CONTINENTAL SOUTH-EAST ASIA SUB-REGIONAL STATUS & PROJECTION ANALYSIS

MYANMAR
VIETNAM
LAOS (PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF)
THAILAND
CAMBODIA

Countries: Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia.

The forest resources

Forests in Continental south-east Asia are, generally speaking, of tropical types (Dipterocarpus sp., teak) in the South and low lands and of temperate types (Pinus sp.) in the north and at higher altitudes. Since the second world war, natural forests have been rapidly depleted and particularly in plains and river deltas and zones of agriculture expansion. The sub-region remains fairly heavily forested, forest and wooded lands presently cover about 62% of total land area. The quality of the natural stands is however often poor and exploitable forests count for only 34% of the forested lands. Depletion is still continuing at about 1 % per year with remaining natural forests often located in remote areas. Wars have helped to accelerate forest degradation and consequent scars will take time to fade.

Forest lands belong generally to the States. However, increasing efforts are done like in Vietnam to involve farmers and private sector to participate in forestry development and conservation by allocating forest lands to individuals and organisations. Logging operations have been practised under the concessions system and following forest management prescriptions based on selective cutting and silvicultural operations. The system did not function properly for many reasons and the accessible forests have been creamed and depleted. Forest degradation is such and the control is so weak that many countries have established strong limitations for logging and Thailand even banned all type of logging in natural forest. Export trade in logs is often illegal but where countries share long frontiers and there is local instability, illicit trade is believed to occur.

The sub-region has many ethnic minorities living in the mountainous zones who survive on shifting cultivation and depend significantly on forest products. Population pressure, economic development and agricultural expansion have transformed the former balanced forest fallow system into a destructive process. Total expected decrease of forested area by the year 2010 would be up to 10% of the 1995 situation to the benefit of agricultural or range or waste lands. Exploitable forests will be reduced to about 31% of the forests and wooded lands by 2010.

Commercial tree-crop plantations are large in Thailand and Vietnam, including rubber plantations, the wood from which is efficiently utilised. Area expansion perspectives suggest that by the year 2010, the area of tree plantations will increase by 88%; but the total planted area in the sub-region would remain relatively small in comparison with the declining state of the natural forests and the future possible demand. Thailand and Vietnam are planning large plantation schemes which would start producing from the next century.

All countries of the sub-region are involved in forest conservation and are establishing protected area networks. The total percentage of land under protection rules is satisfactory but the effectiveness of the protection is questionable and not all ecosystem types may be adequately represented.

Forestry sector development

New economic policies will boost the global development of the sub-regional countries. Forests could not benefit from the expected rapid development. Due to problems related to ethnic minorities, political unrest, population increase, urban and infrastructure building, the forest will continue to be degraded although it is expected that deforestation per se could be put under some control. Wood stock increment will not compensate the total fellings by the year 2010. Wood demand and forest conservation concern will increase in accordance with the economic development by the turn of the century; the forest resources situation in terms of domestic supply could become worrying if forested lands are not rehabilitated or wood production from not forested lands is not enhanced.

Considering the SI/felling ratio, the 1995 positive situation will become negative by 2010. This is due to a slow and steady depletion of the forests accompanied with an increasing supply. Although Thailand is provided with relatively limited forested areas, wood supply and production are high comparatively with other countries of the region.

Wood supply and fellings

Total wood supply in the sub-region is still globally satisfactory but the balance between wood stock annual increment supply and total felling would become negative by the year 2010. Fellings will increase rapidly and particularly the domestic supply (fuelwood and local timber needs). Industrial roundwood production will come increasingly from tree plantations passing 28 % in 1990 up to 55 %. It is to be noticed that wood production from agricultural lands would be relatively low (less than 20% of the total production).

The commercial growing stock will decline steadily as the tree plantations programmes will not yet make up for the degradation of the natural forests during the period till 2010. Forest waste and residues is expected to remain generally high due to weak forestry management and sometimes war conditions.

Table II.33 - Continental South-East Asia: Status and projection Summary

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	43,753	41,296	39,885	38,620	37,488
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	42,067	38,930	36,839	34,893	33,079
	- Plantation forests	ha	1,686	2,366	3,047	3,728	4,410
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	2,405,787	2,480,333	2,411,138	2,353,892	2,312,924
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	2,298,257	2,125,052	2,018,161	1,918,008	1,824,053
	- Plantation forests	m3	107,530	127,968	154,428	186,912	225,424
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	58,365	61,108	65,234	69,470	73,807
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	43,947	40,670	38,774	36,986	35,295
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	14,418	20,438	26,460	32,484	38,512
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	12,902	13,398	15,440	16,780	17,420
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	10,284	10,420	11,900	13,050	13,700
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	2,618	2,978	3,540	3,730	3,720
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	11,751	11,751	11,878	12,298	12,978
Low productive/open forests		ha	79,648	76,425	73,363	70,453	67,684
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	47,582	45,423	43,391	41,474	39,664
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	2,609	2,795	3,085	3,275	3,568
Arable lands		ha	35,628	38,457	40,594	42,646	44,424
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	23,145	24,806	26,162	27,365	28,542
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	103,358	112,113	121,680	132,138	143,576
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	129,091	131,337	134,787	138,308	142,013
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	116,260	125,511	137,120	148,918	160,996
Forest and wooded lands		ha	123,401	117,720	113,249	109,073	105,172
Percentage forested lands		%	65	62	59	57	55

