SOUTH ASIA - SUB-REGIONAL STATUS AND PROJECTION ANALYSIS

INDIA
NEPAL
PAKISTAN
BHUTAN
SRI LANKA
BANGLADESH

Countries: India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh.

The forest resources

India is by far the biggest country of the sub-region; its forest and wooded lands area represents about 83% of the sub-regional total. Closed natural forests are generally found in the mountains areas such as along the Himalayan range particularly in Nepal and Bhutan. Dry zones occupy large areas in India and Pakistan, while mangroves are important in river-deltas like in Bangladesh. The total forest and wooded lands are expected to continue to decrease but loss of natural forest would be partially compensated by tree plantations. Natural forests are owned by the state (about 80%) or communities. It is expected that 9% of the total present exploitable forest area would be lost by the year 2010 and Bangladesh in particular would lose about 33% of its remaining exploitable forests. Shifting cultivation practices (tribal lands) and grazing problems will not be kept under appropriate control. However, due to the large plantation effort in India, the total forest and wooded land area is expected to slightly increase during the period.

It is assumed that plantation forests programmes will be dynamic and that about 5 million additional ha would be planted between 1995 and 2010. A major feature of the sub-region is the high level of population in the main countries. Linkages between agriculture and forestry are obvious and will have to be close to meet the wood needs of the growing population. Present tenure problems and land availability shortage will favour rural forestry and agroforestry.

Sector development perspectives

Since the 1990s, new laws and regulations are adopted to protect and properly manage the forests. However, the priority given to agriculture development and the weak implementation capacity of the forest administration prevailing in the majority of the South Asia countries would limit the effects of proposed sectoral improvement.

Fuelwood and local timber would continue to be the major problems of the sub-region. The problem could become dramatic in certain places. The sector development is still not dynamic enough and the natural forest will continue to fill the gap between wood increment and felling. The proper answer to the main sub-regional forest problems probably lies in providing the capability to the population to satisfy a greater share of its own domestic needs from farm lands.

Wood supply and fellings

Total roundwood deficit will increase significantly (about 21 %) during the 15 year period 1995-2010. The ratio SI/felling will decrease from 1 in 1990 down to 0.8 by 2010. Fuelwood supply would become a dramatic problem in dry zones where the potential for wood production in rural areas is low. Countries are taking measures to limit wood consumption per capita (Bangladesh, Pakistan, India) but the rapid population growth leads to continued increase in total consumption.

The future situation is very sensitive to population trends and to the wood production potential of rural arable lands: agricultural lands are vast and any positive action on their wood production as well as on the rural and urban population balance has a direct effect on the wood supply balance. Commercial tree crops can play a significant role in some specific areas (Sri Lanka and Bangladesh) in wood supply.

Fuelwood supply represents about 88% of the total roundwood fellings and this percentage will remain about the same. Roundwood production from farmlands is about 50% of the total Stock Increment. Industrial roundwood felling will increase by 35% during the period while 78% of the production will mainly come from tree plantations by 2010 (about 60% in 1990).

Table II.45 - South Asia: Status and projection Summary

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	42,602	43,351	43,978	44,649	45,360
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	29,376	28,638	27,778	26,962	26,186
	- Plantation forests	ha	13,226	14,713	16,200	17,687	19,174
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	2,880,348	3,293,366	3,363,218	3,442,304	3,535,003
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	1,822,318	1,778,506	1,719,361	1,663,769	1,611,385
	- Plantation forests	m3	1,058,030	1,152,086	1,256,026	1,369,850	1,493,559
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	112,553	121,670	130,576	139,539	148,556
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	28,381	27,614	26,636	25,715	24,848
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	84,172	94,056	103,940	113,824	123,709
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	39,998	44,104	48,839	53,528	58,849
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	32,196	35,493	39,291	43,050	47,329
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	7,802	8,611	9,548	10,478	11,520
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	6,112	11,922	11,922	11,922	11,922
Low productive/open forests		ha	57,289	55,648	54,092	52,611	51,199
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	27,356	26,475	25,644	24,857	24,111
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	2,659	2,645	2,765	2,875	2,970
Arable lands		ha	198,318	198,888	199,508	200,029	200,462
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	201,280	201,901	202,651	203,295	203,811
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	284,093	309,896	338,133	369,043	402,892
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	341,189	350,047	358,870	367,692	376,478
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	324,090	354,000	386,971	422,571	461,740
Forest and wooded lands		ha	99,891	99,000	98,070	97,260	96,559
Percentage forested lands		%	24	24	24	24	23

Table II.46 - South Asia: Changes between 1995 and 2010 related to some indicators

Unit	000 ha
	Forests and w. lands			Nat. exploitable forests			Plantations forests
Country	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%
India	82,464	82,044	-1	21,935	20,613	-6	13,250	17,000	28
Nepal	5,542	4,964	-10	2,806	2,429	-13	130	280	115
Pakistan	4,050	3,388	-16	1,273	859	-33	865	1,240	43
Bhutan	2,916	2,730	-6	1,242	1,149	-7	24	54	125
Sri Lanka	1,990	1,834	-8	918	825	-10	101	137	36
Bangladesh	2,040	1,600	-22	465	311	-33	343	463	35
Total	99,000	96,559	-2	28,638	26,186	-9	14,713	19,174	30

