international spread of the eucalyptus has been the readiness of the Australian authorities to allow unrestricted export of seed - an example which might well be followed by all other countries. Since 1962 the establishment of a special seed section has greatly expanded the Australian service to the international community, through the collection and distribution of small authenticated seed samples for research purposes. In 1978, for example, a total of 332 orders was processed involving about 3000 seed-lots and 90 overseas countries. FAO has contributed funds to this valuable programme. As a result of their experience over the past two decades, the staff of the Seed and Botany Sections of the Division of Forest Research, CSIRO, are uniquely qualified to write this book on Eucalyptus seed.
The book contains an introduction and six chapters: 1. Seed development, 2. Seed morphology, 3. Managed seed production, 4. Seed collection, extraction and storage, 5. Seed testing, and 6. Raising eucalypt seedlings in a glasshouse. There are three appendixes. The first lists the origin of seed used in the micrographs in Chapter 2. The second tabulates information on times of flowering and seed collection in Australia and on relative collection costs. The third gives information for 415 species on the number of viable seeds per unit weight of seed and chaff, with prescriptions for testing viability. There is a good glossary and comprehensive list of references and subject index.
Chapter 1, Seed Development, starts with the eucalypt inflorescence and follows the development of flower bud, flower and fruit until the moment of seed shed. There is a discussion on breeding systems and the degree of selfing found in several species investigated.
Chapter 2 on Seed Morphology includes a clear account of the origin of eucalypt "chaff" and is supplemented by the section in Chapter 4 explaining the difficulty of separating seed from chaff. Chaff remains a nuisance for the seedsman from which other important afforestation genera are free, but it is some consolation to know how it originates and why it is too difficult or too costly to get rid of it. The chapter concludes with a remarkable series of scanning electron-micrographs of seedcoat sculpture of 149 species, at magnifications of up to x 150.
Chapter 3, Managed Seed Production, deals with improved seed sources, including the use of the most suitable provenance and the management of seed orchards. Practical advice is given, e.g., on the recommended isolation distance (1-2 km) to protect a seed orchard from contamination by outside pollen and some indication of seed yields obtained (over 10 kg/ha/yr in Champion's E. grandis seed orchard in Brazil).
Chapter 4 covers Seed Collection, Extraction and Storage. In the states of Victoria and Tasmania alone, annual requirements are for over 10000 kg of seed, largely for aerial seeding of clear-felled areas. An instructive comparison is drawn of the quantities of seed of E. delegatensis needed per hectare - 900 g for aerial seeding, 20 g for raising nursery stock. Recommendations are made for sampling, both at the provenance and at the single tree level, and on the timing of seed collection. There is clear, practical guidance on collection, extraction, drying and storage. Eucalypt seed is not difficult to store. Experience at the Division of Forest Research has been that mature seed of all eucalypts can be kept viable for five to 20 years if stored at a low moisture content (4-8%) in sealed containers at 35°C. This should be ample for afforestation needs, although for conservation of genetic resources as seed a still longer period could be assured at sub-zero temperatures. The importance of making containers fully airtight, in order to avoid losing the benefits of initial low moisture content, is rightly stressed.
Chapter 5, Seed Testing, describes methods used for germination tests in the Division of Forest Research. Because of the special problems of separating seed from chaff in eucalypts, the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) has approved tests of germination based on samples of equal weight rather than equal number of seeds. The authors indicate optimum conditions of moisture, temperature and light for some species. Special pre-treatment to break dormancy is not necessary for the majority of eucalypts, but certain alpine species benefit from moist storage at 35°C for varying periods.
Chapter 6 covers Raising Eucalypt Seedlings for authentication as to species. Although this only involves the use of small numbers of plants (five for a species assumed to be pure, 20 if hybridization is suspected), many of the procedures recommended would also be suitable for operational nurseries. Thus the importance of avoiding overwatering in the seed beds, which can wash seeds into one corner or mechanically damage the tender germinating seedlings, is even more important in large-scale afforestation nurseries than in research glasshouses.
A feature of the book is the very high standard of the illustrations. Because of the small size of eucalypt seed and of many flowers and fruits, enlargement above natural size is necessary for a clear presentation of morphology and development. Both the line drawings and the pioneering electron micrographs achieve their objective splendidly. They reinforce the clear explanations in the text of seed morphology and the processes of reproduction and germination.
Their main appeal, however, will be to the research scientist and the eucalyptologist. For the practicing forester, with no access to an electron microscope, the most important parts of the book will be on managed seed production, seed collection, storage and testing, and on raising seedlings. The tabulated data on flowering, seed viability and testing in Appendixes 2 and 3 are in themselves a treasury of facts and figures which have never before been available in one book. Eucalyptus seed admirably complements, in its specialized field, the recent general accounts of eucalyptus by Hillis and Brown for Australia, de la Lama for Spain, Goes for Portugal, Poynton for southern Africa and by FAO covering the world situation. It is likely to remain the standard reference on the subject for many years.
RICHARD WILLAN
Oxford
Poplars and willows in wood production and land use. FAO Forestry Series, No. 10. Rome, FAO, 1979/80. Black-and-white and colour photographs, charts, bibliography. 328 p.
The present volume is a revision and expansion of a successful FAO book published in 1958 entitled Poplars in forestry and land use. Given the characteristics of the poplar - its rapid growth, its wide distribution, its suitability for cultivation, the wide range of products it produces - it has become increasingly popular in Third World countries. So now has the willow, particularly in Argentina, in India, and in eastern European countries along the Danube river. The popularity of the two trees has given impetus to the International Poplar Commission, starting in 1975, to bring together a large number of experts to collaborate in writing a book updating the available information concerning both trees.
After two brief introductory chapters, Chapter three discusses in depth the range and characteristic of various kinds of poplars and willows. Chapters four and five deal, respectively, with improvement and selection and ecology and physiology. Chapter six treats the propagation of poplars both in and out of nurseries. In Chapter seven there is an extensive and detailed discussion of cultivation techniques for both kinds of trees. Chapters eight and nine investigate maladies and predators. The next three chapters are devoted to economic considerations: marketing, utilization and consumption. Chapter 13 deals with poplars and farming and the concluding chapter outlines topics for research.
Gmelina arborea. Annotated bibliography compiled by A. Greaves. Oxford, UK Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, 1980. Author index. 60 p. No price given.
The present volume, which lists and annotates 209 articles in the scientific literature on the species Gmelina arborea from 1832-1979, is number F20 in the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux (CAB) series of annotated bibliographies. Each entry, which is given a detailed, descriptive paragraph, is placed into one of eight different categories: natural populations, silviculture, physiology, growth and yield, genetics, pests and diseases, wood properties and utilization.
The earliest entry, dated 1832, is an 875-page book by W. Roxburgh entitled Flora Indica, which describes Gmelina arborea along with numerous other plants of India and what are now Pakistan and Bangladesh. A four-foot-square door made from timber from this tree, according to the book, was used to keep tidal waters from flooding the botanical garden in Dacca and remained sound after seven years of wetting and drying.
Eucalypts for your bookshelf...
Eucalypts are especially important for developing countries because of their fast growth, wide adaptability from se pi-desert to cold temperate environments and their many uses - sawnwood, pulpwood, wood-based panels, utility timber, environmental and amenity planting and for fast-growing fuelwood plantations.The new FAO edition of Eucalypts for Planting has been completely rewritten. Eucalypts for planting belongs on the shelves of libraries and forest services and in the private collection of anyone who wants the basics of eucalypt planting and management in one handy volume.
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