Table II.34 - Continental South-East Asia: Changes between 1995 and 2010 related to some indicators

Unit	000 ha
	Forests and w. lands			Nat. exploit. forests			Plantations forests
Country	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%
Myanmar	47,124	42,062	-11	20,442	18,058	-12	519	894	72
Vietnam	23,084	22,122	-4	3,052	2,794	-8	1,050	1,950	86
Laos	20,800	19,000	-9	2,495	2,277	-9	11	26	136
Thailand	13,630	10,588	-22	7,957	5,609	-30	779	1529	96
Cambodia	13,083	11,399	-13	4,984	4,341	-13	7	10.5	50
Total	117,720	105,172	-11	38,930	33,079	-15	2,366	4,410	86

Unit	000m3
	Total fellings			Stock increment			Ratio SI/felling		Weight*
Country	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%
Myanmar	42,886	57,196	33	55,933	53,430	-4	1.3	0.9	36
Vietnam	35,516	46,862	32	25,736	34,615	34	0.7	0.7	29
Laos	4,583	6,481	41	10,539	9,737	-8	2.3	1.5	4
Thailand	33,807	39,736	18	28,224	34,547	22	0.8	0.9	25
Cambodia	8,718	10,721	23	10,904	9,685	-11	1.3	0.9	7
Total	125,511	160,996	28	131,337	142,013	8	1.0	0.9	100

* Countries relative weight related to fellings by year 2010

Unit	000 ha
	Total country land area
Country	1990
Myanmar	65,797
Vietnam	32,549
Laos	23,680
Thailand	51,089
Cambodia	17,652
Total	190,767

MYANMAR

The Forest resources

Myanmar is well endowed with one of the largest forest covers in the Asia/Pacific region. The country has about 76% of its land area under forests and woody cover. Myanmar is a country of considerable topographic and climatic contrasts. The country ranges from coastal lowlands with heavy monsoon rainfall in the south to very rugged and snow-capped mountainous areas in the north (up to 6,000 meters). The central core of the country is flat and relatively dry. The mixed deciduous forest is the most economically important type as it is the major source of teak. Other hardwoods (Tylia sp., Pterocarpus sp.) are harvested from dipterocarp forests and dry forests. Native pines (P. Merkusii and P. Insularis) are found in temperate zones. Bamboos and mangroves areas are notable. In general, all forests belong to the State. Commercial forests are managed for about 100 years using the Myanmar Selection System: a 30-year cutting cycle with a specified minimum harvested diameter. Log export is being gradually reduced in order to promote local processing.

The underlying causes of forest degradation are socio-economic problems including scarcity of land in densely populated areas, encroachment for agricultural expansion, shifting cultivation, low agricultural productivity, illegal fuelwood and timber extraction. The dry zone area is particularly threatened. Non-wood products like rattan, indigenous medicine, barks are important for the rural population (80% of the total). Myanmar has a small rubberwood and coconut plantations but has a significant tree plantation estate. Commercial tree plantations (50% of the total) are mostly teak, industrial and village plantations are established with fast growing species (eucalyptus) respectively for eventual pulp production or local supply of fuelwood/poles and erosion control.

Myanmar is particularly wealthy in biodiversity. Many plant and wildlife species are endemic and some endangered. Sanctuaries and national parks covering 1 % of the country have been established so far.

Forestry sector development

A Myanmar Forest Policy was formulated in 1995 and is in accordance with UNCED principles. Old concepts of forest management have been turned away. The forest policy suggests a balanced approach to environmental conservation and development by, inter alia, gazetting reserved and protected forests, encouraging participatory forestry, decentralising and intensifying silviculture and management, and promoting private investment in timber production and trade. A new Forest Law was promulgated in 1992 and is in line with the forest policy recognising the importance of the social dimensions and grassroots involvement in managing the forest estate. Preparation of a National Forestry Action Plan was initiated in 1995. Great efforts are now being undertaken in reforestation in dry or fragile zones and managing the natural stands. The establishment of national parks and protected areas has been accelerated to achieve 5% of the total land area.