Unit	000m3
	Total fellings			Stock increment			Ratio S.I./felling		Weight*
Country	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%	1995	2010	%
India	282,295	358,179	27	280,027	300,723	7.391	1.0	0.8	78
Nepal	21,447	31,025	45	12,183	12,987	6.596	0.6	0.4	7
Pakistan	29,933	44,552	49	31,357	35,575	13.45	1.0	0.8	10
Bhutan	1,802	2,424	35	5,836	5,860	0	3.2	2.4	1
Sri Lanka	9,222	10,959	19	9,188	9,399	2	1.0	0.9	2
Bangladesh	9,302	14,601	57	11,456	11,934	4.175	1.2	0.8	3
Total	354,000	461,740	30	350,047	376,478	7.551	1.0	0.8	100

* Countries relative weight related to fellings by year 2010

Unit	000 ha
	Total country land area
Country	1990
India	297,319
Nepal	13,017
Pakistan	77,088
Bhutan	4,038
Sri Lanka	6,463
Bangladesh	13,017
Total	410,942

INDIA

The Forest resources

In India, forest conditions are very diverse and forest resources are far from equally distributed. Forests cover about 28% of the total country land. Main forest types include tropical moist deciduous (sal forests), tropical dry (teak forests) and wet tropical evergreen forests. More limited temperate forests with fir, spruce and pine forest can be found at altitude near the Himalayas. Indian forests are under high pressure to supply forest products to a growing population (66% rural). Many poor people and particularly the tribal people (8% of the total population) depend on forests for their subsistence. Fuelwood represents about 90 % of the demand for wood and is the most important form of household energy in both rural and urban areas.

Wood deficit is large and the forest industries are facing raw material shortages. Forests are overexploited and productivity in natural forests and plantations is relatively low. Shifting cultivation in tribal areas, agricultural encroachment, fires and illegal removals are reported to be rapidly degrading the forest resources. The problem is further compounded by the very high cattle population being allowed to graze freely in forest areas (see references - World Bank, 1993). This has led to severe erosion and loss of soil. Almost all of the tropical evergreen forests are managed under the selection system (selective felling). The reduction in felling cycles and other similar practices could compromise long-term sustainability of the forests as suppliers of wood. However, changing management practices are being implemented with private sector or community participation. Large afforestation schemes have been launched to rehabilitate wasteland with community participation but results are variable. Technological weaknesses have limited the productivity and impact of those efforts. About 12 million ha (4% of the country) are protected, of which 8 million ha are forested.

Forestry sector development

For several decades India has been emphasising on sustainable development of the forest resources as well as conservation of the ecosystems to counteract the rapid degradation process. The Forest (Conservation) Act (1980) has somewhat reduced the rate of forest lands diversion for non-forestry purposes and the National Forest Policy (1988) wishes to achieve one-third of the national territory under forest cover through large efforts in planting. India has since 1993 embarked upon preparation of a National Forestry Action Programme (NFAP), this is not yet completed. Difficulties are enormous given the sub-continental dimensions of the country, variations in the forest resources and conditions prevailing throughout the different states and decentralized responsibility for forests. India has a long tradition of professional forestry and the public sector which controls 90% of the forest land has taken all management roles but failed to achieve its goals. Structure and procedures of the forest administrations cannot cope effectively with new challenges such as how to revitalize the considerable potential in farm forestry development. Schemes involving communities hold potential but are so far operating over limited forest areas but have an important contribution to tree planting on farms and wasteland. The private sector has not contributed as much to developing the forest sector due mainly to lack of incentives and inappropriate regulations. Concessional pricing policies have led to wastage of raw materials.

Projected development

The estimated exploitable forests cover of about 22 million ha of natural and semi natural exploitable forests will continue to shrink and to decline in quality due to population pressures (shifting cultivation) and poor management practices. This is reflected in the decreasing of the forest area and the growing stock with consequent decline in capacity to meet the various needs of the population. India has Asia's second-largest plantation forests area in 1990; this was estimated at 12 million ha and should increase by 0.25 million ha per year steadily to attain 17 million ha by 2010. Removals mainly for fuelwood will remain high since economic growth (which has recently accelerated) will not yet have reduced poverty adequately to significantly reduce fuelwood-dependency. Although technical progress will be made in terms of planting and management capabilities, policy development may not be fast enough to achieve better private sector involvement. The involvement of a wider audience in the NFAP process would help to consolidate States strategies for development and to formulate appropriate action plans in accordance with the dimension of the problems. The ratio stock increment/felling is expected to go into deficit by year 2010 indicating a slow but continuing depletion of the natural forest. Fuelwood and local timber fellings represent about 88% of the total roundwood fellings. This percentage will be constant although the total roundwood fellings is expected to increase by 27% during the period 1995-2010.

References

FAO - Forestry Paper - 128/124/112

FAO - National Forestry Action Programme, FAO/UNDP - IND/93/021

FAO - NFAP - Update 32 - 1995

Kale R. B., Raw material scenario for pulp and paper industry - in 2nd international seminar on pulp and paper industry up to 2010-1995 - New Delhi - India

Mannothra J., Looking towards 2000 AD - in Timber Industries - October 1994

MoF - Forestry statistics - India, 1995.