Projected development

Forest degradation and deforestation will remain rapid due to population pressure. It is reasonable to assume that the felling of industrial roundwood will increase significantly in the near future. The forest potential exists as well as the internal and external markets. If they continue to be done by public entities, harvesting operations will continue to generate considerable wood waste. MAI of tree plantations will remain relatively low due to slow teak growth and the quality of past plantations. Chronic budget insufficiency due to centrally controlled budget allocation could refrain sector development still almost entirely based on State organisations.

The SI/felling ratio is presently good but the ratio figure will decrease regularly during the considered period meaning a constant erosion in wood production and a rapid increase in wood supply. Although wood stock increment is relatively high for industrial purposes, wood production from arable lands would remain relatively low generating possible fuelwood shortages in populated areas located far from the forested areas.

References

FAO - Forestry Paper - 128/124/112

FAO - NFAP - UPDATE no 32.

FAO - Yearbooks - production/forestry products - 1994

ITTO - Supply and demand of sustainable produced tropical timber from the Asia-Pacific region - Sept. 1993 - Draft report.

ITTO - Supply and demand of sustainable produced tropical timber from the Asia-Pacific region - Phase II - March, 1995.

MoF - Country profile for forestry sector outlook in Myanmar - January 1997.

MoF - Forest resources of Myanmar - Conservation and Management

MoF - Forestry in Myanmar - 1996

MoF - Myanmar's forestry situation - March 1995.

MoF - questionnaires MoF - FRA 1995.

Table II.35 - Myanmar: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	22,507	20,961	20,258	19,589	18,952
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	22,113	20,442	19,614	18,820	18,058
	- Plantation forests	ha	394	519	644	769	894
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	1,545,497	1,595,502	1,530,920	1,471,975	1,416,001
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	1,525,797	1,410,498	1,353,373	1,298,561	1,245,970
	- Plantation forests	m3	19,700	21,776	24,352	27,428	31,004
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	34,746	32,739	31,997	31,306	30,662
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	33,170	30,663	29,421	28,230	27,086
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	1,576	2,076	2,576	3,076	3,576
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	2,100	2,100	2,800	3,500	3,500
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	1,500	1,500	2,000	2,500	2,500
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	600	600	800	1,000	1,000
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	773	773	900	1,320	2,000
Low productive/open forests		ha	27,267	26,163	25,103	24,086	23,111
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	16,360	15,698	15,062	14,452	13,867
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	104	120	140	160	183
Arable lands		ha	9,579	10,623	11,308	11,963	12,585
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	6,757	7,496	7,986	8,454	8,901
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	37,214	40,786	44,702	48,993	53,696
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	57,863	55,933	55,045	54,211	53,430
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	39,314	42,886	47,502	52,493	57,196
Forest and wooded lands		ha	49,774	47,124	45,361	43,675	42,062
Percentage forested lands		ha	76	72	69	66	64
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.81	FRA 90
Plantation forests progr.		ha	25	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3	1,200	1,500	2,000	2,500	2,500
Conservation areas		ha	773	773	900	1,320	2,000
Commercial tree crops		ha	104	120	140	160	183
Range lands conversion factor		%	60
Other/range/barren lands		ha	6,340	7,930	8,988	9,999	10,967

Table II.36 - Myanmar: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	65,797	FRA - 90
Forests and wooded lands	ha	49,774	FRA - 90
Natural exploitable forests	ha	22,113	MoF - 1996/GFSS
Plantations forests	ha	394	FRA - 95
Conservation areas	ha	773	MoF - 96/profile
Low productive/open forests	ha	27,267	estimated
Arable lands	ha	9,579	FAO - 94
Commercial tree crops	ha	104	FAO - 2010/rubberwood
Other/range/barren lands	ha	6,340	estimated
Commercial Growing Stock (CGS)
CGS natural exploitable forest	m3/ha	69	MoF/inv. 92
CGS plantation forests	m3/ha	50	estimated
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	1.5	MoF - 1996
MAI plantation forests	m3/ha/year	4	estimated
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	0.6	estimated
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	0.5	estimated
MAI arable land	m3/ha/year	0.7	estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	1,500	Country profile
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	40	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.89	Country profile
Population	inh	41,813	UN - 94
Increase per year	%	1.92	UN - 94

VIETNAM

The Forest resources

Vietnam's topography is mainly mountainous and the majority of the population is concentrated in alluvial plains. The forest resources base for natural forest is diverse and comprises temperate and sub-tropical pine dominant forests (Pinus merkusii, P. kesiya), mixed conifer-broadleaves associations (Podocarpus sp.), dry dipterocarp types (Lagerstroemia sp., Pterocarpus sp.) in upland zones, moist lowland dipterocarp forests (Dipterocarpus sp., Anisoptera sp.) and mangroves. Although Vietnam's forest and wooded lands is reported to be 70% of the total national land, the remaining natural forests stands are degraded and often formed of poor forests, bushes, wastelands and denuded hills. The combined effects of long wars, shifting cultivation and excessive logging have reduced the rich and medium quality natural forests to about 1.4 million ha relegated to mountainous and inaccessible areas.

So far, all forested lands are owned by the state but a major shift has been initiated in allocating forest land to non-state units, encouraging individual tenure of forest resources. Ethnic populations are important in Vietnam and they are mainly located in the highlands. They rely heavily on the forests for food and other basic supplies and they practice slash and burn agriculture. Although deforestation seems to be stabilised, forest fragmentation is increasing with insidious and continuous decline of the quality and diversity of the natural stands. In general, forest management practices are based upon selective cutting at a 20 to 35 year cycle plus an intensive post-harvest weeding and enrichment programme. However, silvicultural operations are generally delayed and logging is often opening ways for agricultural encroachment. The loss of forest cover is a matter of concern for watershed protection. Logging in natural forests has been restricted to a minimum.

Wood produced from rubber and coconut estates is utilised intensively. Due to the rapid natural forest depletion, Vietnam has promoted large afforestation programmes mainly to green denuded and degraded lands. Reportedly, up to 1985 and throughout the central planning period, the rate of tree survival in plantations was very poor. Presently, new policies and particularly the allocation of. forest land to farmers, forest workers and to the private sector is expected to improve the tree planting operations quality.

Some forests are classified as "special use forest" which recognises scenic, amenity, scientific and cultural values. A network of conservation areas has been established but effective protection is not yet achieved.

Forestry sector development

Development forest policies are being progressively adjusted in line with the country's move towards a market economy. In 1991, a National Forestry Action Programme (NFAP) review the forestry sector was undertaken and the forest policy was entirely renovated. A new forest law was promulgated and investment programmes - funding allocation for 1,200 local projects and credit schemes - were put in place to preserve the forest resource and to develop tree plantations. A decree of January 1994 allocated land for long-term purposes to organisations, households and individuals. The administrative system is still weak but the external assistance are providing support to strengthen planning capacity, effectiveness and sustainability of long-term investment. Further policy adjustments are also being considered.

Projected development

The transition period between the central and market economy has been quite successful in Vietnam. Rapid economic advances have been made. Increasing flows of investment capital are pouring into the country. Although the human resources base is not well trained to operate in the new policy framework, it is expected that rapid improvement and development will be done in the all sectoral activities. Tree plantations areas and quality are expected to increase. Wood production from natural forests will decrease and the increasing roundwood demand will be progressively met by rural and industrial plantations.

The ratio SI/felling is presently in deficit meaning that wood supply is higher than wood production. However, the ratio would improve as total fellings would increase by 45% and the total wood stock increment by 62% by 2010. Wood production from plantations would increase significantly during the period and would be about 90% of the industrial roundwood production.

References

FAO - Forestry Paper - 128/124/112

FAO - NFAP - UPDATE no 32.

FAO - STRAP (Strengthening Re-afforestation Programmes in Asia) - GCP/RAS/142/JPN - Report of the first project advisory committee meeting - 1994

FAO - Yearbooks - production/forestry products - 1994

ITTO - Supply and demand of sustainable produced tropical timber from the Asia-Pacific region - Phase II - March, 1995.

MoF - Forestry in Vietnam - Country Paper - September 1996 - Ministerial meeting on forestry for Continental South-East Asian Countries.

MoF - TFAP - Main report - VIE/88/037 - 1991

MoF - Vietnam Forestry - 1993.

Table II.37 - Vietnam: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	3,950	4,102	4,313	4,528	4,744
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	3,200	3,052	2,963	2,878	2,794
	- Plantation forests	ha	750	1,050	1,350	1,650	1,950
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	173,000	199,066	220,285	245,615	272,855
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	128,000	122,080	118,540	115,102	111,764
	- Plantation forests	m3	45,000	55,500	69,000	85,500	105,000
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	9,900	12,789	15,723	18,658	21,596
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	2,400	2,289	2,223	2,158	2,096
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	7,500	10,500	13,500	16,500	19,500
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	5,603	6,240	6,720	7,440	8,160
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	4,669	5,200	5,600	6,200	6,800
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	934	1,040	1,120	1,240	1,360
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	935	935	935	935	935
Low productive/open forests		ha	19,549	18,982	18,432	17,897	17,378
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	7,820	7,593	7,373	7,159	6,951
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	440	505	570	635	700
Arable lands		ha	5,500	5,746	5,935	6,111	6,273
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	5,060	5,354	5,603	5,841	6,068
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	26,676	29,276	32,131	35,264	38,702
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	22,780	25,736	28,699	31,658	34,615
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	32,278	35,516	38,851	42,704	46,862
Forest and wooded lands		ha	23,499	23,084	22,745	22,425	22,122
Percentage forested lands		ha	72	71	70	69	68
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.58	FRA 90
Plantation forests progr.		ha	60	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3	4,669	5,200	5,600	6,200	6,800
Conservation areas		ha	935	935	935	935	935
Commercial tree crops		ha	440	505	570	635	700
Range lands conversion factor		%	25
Other/range/barren lands		ha	3,110	3,214	3,298	3,379	3,454