MoF - Society of promotion of wastelands development - Joint forest management update - 1993

MoF, State of Forest report, 1991

Negi S.S., Forestry in SAARC countries.- Periodical Experts Book Agency - Delhi - 1993

World Bank - Forest Sector Review, 1993

Table II.47 - India: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	34,380	35,185	35,985	36,795	37,613
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	22,380	21,935	21,485	21,045	20,613
	- Plantation forests	ha	12,000	13,250	14,500	15,750	17,000
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	2,123,760	2,466,075	2,555,510	2,650,533	2,753,557
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	1,163,760	1,140,620	1,117,237	1,094,334	1,071,900
	- Plantation forests	m3	960,000	1,039,500	1,126,500	1,221,000	1,323,000
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	87,666	94,855	102,040	109,231	116,429
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	15,666	15,355	15,040	14,731	14,429
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	72,000	79,500	87,000	94,500	102,000
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	30,475	32,500	35,000	37,500	40,000
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	24,380	26,000	28,000	30,000	32,000
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	6,095	6,500	7,000	7,500	8,000
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	2,047	8,000	8,000	8,000	8,000
Low productive/open forests		ha	48,268	47,279	46,309	45,360	44,430
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	19,307	18,911	18,524	18,144	17,772
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	1,750	1,750	1,880	2,000	2,125
Arable lands		ha	165,000	165,036	165,068	165,069	165,034
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	166,225	166,261	166,384	166,469	166,522
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	230,438	249,795	270,777	293,523	318,179
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	273,198	280,027	286,947	293,844	300,723
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	260,913	282,295	305,777	331,023	358,179
Forest and wooded lands		ha	82,648	82,464	82,295	82,155	82,044
Percentage forested lands		ha	28	28	28	28	28
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.41	FRA 90
Plantation forests		ha	250	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3	24,380	26,000	28,000	30,000	32,000
Conservation areas		ha	2,047	8,000	8,000	8,000	8,000
Commercial tree crop		ha	1,750	1,880	2,000	2,125	2,260
Range lands conversion factor		%	10	estimated
Other/range/barren lands		ha	47,921	47,939	47,956	47,970	47,981

Table II.48 - India: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	297,319	FRA - 90
Forests and wooded lands	ha	82,648	FRA - 90
Natural exploitable forests	ha	22,380	GFSS/FAO
Plantations forests	ha	12,000	WB/MoF statistics - 1995*
Conservation areas	ha	2,047	WCMC
Low productive/open forests	ha	48,268	WB
Arable lands	ha	165,000	FAO 94
Commercial tree crops	ha	1,750
Other/range/barren lands	ha	47,921	estimated
Commercial growing stock (CGS)
CGS natural forest	m3/ha	52	MoF
CGS plantation	m3/ha	80	MoF
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	0.7	MoF
MAI plantation forests	m3/ha/year	6	MoF
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	0.4	estimated
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	0.7	estimated
MAI arable lands	m3/ha/year	1	estimated - see note**
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	24,380	FAO
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	25	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.27	FAO
Population	inh	850,638	UN
Increase per year	%	1.68	UN

Note

WCMC = World Conservation Monitoring Centre
* = Conservative figure as forest stat. 1995 may include non industrial plantation forests.
**= impact of community forestry programs considered.

NEPAL

The forest resources

Nepal lies in the subtropical zone but a wide variety of climatic conditions exist due to the mountainous topography. Natural forest covers about 37% of the land area (of which about 59% are broad-leaved stands, 17% conifer, and 24% mixed stands). Forests are more or less evenly distributed but very high pressure occurs in the accessible forests (about 50% of the natural forest area) mainly located in the Terai region and along ridges and valleys of the middle mountains where population is concentrated.

Only limited scientific forest management has been applied appropriately on the national forest land. Natural forest area is shrinking/degrading, creating problems of soil and water conservation. In coniferous forests, logging has been suspended. Throughout Nepal, agriculture and forestry are closely linked. Forest are used for grazing and fodder collection for livestock. Over 80% of the country's energy is derived from fuelwood. About 80,000 ha of plantation have been established all over Nepal and a special effort for community forestry is in progress. The protected area network is reported to be successful and the area may be extended further though not very significantly. At present, 14% of Nepal's land area is under the protected area system. The areas surrounding national parks are planned to be managed as buffer zones which will also contribute to the production of forest produce.

Forestry sector Development

Nepal adopted a Forestry Sector Master Plan and Policy (1990 - 2010) in 1989. In 1992, a Forest Act was passed which incorporated many of the changes proposed in the Master plan. The new law is designed to transfer a major portion of forest land use and management back to local forest user groups, while retaining under government management those areas deemed to have national value for timber and environmental protection. The major thrust of the forest policy implementation will remain involving local people in the management of local forest resources. Community forestry will start to market forest products and services but their quantity and market share is difficult to estimate at present.

Projected development

Although there are significant efforts to stop natural forest degradation, it will take time to see the results of the reforms and programmes proposed by the new law and the master plan. The degradation of the natural forest will continue due to rural people's intensive use of natural forests. The plantation programme cannot entirely compensate for the wood loss caused by the natural forest degradation. The wood fellings should increase significantly due mainly to population increase.

The ratio SI/felling is largely in deficit and this position will become worse in 2010. Wood production increase (6%) will not match the increase of wood demand (49%). Fuelwood and local timber will represent in 2010, about 91% of the total fellings. The share of industrial roundwood produced from natural forests will pass from 23% down to 16% by 2010, while wood from plantation forest will pass from 6% up to 17%. Contribution of agricultural land in roundwood production will increase from 37% in 1990, up to 43% by 2010.

References

FAO - An overview document - RAS/91/004 - The existing situation on forestation and future requirements for improved productivity of man-made forests in the member countries of FORTIP.

Forestry Profile - Nepal - Tigerpaper XX(1).

Forestry Resources Management - Asian Productivity Organization - 1990.

Journal of Forestry - Back to Future by R. Pardo, 1993

MoF - Master Plan for the Forestry Sector

MoF - Nepal Country Profile - The Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector - towards 2010; January 1997

Table II.49 - Nepal: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	3,017	2,936	2,854	2,778	2,709
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	2,937	2,806	2,674	2,548	2,429
	- Plantation forests	ha	80	130	180	230	280
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	134,028	148,282	144,311	140,070	135,440
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	129,228	123,464	117,661	112,131	106,861
	- Plantation forests	m3	4,800	5,840	7,280	9,120	11,360
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	5,046	5,249	5,451	5,663	5,883
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	4,406	4,209	4,011	3,823	3,643
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	640	1,040	1,440	1,840	2,240
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	1,250	1,375	1,688	2,219	2,750
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	1,000	1,100	1,350	1,775	2,200
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	250	275	338	444	550
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	1,000	1,000	1,000	1,000	1,000
Low productive/open forests		ha	2,734	2,606	2,483	2,366	2,255
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	2,734	2,606	2,483	2,366	2,255
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Arable and range lands		ha	2,300	2,405	2,507	2,603	2,694
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	4,140	4,329	4,512	4,686	4,848
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	17,905	20,072	22,501	25,223	28,275
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	11,920	12,183	12,447	12,715	12,987
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	19,155	21,447	24,188	27,442	31,025
Forest and wooded lands		ha	5,751	5,542	5,337	5,145	4,964
Percentage forested lands		ha	44	43	41	40	38
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.94
Plantation forests		ha	10	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3	1,000	1,100	1,350	1,775	2,200
Conservation areas		ha	1,000	1,000	1,000	1,000	1,000
Commercial tree crop		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Range lands conversion factor		%	50
Other/range/barren lands		ha	4,966	5,071	5,173	5,269	5,360

Table II.50 - Nepal: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	13,017	FRA - 90
Forests and wooded lands	ha	5,751	FRA - 90
Natural exploitable forests	ha	2,937	GFSS/FAO
Plantations forests	ha	80	FRA
Conservation areas	ha	1,000	FSMP
Low productive/open forests	ha	2,734	FSMP
Arable lands	ha	2,300	FSMP
Commercial tree crops	ha	0
Other/range/barren lands	ha	4,966	FSMP
Commercial growing stock (CGS)
CGS natural forest	m3/ha	44	FSMP
CGS plantation	m3/ha	60	Estimated
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	1.5	FSMP
MAI plantation forests	m3/ha/year	8	FSMP
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	1	FSMP
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	0
MAI arable lands	m3/ha/year	1.8	estimation
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	1,000	FSMP/country profile
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	25	estimation
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.93	Estimated
Population	inh	19,253	UN 1994
Increase per year	%	2.42	UN 1994

PAKISTAN

Forest resources situation

Pakistan is a forest-poor country (4.8% of the total land area). Generally speaking, the climate of Pakistan is dry continental, with scanty rainfall. Pakistan bears varied forests ranging from the scrub vegetation in the desert to dense coniferous forests in the North. Natural forests are confined to the mountainous areas, dry forest hills and along river basins. Forest types are mainly tropical and temperate forests; 85% of the forest cover is publicly owned. The roundwood production is mainly coniferous and concentrated in the northern hills and mountains. Irrigated plantations, forests along major rivers and mangrove forests provide some supply. About 500,000 ha are already planted on private lands. With population growing at about 3% annually, pressure on forests and watersheds is very high. Agriculture is given precedence over other land uses as food production is in deficit; overgrazing is a major problem for forest management. The present wood consumption exceeds the sustainable growth of forests by a wide margin.

Forestry sector development

In 1992, Pakistan published a Master Plan for Forest Sector Development (MPFSD) which recommends, inter alia, strategies to manage forests and rangelands and encourages private land owners to plant trees. Watershed protection and development has been accorded highest priority. Agricultural policy adopted in 1991 envisaged increase of the existing total forest area up to 10% of the country land during the next 15 years. A National Conservation Strategy was adopted in 1992. Tree plantation programmes are ambitious. Forestry is a provincial responsibility with forest and range management programmes vested in provincial forest departments; however, policy is a federal responsibility. The whole sector may need strengthened cohesion if its development goals are to be achieved. People are poor, have low literacy and are often not in a position to cooperate in efforts to conserve and develop forest resources. No clear legislative measures have been taken to engage the private sector in forestry programmes.