Table II.38 - Vietnam: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	32,549	FRA - 90
Forests and wooded lands	ha	23,499	FRA - 90
Natural exploitable forests	ha	3,200	MoF - 1993/GFSS
Plantations forests	ha	750	TFAP/MoF - 1996
Conservation areas	ha	935	TFAP
Low productive/open forests	ha	19,549	estimated
Arable lands	ha	5,500	FAO - 94
Commercial tree crops	ha	440	TFAP
Other/range/barren lands	ha	3,110	estimated
Commercial Growing Stock (CGS)
CGS natural exploitable forest	m3/ha	40	MoF - estimated
CGS plantation forests	m3/ha	60	estimated
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	0.75	TFAP
MAI plantation forests	m3/ha/year	10	TFAP
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	0.4	TFAP
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	1.5	estimated
MAI arable land	m3/ha/year	0.8	TFAP/estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	4,669	FAO 94
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	20	estimated FAO
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.4
Population	inh	66,689	UN - 94
Increase per year	%	1.95	UN - 94

LAOS (PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF)

The Forest resources

Laos (Lao People's Democratic Republic) is a land-locked country. About 75% of the land area is hilly to mountainous, predominantly in the North to the East; the rest is occupied by the low-lying plains of the Mekong River. The country has a tropical climate dominated by the monsoon rains. Forests and wooded lands cover about 85% of the total land comprising natural forests known as "current forests" (47%) and shrubs and poorly-stocked open forests called "potential forests" (38%). The major forest types are mixed deciduous (75%), evergreen and dry dipterocarp (22%), and coniferous (3%). Teak, Rosewood, Terminalia are some commercial species highly demanded. About 75% of the population is highly dependent on the country's natural resources base for its survival.

Most villages have well established access and use rights to forests within areas under their traditional control. Traditional village forest areas were usually managed under a sustainable shifting cultivation system. An elected committee had to carry out local level planning. However, the system breakdown when outsiders engaged in illegal logging and agricultural encroachment. Commercial forestry operations are based on a concession system which has failed to achieve sustained yield management. Unclear licensing procedures, unenforceable contractual agreements have encouraged unsustainable commercial exploitation, featuring destructive logging practices and no attempt at restoration. As some neighbouring countries face acute shortages of timber (Thailand, China), illegal transactions of logs are thought to be important and are worsening the situation.

Although the population density is relatively low, encroachment of forests is increasing in accordance with the high rate of population expansion and in the absence of subsistence alternatives to shifting cultivation (estimated at about 300,000 ha/year). In the recent past, wood products and non-wood forest products (such as Benzoin, and rattan) have accounted for 40% of export earnings. The forestry sector makes a very major contribution to the country's GDP.

The country's extensive areas of relatively undisturbed forest contain a rich diversity of ecosystems and species. Conservation programmes are based on the establishment of protected areas and on maintaining ecological processes for the conservation of forests resources. A total of 69 potential protected areas have been identified. So far, 20 National Biodiversity Conservation Areas have been legally established covering about 10% of the whole country.

Forestry sector development

A National Forestry Action Programme was prepared in 1990 and reviewed in 1994. Six main development programmes were proposed for financing, giving priority to the rationalisation of shifting cultivation and to watershed protection. In 1993, a new forest policy was promulgated. This policy promotes private investments in the sector and relies more on farmers for tree planting. Forest protection and management, sustainability of wood yields and reduction of the depletion of the forest resource base are also on the forest policy agenda. However, the success of these programmes is very dependent on stabilizing shifting cultivation which will remain the highest priority.

Projected development

A combination of high rate of population increase, grazing problems, shifting cultivation, illegal logging, weak forest institutions and lack of basic information presents nearly insurmountable hurdles to sustainable forestry. Decentralisation accompanied by good coordination between central and local levels are needed for better development. More than a good forest policy, a strong economic development is needed to overcome the present forest degradation trends.

The very good ratio SI/felling of 1990 will decline rapidly by 2010 showing evidence of the constant depletion of the natural exploitable forests. Roundwood production will decrease by 8% whilst roundwood supply will augment by 41%! Low productive and open forests cover very large areas and should deserve special attention considering the little plantation programme and the weak forest management control.

References

FAO - Environmental policy planning for sustainable agriculture and rural development to the year 2010 in Lao PDR - Vol. 1: main report - December 1996

FAO - Forestry Paper - 128/124/112

FAO - NFAP - UPDATE no 32.