Projected development

Although policy efforts are done to cope with the dramatic situation, the institutional capacity of the forestry administration, at both central and provincial levels, is still very weak and no significant progress for better forest management has been assumed for the near future. All indicators point to problems: for example, plantation programme is limited to 25,000 ha per year due to low investment and weak technical capacities. It is unlikely that the Government can put more forest under conservation status due to the population pressure and forest products needs.

The ratio SI/felling was approximately balanced in 1995 and will go down during the period showing a possible depletion of the forest formations. Total wood stock increment is very sensible to trees raised on agricultural lands under agroforestry and rural development programmes. A 1/10 point change in MAI arable land has a significant impact on the ratio SI/felling.

References

FAO, RAS/91/004 Existing situation on forestation and future requirements for improved productivity of man-made forests.

MoF - Forestry Sector Master Plan - 1992

MoF - Tenth World Forestry Congress - Country report.

Negi S.S., Forestry in SAARC countries.- Periodical Experts Book Agency - Delhi - 1993

Table II.51 - Pakistan: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	2,044	2,138	2,106	2,094	2,099
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	1,304	1,273	1,116	979	859
	- Plantation forests	ha	740	865	990	1,115	1,240
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	227,344	275,195	272,352	272,461	277,683
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	157,784	154,033	135,087	118,471	103,899
	- Plantation forests	m3	69,560	81,021	94,139	108,913	125,343
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	12,022	13,625	15,015	16,438	17,890
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	2,217	2,164	1,898	1,664	1,460
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	9,805	11,461	13,118	14,774	16,430
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	3,994	5,000	6,000	6,750	8,000
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	3,195	4,000	4,800	5,400	6,400
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	799	1,000	1,200	1,350	1,600
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	970	970	970	970	970
Low productive/open forests		ha	2,180	1,912	1,677	1,470	1,290
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	1,831	1,606	1,408	1,235	1,083
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Arable lands		ha	20,000	20,157	20,397	20,593	20,752
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	16,000	16,125	16,317	16,475	16,602
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	21,948	24,933	28,324	32,176	36,552
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	29,853	31,357	32,741	34,148	35,575
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	25,942	29,933	34,324	38,926	44,552
Forest and wooded lands		ha	4,224	4,050	3,783	3,565	3,388
Percentage forested lands		ha	5	5	5	5	4
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	2.46	FRA 90
Plantation forests		ha	25	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3	3,195	4,000	4,800	5,400	6,400
Conservation areas		ha	970	970	970	970	970
Commercial tree crop		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Range lands conversion factor		%	10	estimated
Other/range/barren lands		ha	52,864	52,881	52,908	52,930	52,948

Table II.52 - Pakistan: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	77,088	FRA - 90
Forests and wooded lands	ha	4,224	FSMP
Natural production forests	ha	1,304	GFSS/FAO
Plantations forests	ha	740	FSMP
Conservation areas	ha	970	FSMP
Low productive/open forests	ha	2,180	FSMP
Arable lands	ha	20,000	FAO 94
Commercial tree crops	ha	0
Range/other/barren lands	ha	52,864	estimated
Commercial growing stock (CGS)
CGS natural forest	m3/ha	121	FSMP
CGS plantation	m3/ha	94	FSMP
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	1.7	FSMP
MAI plantation forests	m3/ha/year	13.25	FSMP
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	0.84	estimated
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	0
MAI arable lands	m3/ha/year	0.8	estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	3,195	FSMP
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	25	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.18	FAO - 94
Population	inh	121,933	UN 1994
Increase per year	%	2.72	FRA - 90

BHUTAN

The Forest resources

Bhutan is a landlocked mountainous country with a relatively low population density. The forests cover more than 72 % of the country area and most of the land remains in natural state. Forest types are numerous and range from tropical and subtropical forests to pine, spruce and alpine forests in the higher elevation. Only a few forests are managed. Tree plantations are established in degraded forests and to replant or interplant commercially logged forest areas. Wood companies may obtain long term forest lease concessions.

Agriculture (arable lands) takes only 7% of the total land and shifting cultivation is still regularly practiced. Pressure on forest and trees is still relatively low but some degradation due to overgrazing and overburning is occurring in some places. National parks, sanctuaries and reserves have been set up and cover about 26% of the total land area.

Forestry sector Development

A Forestry Master Plan was approved in 1991 and a Forestry Programme Framework has been adopted to put into practice the Plan proposals. It is expected that the Forest Act will soon be revised and ensure legal consistency inside the sector. Priority is given to environmental conservation and self-sufficiency in wood products. Natural resources planning is constrained by the lack of inventory data and management plans.

Projected development

There are unlikely to be major changes in the sector by year 2010. The planning and legal framework are good and Bhutan is receiving significant external support. Perspectives for improved forest conditions are good. The wood stock increment/felling ratio is highly positive but will go down regularly as forests are supplying more wood than they produce.