FAO - STRAP (Strengthening Re-afforestation Programmes in Asia) - GCP/RAS/142/JPN - Report of the first project advisory committee meeting - 1994

FAO - Yearbooks - production/forestry products - 1994

ITTO - Supply and demand of sustainable produced tropical timber from the Asia-Pacific region - Sept. 1993 - Draft report.

ITTO - Supply and demand of sustainable produced tropical timber from the Asia-Pacific region - Phase II - March, 1995.

MoF - Forest Cover and Land Use in Lao P.D.R. - 1992

MoF - TFAP - Main report - 1990; Discussion paper - 1989.

MoF/FAO - Project TCP/LAO/2353 - Forestry Project Planning and Market Intelligence - 1995

WB - Forest management and conservation project - staff appraisal report - 1994.

Table II.39 - Laos: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	2,576	2,506	2,436	2,369	2,303
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	2,570	2,495	2,420	2,348	2,277
	- Plantation forests	ha	6	11	16	21	26
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	77,400	78,554	74,430	71,689	69,248
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	77,100	74,850	72,605	70,426	68,314
	- Plantation forests	m3	300	344	408	492	596
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	1,309	1,292	1,274	1,258	1,243
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	1,285	1,248	1,210	1,174	1,139
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	24	44	64	84	104
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	637	1,008	1,120	1,190	1,260
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	455	720	800	850	900
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	182	288	320	340	360
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Low productive/open forests		ha	18,860	18,294	17,745	17,213	16,697
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	9,430	9,147	8,873	8,607	8,348
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Arable lands		ha	849	1,008	1,163	1,313	1,458
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	85	101	116	131	146
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	3,152	3,575	4,056	4,602	5,221
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	10,824	10,539	10,263	9,996	9,737
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	3,789	4,583	5,176	5,792	6,481
Forest and wooded lands		ha	21,436	20,800	20,182	19,582	19,000
Percentage forested lands		ha	91	88	85	83	80
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.6	FRA 95
Plantation forests progr.		ha	1	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3	455	720	800	850	900
Conservation areas		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Range lands conversion factor		%	75
Other/range/barren lands		ha	1,395	1,872	2,336	2,786	3,222

Table II.40 - Laos: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	23,680	FRA - 90/MoF
Forests and wooded lands	ha	21,436	FRA - 90
Natural exploitable forests	ha	2,570	MoF - Survey 92 - PCF
Plantations forests	ha	6	FRA - 90
Conservation areas	ha	0	WB - SAR - 1994
Low productive/open forests	ha	18,860	estimated
Arable lands	ha	849	MoAgric./For 1992
Commercial tree crops	ha	0
Other/range/barren lands	ha	1,395	estimated
Commercial Growing Stock (CGS)
CGS natural exploitable forest	m3/ha	30	TFAP 1989
CGS plantation forests	m3/ha	50	estimated
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	0.5	estimated
MAI plantation forests	m3/ha/year	4	estimated
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	0.5	estimated
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	0
MAI arable land	m3/ha/year	0.1	estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	455	FAO 94
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	40	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.75	FAO - 94
Population	inh	4,202	UN - 94
Increase per year	%	2.69	UN - 94

THAILAND

The Forest resources

From 1960, Thailand's forest cover has been reduced from 54% to about 27% of the total land in the process of its rapid development. Presently, forests are mainly located in relatively inaccessible areas. Evergreen montane rain forest (Dipterocarps sp., Shorea sp., Hopea sp.), mixed deciduous monsoon (Tectona grandis) and dry dipterocarp savanna forests are restricted to the mountainous areas. Valleys and plains are totally cultivated by the largely agricultural population. Thailand has had the highest deforestation rate (3.3% - 450,000 ha/year) in the sub-region and its forest management practices based nominally on selective cutting and felling cycle in logging concessions appear to have been totally ineffective.

To stop the dramatic deforestation, Thailand instituted a logging ban in 1989 and is embarked in a series of drastic measures to protect the remaining forests and to promote private involvement in forest management and plantations. Other forest lands would be allocated to farmers and communities with a package of incentives for reforestation and disincentives for any conversion of the land use. Natural forests will provide multiple and special purpose products; tree plantations of various species should meet the needs for wood products. Rural forestry and industrial tree plantations are therefore strongly promoted. The tree plantation estate is already large. The vast rubber and coconut plantations are also providing significant amounts of industrial roundwood.

Concerning the conservation of ecosystems and biodiversity, the Protected Areas System and other remaining forests will be managed considering, as a priority, wild habitats protection. Large areas of natural forests (about 90% of the remaining natural forest) would be kept as a Protected Area system under the responsibility of the State. A network of nature reserves and wildlife sanctuaries covering about 10% of the total land has been established.

Forestry sector development

In 1993, a Forestry Sector Master Plan (FSMP) was drafted. Three major programmes have been proposed: the socio-ecological dimension covers conservation and forest based and urban development aspects; the technological dimension covering the management of the multipurpose forests and man-made forests; and the institutional development programme including policy and legal reforms. The FSMP is rather ambitious and calls for important land and policy reforms. Tree plantations are already extensive and the log ban seems to be respected.

Projected development

The basis for a dynamic sectoral development is in place but important prerequisite reforms are still to be promulgated and implemented. Taking into account the logging ban imposed by the government, the growing environmental awareness but also high level of unrecorded logging in the natural forest, a 2.2% annual deforestation rate has been applied for the time of the scenario. Total forest cover would shrink down to 22% by 2010. The effects of the forest policy changes related to natural forest management would be felt progressively but reasonable recover will take time. Reforestation programmes should accelerate but would depend upon the appropriate market conditions and incentives proposed to the private sector. By 2010, tree plantations area would have increased significantly.

The deficit of the SI/felling ratio will remain stable but in deficit showing constant depletion of the forests.

References

Asean Forest resources Database - country report prepared by H.C. Thang 1991

FAO - project GCP/RAS/148/AUL - Field Doc 1 - Workshop proceedings - Support Programme for Sustainable Management, Conservation and Utilization of Tropical Rain Forests in Asia - Bangkok - Thailand - February 1995.

FAO - Yearbooks - production/forestry products - 1994

FAO Forestry Papers 128, 124, 112

FAO NFAP Update No. 32

ITTO - Supply and demand of sustainable produced tropical timber from the Asia-Pacific region - Phase I and II - 1993 and 1995

MoF - Thai Forestry Sector Master Plan 1993

Table II.41 - Thailand: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	9,469	8,736	8,110	7,581	7,138
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	8,940	7,957	7,081	6,302	5,609
	- Plantation forests	ha	529	779	1,029	1,279	1,529
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	399,920	398,616	393,496	385,440	380,552
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	357,600	318,264	283,255	252,097	224,366
	- Plantation forests	m3	42,320	50,110	60,400	73,190	88,480
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	9,760	11,768	13,831	15,941	18,095
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	4,470	3,978	3,541	3,151	2,805
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	5,290	7,790	10,290	12,790	15,290
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	3,712	1,800	1,800	2,400	3,000
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	3,093	1,500	1,500	2,000	2,500
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	619	300	300	400	500
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	6,475	6,475	6,475	6,475	6,475
Low productive/open forests		ha	5,499	4,894	4,356	3,877	3,450
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	5,499	4,894	4,356	3,877	3,450
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	2,000	2,100	2,300	2,400	2,600
Arable lands		ha	17,600	18,504	19,176	19,832	20,285
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	11,000	11,562	12,118	12,556	13,002
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	30,571	32,007	33,512	35,087	36,736
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	26,259	28,224	30,305	32,374	34,547
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	34,282	33,807	35,312	37,487	39,736
Forest and wooded lands		ha	14,968	13,630	12,466	11,458	10,588
Percentage forested lands		ha	29	27	24	22	21
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	2.2	estimated
Plantation forests progr.		ha	50	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3	3,093	1,500	1,500	2,000	2,500
Conservation areas		ha	6,475	6,475	6,475	6,475	6,475
Commercial tree crops		ha	2,000	2,100	2,300	2,400	2,600
Range lands conversion factor		%	25
Other/range/barren lands		ha	16,521	16,856	17,146	17,398	17,616

Table II.42 - Thailand: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	51,089	FRA - 90
Forests and wooded lands	ha	14,968	FRA - 90
Natural exploitable forests	ha	8,940	Asean Institute - see note
Plantations forests	ha	529	FRA - 95/
Conservation areas	ha	6,475	Asean Institute/WRI
Low productive/open forests	ha	5,499	estimated
Arable lands	ha	17,600	FAO - 94
Commercial tree crops	ha	2,000	FAO - 2010/rubberwood
Other/range/barren lands	ha	16,521	estimated
Commercial Growing Stock (CGS)
CGS natural exploitable forest	m3/ha	40	estimated
CGS plantation forests	m3/ha	80	estimated
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	0.5	estimated
MAI plantation forests	m3/ha/year	10	estimated
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	1	estimated
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	1.1	estimated
MAI arable land	m3/ha/year	0.5	estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	3,093	FAO 94
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	20	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.55
Population	inh	55,583	UN - 94
Increase per year	%	0.94	UN - 94

CAMBODIA

The forest resources

The forest area of Cambodia is large (69% of the land area) and its distribution quite varied. Evergreen (Dipterocarpus sp., Anisoptera, Hopea sp.) and dry deciduous Dipterocarp (Dipterocarpus sp., Shorea sp., Terminalia sp.) forests are found in the north and west; southern and central parts of the country have less important forests and face shortages even of fuelwood. Over the last twenty years, the forests of Cambodia have been degraded mainly as a consequence of war. The cumulative effects of illegal commercial logging, uncontrolled shifting cultivation and excessive wood harvesting for fuelwood and charcoal are reflected in widespread and severe degradation of the natural forests. In principle, all forests are State owned but illegal harvesting activities reportedly make illusory any type of forest management. A total log trade and export ban was imposed in 1994 but control is not yet effective. Available data on forest cover, potential of the resource base and forests products are limited. Weak infrastructure does not permit easy raw material transport and remaining woodlands in the populated areas are under heavy pressure. Cambodia has few commercial tree crops and forest plantations. As of 1993, all edaphic forests and part of the dry lands forests have been designated as for biodiversity conservation. A total of about 3.5 million ha are under some protection but the effectiveness of management is severely limited.