References

FAO - An overview document - RAS/91/004 - The existing situation on forestation and future requirements for improved productivity of man-made forests in the member countries of FORTIP.

FAO - Forestry Papers 112, 124 and 128

FAO - NFAP - Update No 32.

FAO - Yearbooks - Production 1994; Forestry Products 1994

MoF - Land Use Planning Project - Ministry of Agriculture - Report 1995.

Negi, S.S.- Forestry in SAARC countries - Periodical experts book agency, Delhi.

Table II.53 - Bhutan: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	1,287	1,266	1,244	1,223	1,203
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	1,273	1,242	1,210	1,179	1,149
	- Plantation forests	ha	14	24	34	44	54
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	309,466	320,493	313,078	306,025	299,256
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	308,066	300,564	292,900	285,431	278,152
	- Plantation forests	m3	1,400	1,688	2,096	2,624	3,272
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	3,987	4,014	4,039	4,066	4,096
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	3,819	3,726	3,631	3,538	3,448
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	168	288	408	528	648
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	339	398	445	500	555
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	271	318	356	400	444
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	68	80	89	100	111
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	1,049	906	906	906	906
Low productive/open forests		ha	1,693	1,650	1,608	1,567	1,527
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	1,693	1,650	1,608	1,567	1,527
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Arable lands		ha	300	345	390	433	475
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	150	172	195	216	237
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	1,277	1,405	1,545	1,700	1,869
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	5,830	5,836	5,842	5,850	5,860
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	1,616	1,802	1,990	2,200	2,424
Forest and wooded lands		ha	2,980	2,916	2,852	2,790	2,730
Percentage forested lands		ha	74	72	71	69	68
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.51	FRA 90
Plantation forests		ha	2	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3	271	318	356	400	444
Conservation areas		ha	1,049	906	906	906	906
Commercial tree crop		ha	0	0	0	0	0
Range lands conversion factor		%	30	estimated
Other/range/barren lands		ha	758	777	796	815	833

Table II.54 - Bhutan: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	4,038	MoAgric
Forests and wooded lands	ha	2,980	FRA - 90/MoF
Natural exploitable forests	ha	1,273	GFSS/FAO
Plantations forests	ha	14	Fortip
Conservation areas	ha	1,049	Waggener/MoF
Low productive/open forests	ha	1,693	FSMP
Arable lands	ha	300	MoF
Commercial tree crops	ha	0
Range/other/barren lands	ha	758	FSMP
Commercial growing stock (CGS)
CGS natural forest	m3/ha	242	Forster
CGS plantation	m3/ha	100	Estimated
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	3	Estimated
MAI plantation forests	m3/ha/year	12	Estimated
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	1	Estimated
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	0
MAI arable lands	m3/ha/year	0.5	estimation
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	271	FSMP
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	25	estimation
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.827	FAO
Population	inh	1,544	UN - 94
Increase per year	%	2	UN - 94

Note: FSMP = Forestry Sector Master Plan.

SRI LANKA

The forest resources

Sri Lanka consists of a south central highland area culminating at 2,500 meters surrounded by lowland plains. Tropical monsoon and mountainous topography determine its many contrasting climatic zones. Tropical rain forest is the original vegetation in the wet and mountainous zone with gradual changes in accordance to the elevation; savannahs and arid coastal forests are found in the dry lowland zones. Almost (90%) all forest lands are managed by the State administration. Deforestation is one of the major environmental problems. Management of the forests and enforcement for the laws and regulations have both been ineffective. The increasing commercialisation of the rural economy has resulted in a rising demand for many forest products and the over-exploitation of the growing stock of the remaining forest resources. Various NWFP have traditionally played a major role in the rural economy. Industrial plantations are poorly managed and utilised. But Sri Lanka is reported to be surprisingly still self-sufficient in most forest products: home gardens and crop plantations produce more than two thirds of the national roundwood supply and this may explain the high level of self-reliance.

Sri Lanka is endowed with extremely high levels of biological diversity. Total protected areas (mainly in the dry zones) amount to about 14% of the country's land area.

Forestry Sector Development

Two Forestry Master Plans have been prepared so far. The first Master Plan (1983-86) resulted in the Forest Sector Development project (co-financed by the World Bank and other donors) which has had a decisive impact on the environmental management of the country. The second Master Plan 1995-2020 is policy, strategy and programme oriented. A National Forestry Policy was adopted in March 1995 by the Government giving emphasis to conservation of biodiversity (formulation of a National Environmental Action Programme) and emphasizing partnership with local people, communities and private sector in all forest development activities. Establishment and management of industrial plantations on State lands would be entrusted progressively to the private sector. Home gardens and agroforestry systems would play a increasing role in meeting the demand for wood. However, new laws, rules and regulations need to be drafted and adopted to implement the proposed forest policies.

Projected development

Civil unrest continues and will certainly continue to have a negative impact on budget allocation for sectoral development until resolved. Trained manpower is inadequate to implement the Master Plan programmes. The present policy system does not provide incentives for increasing productivity and profitability of the tree plantations which remain too low to meet the future wood demand. No change in wood production is expected to occur in the period till 2010. The major part of wood production would come from home gardens and commercial tree crops. Fuelwood supply is expected to satisfy the future demand; but shortage of processed timber is expected. The wood stock increment (SI)/felling ratio should decrease steadily and the country would face an overall deficit in wood production by the year 2010.

References

FAO - NFAP update no 32.

FAO Yearbooks: Production 1994, Forestry Products 1993.

FAO, RAS/91/004 Existing situation on forestation and future requirements for improved productivity of man-made forests.

MoF - Sri Lanka Forestry Sector Master Plan, 1995

Negi S.S., Forestry in SAARC countries. Periodical Experts Book Agency - Delhi - 1993

Table II.55 - Sri Lanka: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	1,040	1,019	999	980	962
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	951	918	886	855	825
	- Plantation forests	ha	89	101	113	125	137
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	54,670	58,355	57,423	56,749	56,359
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	47,550	45,886	44,280	42,730	41,234
	- Plantation forests	m3	7,120	8,029	9,046	10,171	11,404
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	2,703	2,744	2,788	2,834	2,882
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	1,902	1,835	1,771	1,709	1,649
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	801	909	1,017	1,125	1,233
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	1,815	1,925	2,019	2,090	2,294
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	1,650	1,750	1,835	1,900	2,085
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	165	175	184	190	209
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	930	930	930	930	930
Low productive/open forests		ha	1,006	971	937	904	872
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	1,509	1,456	1,405	1356	1309
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	874	860	845	830	800
Arable lands		ha	918	988	1,058	1,124	1,204
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	4,895	4,987	5,073	5,154	5,208
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	6,890	7,297	7,727	8,183	8,666
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	9,107	9,188	9,266	9,344	9,399
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	8,705	9,222	9,746	10,273	10,959
Forest and wooded lands		ha	2,046	1,990	1,935	1,884	1,834
Percentage forested lands		ha	32	31	30	29	28
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	0.7	FRA 90
Plantation forests		ha	2.4	per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		m3	1,650	1,750	1,835	1,900	2,085
Conservation areas		ha	930	930	930	930	930
Commercial tree crop		ha	874	860	845	830	800
Range lands conversion factor		%	50	estimated
Other/range/barren lands		ha	2,625	2,653	2,680	2,706	2,731

Table II.56 - Sri Lanka: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	6,463	FRA - 90
Forests and wooded lands	ha	2,046	FSMP
Natural exploitable forests	ha	951	MoF - see note
Plantations forests	ha	89	FSMP
Conservation areas	ha	930	FSMP
Low productive/open forests	ha	1,006	estimated
Arable lands	ha	918	FSMP
Commercial tree crops	ha	874	FAO - Agrostat
Other/range/barren lands	ha	2,625	estimated
Commercial growing stock (CGS)
CGS natural forest	m3/ha	50	Estimated/MoF
CGS plantation	m3/ha	80	FSMP
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	2	estimated
MAI plantation forests	m3/ha/year	9	estimated
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	1.5	estimated
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	3.5	FSMP - adapted
MAI arable lands	m3/ha/year	2	FSMP/estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	1,650	FSMP
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	10	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.4	FAO-94 - reduced
Population	inh	17,225	UN 94
Increase per year	%	1.18	UN 94

Note: there is a moratorium on logging in natural forests.

BANGLADESH

The Forest resources

Bangladesh is located in the active delta of three major rivers and its climate is directly influenced by the tropical monsoon. Forests and wooded land cover 17% of this densely populated country. The main forest types are the mangrove forest, the hill forest (mixed dipterocarp forest) and the plain forest (Sal forest) and homestead plantations. Bamboo is an important forest resource found in natural forest and in private lands. Bangladesh is a very densely populated country and the per capita land is perhaps the lowest in the world. Due to the extreme pressure of the population, the forests are heavily encroached and the stock is degraded continuously. Primary production (80%) of logs and bamboos comes from private lands (homestead and farm trees) and secondly from government managed forests. The improper management of the state forests has led to the imposition of a government moratorium on all logging in natural forests. Regeneration of natural forest is done by planting trees in the natural forest which has been clearfelled. Wood is not available in most rural areas. Annual per capita wood consumption is one of lowest in the developing world as energy consumption is dominated by biomass fuels including agricultural residues and dung.

State owned forest constitutes about 80% of the total forest area (state forest land is reported often barren of tree vegetation), while the remainder consists of privately controlled village forests spread throughout the country. Since long, the Government is involved in tree plantations (mangroves, teak) and is presently committed in fast growing species plantation programmes (eucalyptus, acacia). All types of tree plantations are supported whether along the roadsides, canal banks, or near homesteads. However, the involvement of the private sector in raising commercial forest plantations is rather limited. Rubber plantations contribute to supply of roundwood. Protected areas cover less than 1% of the country's total area and most of the parks and sanctuaries are reported to be degraded.