Forestry sector development

Cambodia has only recently launched a planning process for forestry development. A lot of work has to be done regarding the preparation of new forest legislations and policies. The whole forestry sector development has to be rethought in terms of local participation and private sector involvement. However, major prerequisites such as the definition of the land use and the forest administration reorganisation have to be met. Sustained Forestry sector development is dependent on complete cessation of the civil war.

Projected development

Forests are presently difficult to access and work because of security problems. About 50% of the forests are mined or controlled by fighting parties. Shifting cultivation, illegal cutting, forest degradation will continue unabated for the next future. Even when peace returns, the country reconstruction will probably accelerate the demand on the forest. Could some improvement of the forest situation be expected at the beginning of the next century?

The deficit of the SI/felling ratio should increase steadily due to the constant production depletion of the natural forest not compensated by plantation production. Roundwood felling would increase significantly in 2005 and 2010 as a consequence of post-war reconstruction needs.

References

FAO - Forestry Paper - 128/124/112

FAO - NFAP - UPDATE no 32.

FAO - Yearbooks - production/forestry products - 1994

ITTO - Supply and demand of sustainable produced tropical timber from the Asia-Pacific region - Phase II - March, 1995.

MoF - "Establishment/strengthening country capacity in planning, assessment and systematic observations of forest resources in south-east Asian countries" - Land Cover Atlas prepared by the Mekong Secretariat - 1994

World Bank/FAO/UNDP - Forest Policy Assessment - 1996

Table II.43 - Cambodia: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	5,251	4,991	4,767	4,554	4,351
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	5,244	4,984	4,760	4,546	4,341
	- Plantation forests	ha	7	7	7.5	8.5	10.5
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	209,970	208,596	192,007	179,173	174,267
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	209,760	199,360	190,389	181,821	173,639
	- Plantation forests	m3	210	238	268	302	344
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	2,650	2,520	2,410	2,307	2,212
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	2,622	2,492	2,380	2,273	2,170
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	28	28	30	34	42
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	851	2,250	3,000	2,250	1,500
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	567	1,500	2,000	1,500	1,000
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	284	750	1,000	750	500
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	3,568	3,568	3,568	3,568	3,568
Low productive/open forests		ha	8,473	8,092	7,728	7,380	7,048
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	8,473	8,092	7728	7380	7048
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	65	70	75	80	85
Arable lands		ha	2,100	2,576	3,012	3,428	3,824
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	243	293	339	383	425
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	5,747	6,468	7,280	8,193	9,221
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	11,366	10,904	10,476	10,069	9,685
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	6,597	8,718	10,280	10,443	10,721
Forest and wooded lands		ha	13,724	13,083	12,495	11,934	11,399
Percentage forested lands		ha	78	74	71	68	65
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.9	FRA 90
Plantation forests progr.		ha/year	0	0	0.1	0.2	0.4
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3	567	1,500	2,000	1,500	1,000
Conservation areas		ha	3,568	3,568	3,568	3,568	3,568
Commercial tree crops		ha	65	70	75	80	85
Range lands conversion factor		%	25
Other/range/barren lands		ha	1,763	1,923	2,070	2,211	2,344

Table II.44 - Cambodia: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	17,652	FRA - 90
Forests and wooded lands	ha	13,724	FRA - 90
Natural exploitable forests	ha	5,244	WB - 93/MoF/GFSS
Plantations forests	ha	7	FRA - 95
Conservation areas	ha	3,568	WB-96
Low productive/open forests	ha	8,473	estimated
Arable lands	ha	2,100	FAO - 94
Commercial tree crops	ha	65	FAO - 2010/rubberwood
Other/range/barren lands	ha	1,763	estimated
Commercial Growing Stock (CGS)
CGS natural exploitable forest	m3/ha	40	WB/MoF/estimated
CGS plantation forests	m3/ha	30	estimated
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	0.5	WB 96
MAI plantation forests	m3/ha/year	4	estimated
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	1	estimated
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	0.5	estimated
MAI arable land	m3/ha/year	0.1	estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	567	FAO 94
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	50	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.65	FAO - 94
Population	inh	8841	UN - 94
Increase per year	%	2.51	UN - 94