Forestry Sector Development

The Bangladesh Master Plan for Forestry Development (BMPFD) was completed in 1993 and adopted by the Government in 1995. The main focus areas include introducing rational forest land use, increasing public participation, expanding the resource base and improving management practices and efficient resource utilisation. The proposed programmes have been endorsed by the Government and integrated in the five year development plan (1996-2000). The forest policy was revised in 1994 but a new forest legislation is still to be introduced. However, a number of policy decisions have recently been taken, such as the moratorium on all exploitation in state forest land, the ban on the use of fuelwood for brick making and the launching of a participatory forestry programme on non-government forest land. However, planning and plan-implementation capabilities of the forest administration are weak.

Projected development

The forestry sector has received strong support from the Government and assistance from external agencies. Forest are depleted and the moratorium of all exploitation on state forest lands should help forests to recover. Part of the solution to wood shortages and to releasing pressure on natural forests would be private plantations; farmer planting attitude is reportedly very positive but questions of land ownership and tree tenure rights impede planting programmes development. A serious fall in bamboo supplies is expected by the end of the century while cyclones in coastal areas cause extensive damage and forestry capacity is undermined by shortage of good technical forestry standards, methods and practices; and deteriorating administration staff morale.

The stock increment/felling ratio is presently in balance, however, it will become in deficit during the period a total roundwood supply will increase more (57%) than total roundwood production (4%). Production figure is low due to the deforestation factor. Industrial roundwood will be increasingly produced from plantations - 67% in 1990 and 89% by 2010. As expected, fuelwood supply takes the major part of the total wood supply (73%); however, this share will fall to 64% by 2010. Arable lands will contribute to about 84% of the total roundwood production.

References:

FAO, RAS/91/004 Existing situation on forestation and future requirements for improved productivity of man-made forests.

Forest News - Tiger paper 1992.

MoF - Forestry Master Plan, 1993

Negi S.S., Forestry in SAARC countries.- Periodical Experts Book Agency - Delhi - 1993

Table II.57 - Bangladesh: Status and projection

		Unit (1000)	1990	1995	2000	2005	2010
Production forests
Production forests area - total		ha	834	808	790	779	774
	- Natural exploitable forests	ha	531	465	407	356	311
	- Plantation forests	ha	303	343	383	423	463
Commercial growing stock - total		m3	31,080	24,967	20,544	16,467	12,707
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3	15,930	13,939	12,196	10,672	9,338
	- Plantation forests	m3	15,150	16,008	16,965	18,023	19,180
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	1,129	1,183	1,242	1,307	1,375
	- Natural exploitable forests	m3/year	372	325	285	249	218
	- Plantation forests	m3/year	758	858	958	1,058	1,158
Fellings ind. round. - total		m3/year	2,125	2,906	3,688	4,469	5,250
	- Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	1,700	2,325	2,950	3,575	4,200
	- Waste and residues	m3/year	425	581	738	894	1,050
Other forests and wooded lands
Conservation areas		ha	116	116	116	116	116
Low productive/open forests		ha	1,408	1,232	1,078	943	825
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	282	246	216	189	165
Non forest lands
Commercial tree crops		ha	35	35	40	45	45
Arable lands		ha	9,800	9,957	10,090	10,206	10,304
Wood stock increment - total		m3/year	9,870	10,027	10,170	10,296	10,394
Fellings fuel/other wood - total		m3/year	5,635	6,396	7,259	8,239	9,351
Wood stock incr., all sources		m3/year	11,281	11,456	11,627	11,791	11,934
Fellings, all sources		m3/year	7,760	9,302	10,947	12,708	14,601
Forest and wooded lands		ha	2,242	2,040	1,868	1,722	1,600
Percentage forested lands		ha	17	16	14	13	12
Parameters for projection to 2010
Deforestation factor		%	2.5	FRA 90
Plantation forests		000 ha	8	000 ha per year
Removals - ind. roundwood		000 m3	1,700	2,325	2,950	3,575	4,200
Conservation areas		ha	116	116	116	116	116
Commercial tree crop		ha	35	40	45	45	45
Range lands conversion factor		%	20
Other/range/barren lands		ha	940	980	1015	1044	1068

Table II.58 - Bangladesh: Known/estimated parameters

	Unit (1000)	1990	Sources
Areas
Total country land (without water)	ha	13,017	FRA - 90
Forests and wooded lands	ha	2,242	FMP
Natural exploitable forests	ha	531	FMP
Plantations forests	ha	303	FMP
Conservation areas	ha	116	FMP
Low productive/open forests	ha	1,408	FMP
Arable lands	ha	9,800	FMP
Commercial tree crops	ha	35	FMP
Other/range/barren lands	ha	940	estimated
Commercial growing stock (CGS)
CGS natural forest	m3/ha	30	FMP
CGS plantation	m3/ha	50	FMP
Mean Annual Increment (MAI)
MAI natural exploitable forests	m3/ha/year	0.7	FMP
MAI plantation forests	m3/ha/year	2.5	FMP
MAI low prod./open forests	m3/ha/year	0.2	estimated
MAI commercial tree crops	m3/ha/year	2	estimated
MAI arable lands	m3/ha/year	1	estimated
Fellings and Removals
Industrial roundwood removals	m3/year	1,700	FMP
Waste and residues	% of ind.rem.	25	estimated
Fuel/other wood consumption	m3/inh/year	0.049	FMP
Population	inh	115,000	FRA - 90
Increase per year	%	2.7	FRA - 90